In Vivo CD4+ T Cell Differentiation and Function: Revisiting the Th1/Th2 Paradigm

Quercetin through miR-147-5p/Clip3 axis reducing Th17 cell differentiation to alleviate periodontitis

Background

Quercetin (QU) plays an important role in treating periodontitis; however, the mechanism through which microRNAs regulate Th17 cell differentiation has not been determined.

Methods

QU was administered intragastrically to periodontitis rats once a day for one month. The morphology of alveolar bone was observed by micro-CT, gingival tissue structure was observed by HE staining, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-17A, RORγt, FOXP3 and IL-10 were detected by immunohistochemical staining, and Th17 and Treg cells in the peripheral blood were detected by flow cytometry. CD4+T cells were induced to differentiate into Th17 cells in vitro. Cell viability was determined by CCK8, and IL-17A and RORγt were detected by qPCR. Th17 cells were detected by flow cytometry, microRNA sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were used to screen key microRNAs, the phenotypic changes of Th17 cells were observed after overexpressed microRNAs via mimics. TargetScan database, in situ hybridization, and dual-luciferase reporter experiment were used to predict and prove target genes of microRNAs. The phenotype of Th17 cells was observed after overexpression of microRNA and target gene.

Results

Compared with periodontitis group, the distance from cementoenamel junction(CEJ) to alveolar bone(AB) was decreased, the structure of gingival papilla was improved, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-17, and RORγt were downregulated, FOXP3 and IL-10 were upregulated, the proportion of Th17 decreased and Treg increased in peripheral blood after QU treatment. Compared with Th17 cell group, mRNA levels of IL-17A and RORγt were decreased, and proportion of Th17 cells was significantly lower in the coculture group. MiR-147-5p was low in control group, upregulated in Th17 cell group, and downregulated after QU intervention, it's eight bases were inversely related to 3'UTR of Clip3, miR-147-5p with Clip3 were co-located in cells of periodontal tissue. Compared with those in Th17-mimicsNC + QU cells, the mRNA levels of RORγt and IL-17A upregulated, and proportion of Th17 cells increased in Th17-miR-147-5p + QU cells. The miR-147-5p mimics inhibited the luciferase activity of the WT Clip3 3'UTR but had no effect on the Mut Clip3 3'UTR. Clip3 was significantly downregulated after the overexpression of miR-147-5p. Mimics transfected with miR-147-5p reversed the decrease in the proportion of Th17 cells induced by QU, while the overexpression of Clip3 antagonized the effect of miR-147-5p and further reduced the proportion of Th17 cells. Moreover, the overexpression of miR-147-5p reversed the decreases in the mRNA levels of IL-17 and RORγt induced by QU treatment, while pcDNA3.1 Clip3 treatment further decreased the mRNA levels of IL-17 and RORγt.

Conclusion

QU reducing inflammatory response and promoting alveolar bone injury and repair, which closely relative to inhibit the differentiation of CD4+T cells into Th17 cells by downregulating miR-147-5p to promote the activation of Clip3.

Malvidin From Malva sylvestris L. Ameliorates Allergic Responses in Ovalbumin-Induced Allergic Rhinitis Mouse Model via the STAT6/GATA3 Pathway

BACKGROUND

Malva sylvestris L. (commonly known as mallow) has been widely used in traditional Tibetan formulations to treat allergic rhinitis (AR), and malvidin is a key anti-inflammation constituent of this plant.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to evaluate the potential therapeutic effect and mechanism of malvidin in an AR mouse model.

METHODS

Malvidin's efficacy was evaluated in an AR mouse model induced by ovalbumin (OVA) sensitization and challenge. The factors, such as nasal symptoms, serum OVA-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels, histological changes in the nasal mucosa, and expressions of Th1, Th2, Th17, and Tregs and their cytokines, were assessed. Western blotting was used to analyze the effect of malvidin on signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6) and GATA3 expression levels.

RESULTS

Malvidin reduced the allergic symptoms and serum levels of OVA-specific IgE in the AR model. Histological analysis indicated that malvidin alleviates nasal mucosal edema, eosinophil infiltration, and goblet cell proliferation. In addition, it altered the expression of Th1/Th2/Th17-related cytokines, enhanced the Treg population, and reduced Th2-mediated immunity by suppressing the phosphorylation of STAT6 and expression of the GATA3 protein.

CONCLUSIONS

Malvidin significantly improved allergic symptoms in an OVA-induced AR mouse model by modulating Th1/Th2 immune responses and suppressing the STAT6/GATA3 pathway, indicating its potential as a naturally sourced agent for AR management.

Inflammatory bowel disease, colitis, and cancer: unmasking the chronic inflammation link

BACKGROUND

Chronic inflammation is a significant driver in the development of various diseases, including cancer. Colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CA-CRC) refers to the increased risk of colorectal cancer in individuals with chronic inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.

METHODS

This narrative review examines the link between chronic inflammation and CA-CRC. A comprehensive literature search was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, focusing on studies published between 2000 and 2024. Studies were selected based on relevance to the role of inflammation in CA-CRC, specifically targeting molecular pathways and clinical implications. Both clinical and mechanistic studies were reviewed.

CONCLUSION

Sustained inflammation in the colon fosters a pro-tumorigenic environment, leading to the initiation and progression of CA-CRC. Prevention strategies must focus on controlling chronic inflammation, optimizing IBD management, and implementing regular screenings. Emerging therapies targeting key inflammatory pathways and immune responses, along with microbiome modulation, hold promise for reducing CA-CRC risk. Understanding these molecular mechanisms provides a path toward personalized treatment and better outcomes for patients with IBD at risk of colorectal cancer.

Th17 cell function in cancers: immunosuppressive agents or anti-tumor allies?

T helper (Th) 17 cells, a distinct subset of Th lymphocytes, are known for their prominent interleukin (IL)-17 production and other pro-inflammatory cytokines. These cells exhibit remarkable plasticity, allowing them to exhibit different phenotypes in the cancer microenvironment. This adaptability enables Th17 cells to promote tumor progression by immunosuppressive activities and angiogenesis, but also mediate anti-tumor immune responses through employing immune cells in tumor setting or even by directly converting toward Th1 phenotype and producing interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). This dual role of Th17 cells in cancer makes it a double-edged sword in encountering cancer. In this review, we aim to elucidate the complexities of Th17 cell function in cancer by summarizing recent studies and, ultimately, to design novel therapeutic strategies, especially targeting Th17 cells in the tumor milieu, which could pave the way for more effective cancer treatments.

Single-Cell Transcriptomics Reveals a Pivotal Role of DOCK2 in Sjögren Disease

OBJECTIVE

Sjögren disease (SjD) is an autoimmune condition characterized by the dysfunction of the salivary and lacrimal glands. The study aimed to decipher the pathogenic cell populations and their immunologic pathways in the salivary glands. We further determined the therapeutic effect of inhibiting dedicator of cytokinesis 2 (DOCK2) shared by novel clusters of CD8+ T cells in an SjD mouse model.

METHODS

This study employed single-cell RNA sequencing to examine the composition and dynamics of immune cells in the salivary glands of SjD mice. By analyzing the transcriptomic data and employing clustering analysis, a specific target was identified, leading to the treatment of mice with a targeted inhibitor.

RESULTS

The results showed diverse immune cell types, including B cells, CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, macrophages, and natural killer cells. We identified specific clusters possessing phenotypic characteristics of immune cell subpopulations, thereby showing specific genes/pathways associated with the disease. The most striking finding was the elevated expression of DOCK2 in CD8+ T cells in the SjD model. This discovery is significant because subsequent treatment with a DOCK2 inhibitor 4-[3-(2-Chlorophenyl)-2-propen-1-ylidene]-1-phenyl-3,5-pyrazolidinedione (CPYPP) led to a marked amelioration of SjD signs.

CONCLUSION

The effectiveness of DOCK2 inhibition in alleviating SjD signs highlights the potential of DOCK2 as a therapeutic target, opening new avenues for treatment strategies that could modulate the immune response more effectively in SjD.

Metabolomic analysis reveals potential role of immunometabolism dysregulation in recurrent pregnancy loss

Background

Recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) affects women's reproductive health seriously, with immune dysfunction playing a key role in its cause, yet the exact mechanisms remain elusive. We aim to investigate potential mechanisms and identify biomarkers linked to RPL.

Methods

Immune cytokine testing and metabolomic profiling were conducted on the serum of 34 RPL patients and 30 healthy individuals. The metabolic pathways of the differential metabolites were analyzed, and specific metabolites were validated through targeted profiling. Potential biomarkers were identified, and the relationships between immune cytokines and differential metabolites were explored.

Results

In the RPL group, serum interleukin-6 and interleukin-10 levels were significantly higher, while interleukin-2 and interferon-γ were significantly lower. A total of 296 differential metabolites were detected by untargeted metabolomic profiling between the RPL and control groups, with most linked to amino acid metabolism. Targeted metabolomic profiling of amino acid metabolism revealed upregulation of indole-3-acetic acid, tyrosine, glycine, isoleucine, tryptophan, lysine, aspartic acid, arginine, leucine, threonine, glutamic acid, cystine, and phenylpyruvic acid (PPA) in the RPL group. Moreover, PPA and 5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan showed great potential in predicting RPL in a diagnostic model. Cystine and tyrosine were associated with immune cytokines in correlation analysis.

Conclusion

The study highlights the role of amino acid metabolism in RPL pathogenesis, suggesting that PPA and 5-HTP may be potential predictive indicators, while cystine and tyrosine may potentially regulate immune responses related to RPL. Further investigation into the molecular mechanisms underlying these findings could potentially result in the creation of novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for RPL.

Quercetin restores respiratory mucosal barrier dysfunction in Mycoplasma gallisepticum-infected chicks by enhancing Th2 immune response

BACKGROUND

Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) has long been a pathogenic microorganism threatening the global poultry industry. Previous studies have demonstrated that the mechanism by which quercetin (QUE) inhibits the colonization of MG in chicks differs from that of antibiotics. However, the molecular mechanism by which QUE facilitates the clearance of MG remains unclear.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to investigate the molecular mechanism of MG clearance by QUE, with the expectation of providing new options for the treatment of MG.

METHODS

A model of MG infection in chicks and MG-induced M1 polarization in HD-11 cells were established. The mechanism of QUE clearance of MG was investigated by evaluating the relationship between tracheal mucosal barrier integrity, antibody levels, Th1/Th2 immune balance and macrophage metabolism and M1/M2 polarization balance. Furthermore, network pharmacology and molecular docking techniques were employed to explore the potential molecular pathways connecting QUE, M2 polarization, and fatty acid oxidation (FAO).

RESULTS

The findings indicate that QUE remodels tracheal mucosal barrier function by regulating tight junctions and secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) expression levels. This process entails the regulatory function of QUE on the Th1/Th2 immune imbalance that is induced by MG infection in the tracheal mucosa. Moreover, QUE intervention impeded the M1 polarization of HD-11 cells induced by MG infection, while simultaneously promoting M2 polarization through the induction of FAO. Conversely, inhibitors of the FAO pathway impede this effect. The results of computer network analysis suggest that QUE may induce FAO via the PI3K/AKT pathway to promote M2 polarization. Notably, inhibition of the PI3K/AKT pathway was found to effectively inhibit M2 polarization in HD-11 cells, while having a limited effect on FAO.

CONCLUSIONS

QUE promotes M2 polarization of HD-11 cells to enhance Th2 immune response through FAO and PI3K/AKT pathways, thereby restoring tracheal mucosal barrier function and ultimately inhibiting MG colonization.

Panoramic tumor microenvironment in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is notorious for its resistance to various treatment modalities. The genetic heterogeneity of PDAC, coupled with the presence of a desmoplastic stroma within the tumor microenvironment (TME), contributes to an unfavorable prognosis. The mechanisms and consequences of interactions among different cell types, along with spatial variations influencing cellular function, potentially play a role in the pathogenesis of PDAC. Understanding the diverse compositions of the TME and elucidating the functions of microscopic neighborhoods may contribute to understanding the immune microenvironment status in pancreatic cancer. As we delve into the spatial biology of the microscopic neighborhoods within the TME, aiding in deciphering the factors that orchestrate this intricate ecosystem. This overview delineates the fundamental constituents and the structural arrangement of the PDAC microenvironment, highlighting their impact on cancer cell biology.

Extraction and immunomodulatory effects of acid Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. Polysaccharide on chickens

Herbal polysaccharides are extensively studied as vaccine adjuvants due to their safety and potent immunoenhancing activity. This study aimed to analyze the structure of Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl polysaccharide (LSP50) and investigate its adjuvant activity for the H9N2 vaccine in broiler chickens. Structural analysis revealed that LSP50 primarily consisted of rhamnose, arabinose, xylose, mannose, glucose, and galactose with molar ratios of 23.12: 12.28: 10.87: 8.26: 2.64: 22.82 respectively. The adjuvant activity of LSP50 was evaluated, which showing significant enhancements compared to the H9N2 group. Parameters including the immune organ index, H9N2 specific IgG level, cytokines contents (IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-5), and the proportion of CD3e+CD8aT+cells were significantly increased in the LSP50 group (P < 0.05). Additionally, sequencing results showed that LSP50 modulates the immune response by regulating PLA2G12B and PTGDS genes involved in the arachidonic acid pathway. These findings were further validated through qPCR analysis to affirm the reliability of the sequencing data. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that LSP50 exhibits potent adjuvant activity, enhancing both cellular and humoral immunity.

Transactivation DNA-binding protein-related genes were associated with salivary gland injury in primary Sjögren syndrome

The purpose was to identify transactivation DNA-binding protein-related genes in salivary gland injury in primary Sjögren syndrome (pSS) in southwest China. We downloaded the datasets of GSE7451, GSE23117, and GSE40611. In order to screen the candidate genes, 2 kinds of machine learning algorithms were used. We collected blood from 28 patients and 20 controls to verify the expression of candidate genes using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. The receiver operating characteristic curve was used to evaluate the diagnostic efficiency. Correlations between candidate genes and immune cells were examined. A total of 31 differentially expressed genes were obtained. Through different algorithms, 6 genes including IFIT1, CSF2RB, TRIM22, PPM1H, VAMP7, and C21orf2 were getted. Validation results suggested that the expression of CSF2RB, VAMP7, IFIT1, C21orf2, and TRIM22 was significantly increased in pSS. The area under the curve of CSF2RB was 0.937 and that of TRIM22 was 0.915. Immune infiltration analysis showed that the percentage of activated mast cells was lower than the controls (P = .025). Correlation analysis suggested that CSF2RB was associated with immune cell infiltration. The expression of CSF2RB was significantly upregulated, which could be related to the increase of γδ T cells. We revealed that CSF2RB could be the candidate gene of pSS. CSF2RB was involved by regulating various immune cells. The expression of CSF2RB was significantly upregulated, which was related to the increase of γδ T cells.

Investigation of Transcription Factor and Cytokine Gene Expression Levels in Helper T Cell Subsets Among Turkish Patients Diagnosed with ICF2 (Novel ZBTB24 gene Variant) and ICF3 (CDCA7 Variant) Syndrome

Immunodeficiency, centromeric region instability, facial anomalies syndrome (ICF), is a rare disease with autosomal recessive inheritance. ICF syndrome. It has been reported that ICF syndrome is caused by mutations in the DNMT3B (ICF1), ZBTB24 (ICF2), CDCA7 (ICF3), and HELLS (ICF4) genes. As a result of literature research, there are no studies on transcription factor and cytokine expressions of helper T cell subsets in ICF syndrome. In the study; Th1 (TBET, STAT1, STAT4), Th2 (GATA3, STAT6), Th17 (RORgt, STAT3), Treg (FoxP3, STAT5) transcription factors and the major cytokines of these cells (Th1; IFNG, Th2; IL4, Th17; IL17A-21-22, Treg; IL10, TGFβ) expressions were aimed to be evaluated by qRT-PCR. Patients (ICF3: three patients; ICF2: two patients), six heterozygous individual and five healthy controls were included in the study. All patients had hypogammaglobulinemia. Except for the CD19 cells of P2 from patients diagnosed with ICF3, the CD3, CD4, CD8, and CD19 cells in the other ICF3 patients were normal. However, the rates of these cells were low in patients with ICF2 syndrome. Factors belonging to patients' Th1, Th17 and Treg cells were significantly lower than the control. Additionally, novel mutation was detected in ZBTB24 gene (c.1121-2 A > T). Our study is the first molecular study on Th cell subsets in patients with ICF syndrome and a new mutation that causes ICF2 syndrome has been identified.

Peripheral CD4+ T helper lymphocytes alterations in major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Previous research has shown that patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) develop immune dysfunction. However, the exact alterations of cluster of differentiation (CD)4+ T helper (Th) lymphocytes in MDD remains unclear. This meta-analysis aimed to examine the specific changes in CD4+ Th cells. A comprehensive search of PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and PsycINFO databases was conducted to identify studies investigating CD4+ Th, Th1, Th2, Th17, and T regulatory (Treg) cell counts in the peripheral blood of MDD patients and healthy controls (HCs), covering the period up to June 22, 2024. Our findings revealed that patients with MDD might exhibit higher CD4+ Th cells (SMD=0.26, 95 %CI, 0.02 to 0.50), CD4+/CD8+ cell ratios (SMD=0.51, 95 %CI, 0.14 to 0.89), Th1/Th2 cell ratios (SMD=0.15, 95 %CI, 0.01 to 0.30) and lower Th1 (SMD=-0.17, 95 %CI, -0.30 to -0.03), Th2 (SMD=-0.25, 95 %CI, -0.40 to -0.11), and Treg cells (SMD=-0.69, 95 %CI, -1.27 to -0.11). However, no significant difference was observed in terms of Th17 cells and Th17/Treg cell ratios between MDD patients and the HCs. Heterogeneity was large (I2:18.1-95.2 %), and possible sources of heterogeneity were explored (e.g., age, depression scale, country, and antidepressant use). Our findings indicate that peripheral CD4+ T cells in depressed patients exhibit features of adaptive immune dysfunction, as evidenced by increased CD4+ Th cells and CD4+/CD8+ and decreased Treg cells. These findings offer insights into the underlying mechanism of MDD.

Maternal immunity shapes biomarkers of germinal center development in HIV-exposed uninfected infants

Introduction

HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) infants exhibit elevated pro-inflammatory biomarkers that persist after birth. However, comprehensive assessments of bioprofiles associated with immune regulation and development in pregnant women with HIV (PWH) and HEU infants has not been performed. Maternal immunity in PWH may be imprinted on their HEU newborns, altering immune bioprofiles during early immune development.

Methods

Cryopreserved paired plasma samples from 46 HEU infants and their mothers enrolled in PACTG 316, a clinical trial to prevent perinatal HIV-1 transmission were analyzed. PWH received antiretrovirals (ARV) and had either fully suppressed or unsuppressed viral replication. Maternal blood samples obtained during labor and infant samples at birth and 6 months were measured for 21 biomarkers associated with germinal centers (GC), macrophage activation, T-cell activation, interferon gamma (IFN-γ)-inducible chemokines, and immune regulatory cytokines using Mesoscale assays. Pregnant women without HIV (PWOH) and their HIV unexposed uninfected (HUU) newborns and non-pregnant women without HIV (NPWOH) served as reference groups. Linear regression analysis fitted for comparison among groups and adjusted for covariant(s) along with principal component analysis performed to assess differences among groups.

Results

Compared with NPWOH, PWOH displayed higher levels of GC, macrophage, and regulatory biomarkers. PWH compared to PWOH displayed elevated GC, T cell activation, and IFN-γ-inducible chemokines biomarkers at delivery. Similar to their mothers, HEU infants had elevated GC, macrophage, and IFN-γ-inducible chemokines, as well as elevated anti-inflammatory cytokines, IL-10 and IL-1RA. Across all mother/newborn dyads, multiple biomarkers positively correlated, providing further evidence that maternal inflammation imprints on newborn bioprofiles. By 6 months, many HEU biomarkers normalized to levels similar to HUU infants, but some GC and inflammatory biomarkers remained perturbed. Bioprofiles in PWH and HEU infants were similar regardless of the extent of maternal viral suppression by ARV.

Conclusions

GC immune pathways are perturbed in HEU newborns, but immune regulatory responses down regulate inflammation during early infancy, indicating a transient inflammatory effect. However, several GC biomarkers that may alter immune development remain perturbed.

Cell Identity and Spatial Distribution of PD-1/PD-L1 Blockade Responders

The programmed death 1 (PD-1)/programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) axis inhibits T cell activity, impairing anti-tumor immunity. Blocking this axis with therapeutic antibodies is one of the most promising anti-tumor immunotherapies. It has long been recognized that PD-1/PD-L1 blockade reinvigorates exhausted T (TEX) cells already present in the tumor microenvironment (TME). However, recent advancements in high-throughput gene sequencing and bioinformatic tools have provided researchers with a more granular and dynamic insight into PD-1/PD-L1 blockade-responding cells, extending beyond the TME and TEX populations. This review provides an update on the cell identity, spatial distribution, and treatment-induced spatiotemporal dynamics of PD-1/PD-L1 blockade responders. It also provides a synopsis of preliminary reports of potential PD-1/PD-L1 blockade responders other than T cells to depict a panoramic picture. Important questions to answer in further studies and the translational and clinical potential of the evolving understandings are also discussed.

The function of long non-coding RNA IFNG-AS1 in autoimmune diseases

The prevalence of autoimmune diseases ranks as the third most common disease category globally, following cancer and heart disease. Numerous studies indicate that long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) plays a pivotal role in regulating human growth, development, and the pathogenesis of various diseases. It is more than 200 nucleotides in length and is mostly involve in the regulation of gene expression. Furthermore, lncRNAs are crucial in the development and activation of immune cells, with an expanding body of research exploring their association with autoimmune disorders in humans. LncRNA Ifng antisense RNA 1 (IFNG-AS1), a key regulatory factor in the immune system, also named NeST or TMEVPG1, is proximally located to IFNG and participates in the regulation of it. The dysregulation of IFNG-AS1 is implicated in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune diseases. This study examines the role and mechanism of IFNG-AS1 in various autoimmune diseases and considers its potential as a therapeutic target.

A review of CD4+ T cell differentiation and diversity in dogs

CD4+ T cells are an integral component of the adaptive immune response, carrying out many functions to combat a diverse range of pathogenic challenges. These cells exhibit remarkable plasticity, differentiating into specialized subsets such as T helper type 1 (TH1), TH2, TH9, TH17, TH22, regulatory T cells (Tregs), and follicular T helper (TFH) cells. Each subset is capable of addressing a distinct immunological need ranging from pathogen eradication to regulation of immune homeostasis. As the immune response subsides, CD4+ T cells rest down into long-lived memory phenotypes-including central memory (TCM), effector memory (TEM), resident memory (TRM), and terminally differentiated effector memory cells (TEMRA) that are localized to facilitate a swift and potent response upon antigen re-encounter. This capacity for long-term immunological memory and rapid reactivation upon secondary exposure highlights the role CD4+ T cells play in sustaining both adaptive defense mechanisms and maintenance. Decades of mouse, human, and to a lesser extent, pig T cell research has provided the framework for understanding the role of CD4+ T cells in immune responses, but these model systems do not always mimic each other. Although our understanding of pig immunology is not as extensive as mouse or human research, we have gained valuable insight by studying this model. More akin to pigs, our understanding of CD4+ T cells in dogs is much less complete. This disparity exists in part because canine immunologists depend on paradigms from mouse and human studies to characterize CD4+ T cells in dogs, with a fraction of available lineage-defining antibody markers. Despite this, every major CD4+ T cell subset has been described to some extent in dogs. These subsets have been studied in various contexts, including in vitro stimulation, homeostatic conditions, and across a range of disease states. Canine CD4+ T cells have been categorized according to lineage-defining characteristics, trafficking patterns, and what cytokines they produce upon stimulation. This review addresses our current understanding of canine CD4+ T cells from a comparative perspective by highlighting both the similarities and differences from mouse, human, and pig CD4+ T cell biology. We also discuss knowledge gaps in our current understanding of CD4+ T cells in dogs that could provide direction for future studies in the field.

Epigenetic control of commensal induced Th2 Responses and Intestinal immunopathology

Understanding the initiation of T-helper (Th)-2 immunity is crucial for addressing allergic diseases that have been linked to the commensal microbiota. However, Th2 responses are notably absent from known host-microbiota intestinal immune circuits. Notably, the commensal protist Tritrichomonas induces a transient innate ILC2 circuit rather than a chronic Th2 circuit. Canonical Th2 responses rely on the induction of IL-4 production by innate cells. This study shows that the absence of Tet2 , a DNA demethylase, reprograms naïve T cells to autonomously produce IL-4 upon T cell receptor stimulation, bypassing the need for IL-4 from innate cells for Th2 differentiation. Loss of this checkpoint induces chronic Th2 responses to Tritrichomonas , associated with IL-25-dependent barrier dysfunction and increased susceptibility to allergic pathology in response to dietary antigens.

Sentence Summary

Regulation of cell autonomous IL-4 in T cells is critical to prevent dysregulated Th2 immunity to commensals and predisposition to allergy.

The role of microRNAs in the gastric cancer tumor microenvironment

BACKGROUND

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the deadliest malignant tumors with unknown pathogenesis. Due to its treatment resistance, high recurrence rate, and lack of reliable early detection techniques, a majority of patients have a poor prognosis. Therefore, identifying new tumor biomarkers and therapeutic targets is essential. This review aims to provide fresh insights into enhancing the prognosis of patients with GC by summarizing the processes through which microRNAs (miRNAs) regulate the tumor microenvironment (TME) and highlighting their critical role in the TME.

MAIN TEXT

A comprehensive literature review was conducted by focusing on the interactions among tumor cells, extracellular matrix, blood vessels, cancer-associated fibroblasts, and immune cells within the GC TME. The role of noncoding RNAs, known as miRNAs, in modulating the TME through various signaling pathways, cytokines, growth factors, and exosomes was specifically examined. Tumor formation, metastasis, and therapy in GC are significantly influenced by interactions within the TME. miRNAs regulate tumor progression by modulating these interactions through multiple signaling pathways, cytokines, growth factors, and exosomes. Dysregulation of miRNAs affects critical cellular processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation, angiogenesis, metastasis, and treatment resistance, contributing to the pathogenesis of GC.

CONCLUSIONS

miRNAs play a crucial role in the regulation of the GC TME, influencing tumor progression and patient prognosis. By understanding the mechanisms through which miRNAs control the TME, potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets can be identified to improve the prognosis of patients with GC.

Anti-allergic effect of vitamin C through inhibiting degranulation and regulating TH1/TH2 cell polarization

BACKGROUND

Food allergy has become a global public health problem. This study aimed to explore the possible anti-allergic effect of vitamin C (VC). A rat basophilic leukemia (RBL)-2H3 cell degranulation model was used to assess the effect of VC on degranulation in vitro, and an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced BALB/c mouse allergy model was used to assess the anti-allergy effect of VC in vivo.

RESULTS

In vitro, VC significantly attenuated the release of β-hexosaminidase, tryptase and histamine, and also reduced cytokine production (interleukins 4 and 6, tumor necrosis factor α) significantly (P < 0.05), with the inhibitory effect demonstrating a positive correlation with VC dose. In vivo, compared with the OVA group, the levels of serum immunoglobulins E and G1 of the VC low-dose (VCL) group (50 mg kg-1) and high-dose (VCH) group (200 mg·kg-1) were significantly reduced (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the plasma histamine level was also significantly decreased (P < 0.05). Moreover, TH2 cell polarization in mice of the VCL and VCH groups was significantly inhibited (P < 0.05), promoting the TH1/TH2 cell polarization balance. Additionally, VC treatment enhanced the expression of CD80 (P < 0.05) in spleen and small intestine tissues, while significantly inhibiting the expression of CD86 (P < 0.05); notably, high-dose VC treatment was more effective.

CONCLUSION

VC exerted an anti-allergic effect through inhibiting degranulation and regulating TH1/TH2 cell polarization balance. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Identification of ENTPD1 as a novel biomarker linking allergic rhinitis and systemic lupus erythematosus

Several studies reveal that allergic rhinitis (AR) is a significant risk factor of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). However, studies investigating the common pathogenesis linking AR and SLE are lacking. Our study aims to search for the shared biomarkers and mechanisms that may provide new therapeutic targets for preventing AR from developing SLE. GSE50223 for AR and GSE103760 for SLE were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database to screen differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The Gene Ontology (GO) analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis were performed to explore the functions of shared DEGs. Hub genes were screened by cytoHubba (a plugin of Cytoscape) and validated in another two datasets. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) and single-sample Gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) algorithm were applied to understand the functions of hub gene. ENTPD1 was validated as a hub gene between AR and SLE. GSEA results revealed that ENTPD1 was associated with KRAS_SIGNALING_UP pathway in AR and related to HYPOXIA, TGF_BETA_SIGNALING and TNFA_SIGNALING_VIA_NFKB pathways in SLE. The expression of ENTPD1 was positively correlated with activated CD8 T cell in both diseases. Thus, ENTPD1 may be a novel therapeutic target for preventing AR from developing SLE.

Advances in noncoding RNA in children allergic rhinitis

BACKGROUND

A chronic condition that significantly reduces a child's quality of life is allergic rhinitis (AR). The environment and allergens that the body is regularly exposed to can cause inflammatory and immunological reactions, which can change the expression of certain genes Epigenetic changes are closely linked to the onset and severity of allergy disorders according to mounting amounts of data. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are a group of RNA molecules that cannot be converted into polypeptides. The three main categories of ncRNAs include microRNAs (miRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs). NcRNAs play a crucial role in controlling gene expression and contribute to the development of numerous human diseases.

METHODS

Articles are selected based on Pubmed's literature review and the author's personal knowledge. The largest and highest quality studies were included. The search selection is not standardized.

RESULTS

Recent findings indicate that various categories of ncRNAs play distinct yet interconnected roles and actively contribute to intricate gene regulatory networks.

CONCLUSION

This article demonstrates the significance and progress of ncRNAs in children's AR. The database covers three key areas: miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs. Additionally, potential avenues for future research to facilitate the practical application of ncRNAs as therapeutic targets and biomarkers will be explore.

Epigenetic regulation of human FOXP3+ Tregs: from homeostasis maintenance to pathogen defense

Regulatory T cells (Tregs), characterized by the expression of Forkhead Box P3 (FOXP3), constitute a distinct subset of T cells crucial for immune regulation. Tregs can exert direct and indirect control over immune homeostasis by releasing inhibitory factors or differentiating into Th-like Treg (Th-Treg), thereby actively contributing to the prevention and treatment of autoimmune diseases. The epigenetic regulation of FOXP3, encompassing DNA methylation, histone modifications, and post-translational modifications, governs the development and optimal suppressive function of Tregs. In addition, Tregs can also possess the ability to maintain homeostasis in diverse microenvironments through non-suppressive mechanisms. In this review, we primarily focus on elucidating the epigenetic regulation of Tregs as well as their multifaceted roles within diverse physiological contexts while looking forward to potential strategies involving augmentation or suppression of Tregs activity for disease management, particularly in light of the ongoing global COVID-19 pandemic.

Lysine methylation modifications in tumor immunomodulation and immunotherapy: regulatory mechanisms and perspectives

Lysine methylation is a crucial post-translational modification (PTM) that significantly impacts gene expression regulation. This modification not only influences cancer development directly but also has significant implications for the immune system. Lysine methylation modulates immune cell functions and shapes the anti-tumor immune response, highlighting its dual role in both tumor progression and immune regulation. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the intrinsic role of lysine methylation in the activation and function of immune cells, detailing how these modifications affect cellular processes and signaling pathways. We delve into the mechanisms by which lysine methylation contributes to tumor immune evasion, allowing cancer cells to escape immune surveillance and thrive. Furthermore, we discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting lysine methylation in cancer immunotherapy. Emerging strategies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy, are being explored for their efficacy in modulating lysine methylation to enhance anti-tumor immune responses. By targeting these modifications, we can potentially improve the effectiveness of existing treatments and develop novel therapeutic approaches to combat cancer more effectively.

CMPK2 Promotes CD4+ T Cell Activation and Apoptosis through Modulation of Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a classic autoimmune disease characterized by abnormal autoantibodies, immune complex deposition, and tissue inflammation. Despite extensive research, the exact etiology and progression of SLE remain elusive. Cytidine/uridine monophosphate kinase 2 (CMPK2), a mitochondrial nucleoside monophosphate kinase, has garnered attention for its potential involvement in the development of various diseases, including SLE, where it has been observed to be dysregulated in affected individuals. However, the specific involvement of CMPK2 in the pathogenesis of SLE remains unclear. This study aims to clarify the expression level of CMPK2 in SLE CD4+ T cells and explore its impact on CD4+ T cells. The expression levels of the CMPK2 gene and the corresponding CMPK2 protein in CD4+ T cells of SLE patients were quantified using RT-qPCR and Western blot, respectively. Immunofluorescence and RT-qPCR were used to assess the mitochondrial function of SLE CD4+ T cells. Flow cytometry was used to assess CD4+ T cell activation and apoptosis levels. The impact of CMPK2 on CD4+ T cells was investigated by gene transfection experiment. We found that CMPK2 was significantly upregulated in SLE CD4+ T cells at both gene and protein levels. These cells demonstrated aberrant mitochondrial function, as evidenced by elevated mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) levels, mitochondrial membrane potential, and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number. Flow cytometry revealed a notable increase in both apoptosis and activation levels of CD4+ T cells in SLE patients. Gene transfection experiments showed that suppressing CMPK2 led to a significant improvement in these conditions. These findings suggest that CMPK2 may be involved in the pathogenesis of SLE by regulating mitochondrial dysfunction in CD4+ T cells and thus affecting CD4+ T cell activation and apoptosis. Our study may provide a new target for the treatment of SLE.

Targeted DeSUMOylation as a therapeutic strategy for multiple sclerosis

SUMO (small ubiquitin like modifier) conjugated proteins have emerged as an important post translational modifier of cellular function. SUMOylation modulates several cellular processes involved in transcriptional regulation of genes, protein-protein interactions and DNA damage and repair. Since abnormalities in SUMOylation has been observed in neoplastic and neurodegenerative disorders, the SUMO pathway has become an attractive site for targeting of new therapies to regulate SUMOylation and reduce disease burden. Conjugation of SUMO to their respective substrates is orchestrated by an enzymatic cascade involving three main enzymes, E1, activation enzyme, E2, conjugating enzyme and E3, a protein ligase. Each of these enzymes are therefore potential "druggable" sites for future therapeutics. SUMOylation is a well-known mechanism by which the innate immune response is regulated in response to viral infections and in the adaptive immune response to tumor immunity. We have shown that small molecules which inhibit the SUMO activation pathway are also capable of inhibiting autoimmune response. TAK981 which forms adducts with SUMO and anacardic acid which inhibits the E1 enzyme of the SUMO pathway were effective in preventing the development of experimental allergic encephalitis (EAE), a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. Anacardic acid and TAK981 inhibited activation of TH17 cells and reduced clinical and pathological injury in IL-17 mediated myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) induced EAE. Ginkgolic acid, another known inhibitor of SUMO pathway, was also shown to be effective in reducing the severity of inflammatory arthropathies which is also IL-17 mediated. In addition, the increase in the transcription of myelin genes with TAK981 and anacardic acid improved remyelination in experimental models of demyelination. In the present review paper, we examine the mechanism of action of inhibitors of the SUMO pathway on regulating the immune response and the possibility of the use of these agents as therapeutics for MS.

Formaldehyde exacerbates inflammation and biases T helper cell lineage commitment through IFN-γ/STAT1/T-bet pathway in asthma

The correlation between formaldehyde (FA) exposure and prevalence of asthma has been widely reported. However, the underlying mechanism is still not fully understood. FA exposure at 2.0 mg/m3 was found to exacerbate asthma in OVA-induced murine models. IFN-γ, the cytokine produced by T helper 1 (Th1) cells, was significantly induced by FA in serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of asthmatic mice, which was different from cytokines secreted by other Th cells. The observation was also confirmed by mRNA levels of Th marker genes in CD4+ T cells isolated from BALF. In addition, increased production of IFN-γ and expression of T-bet in Jurkat T cells primed with phorbol ester and phytohaemagglutinin were also observed with 100 μM FA treatment in vitro. Upregulated STAT1 phosphorylation, T-bet expression and IFN-γ production induced by FA was found to be restrained by STAT1 inhibitor fludarabine, indicating that FA promoted Th1 commitment through the autocrine IFN-γ/STAT1/T-bet pathway in asthma. This work not only revealed that FA could bias Th lineage commitment to exacerbate allergic asthma, but also identified the signaling mechanism of FA-induced Th1 differentiation, which may be utilized as the target for development of interfering strategies against FA-induced immune disorders.

Immune mechanisms in fibrotic interstitial lung disease

Fibrotic interstitial lung diseases (fILDs) have poor survival rates and lack effective therapies. Despite evidence for immune mechanisms in lung fibrosis, immunotherapies have been unsuccessful for major types of fILD. Here, we review immunological mechanisms in lung fibrosis that have the potential to impact clinical practice. We first examine innate immunity, which is broadly involved across fILD subtypes. We illustrate how innate immunity in fILD involves a complex interplay of multiple cell subpopulations and molecular pathways. We then review the growing evidence for adaptive immunity in lung fibrosis to provoke a re-examination of its role in clinical fILD. We close with future directions to address key knowledge gaps in fILD pathobiology: (1) longitudinal studies emphasizing early-stage clinical disease, (2) immune mechanisms of acute exacerbations, and (3) next-generation immunophenotyping integrating spatial, genetic, and single-cell approaches. Advances in these areas are essential for the future of precision medicine and immunotherapy in fILD.

The Complex Dysregulations of CD4 T Cell Subtypes in HIV Infection

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection remains an important global public health problem. About 40 million people are infected with HIV, and this infection caused about 630,000 deaths in 2022. The hallmark of HIV infection is the depletion of CD4+ T helper lymphocytes (Th cells). There are at least seven different Th subtypes, and not all are the main targets of HIV. Moreover, the effect of the virus in a specific subtype can be completely different from that of the others. Although the most compromised Th subtype in HIV infection is Th17, HIV can induce important dysregulations in other subtypes, such as follicular Th (Tfh) cells and regulatory Th cells (Treg cells or Tregs). Several studies have shown that HIV can induce an increase in the immunosuppressive activity of Tregs without causing a significant reduction in their numbers, at least in the early phase of infection. The increased activity of this Th subtype seems to play an important role in determining the immunodeficiency status of HIV-infected patients, and Tregs may represent a new target for innovative anti-HIV therapies, including the so-called "Kick and Kill" therapeutic method whose goal is the complete elimination of the virus and the healing of HIV infection. In this review, we report the most important findings on the effects of HIV on different CD4+ T cell subtypes, the molecular mechanisms by which the virus impairs the functions of these cells, and the implications for new anti-HIV therapeutic strategies.

The cuproptosis-related signature predicts the prognosis and immune microenvironments of primary diffuse gliomas: a comprehensive analysis

BACKGROUND

Evidence has revealed a connection between cuproptosis and the inhibition of tumor angiogenesis. While the efficacy of a model based on cuproptosis-related genes (CRGs) in predicting the prognosis of peripheral organ tumors has been demonstrated, the impact of CRGs on the prognosis and the immunological landscape of gliomas remains unexplored.

METHODS

We screened CRGs to construct a novel scoring tool and developed a prognostic model for gliomas within the various cohorts. Afterward, a comprehensive exploration of the relationship between the CRG risk signature and the immunological landscape of gliomas was undertaken from multiple perspectives.

RESULTS

Five genes (NLRP3, ATP7B, SLC31A1, FDX1, and GCSH) were identified to build a CRG scoring system. The nomogram, based on CRG risk and other signatures, demonstrated a superior predictive performance (AUC of 0.89, 0.92, and 0.93 at 1, 2, and 3 years, respectively) in the training cohort. Furthermore, the CRG score was closely associated with various aspects of the immune landscape in gliomas, including immune cell infiltration, tumor mutations, tumor immune dysfunction and exclusion, immune checkpoints, cytotoxic T lymphocyte and immune exhaustion-related markers, as well as cancer signaling pathway biomarkers and cytokines.

CONCLUSION

The CRG risk signature may serve as a robust biomarker for predicting the prognosis and the potential viability of immunotherapy responses. Moreover, the key candidate CRGs might be promising targets to explore the underlying biological background and novel therapeutic interventions in gliomas.

Ginkgolic acids induce liver injury in mice through cell cycle arrest and immune stress under specific condition

Ginkgo biloba L. is a valuable plant, which can be used for medicine, food and ornamental purposes. Despite the above benefits, the components of ginkgolic acids (GA) in ginkgo are considered to cause allergies, embryotoxicity, liver damage and some other adverse reactions. However, the mechanism of GA induced liver injury is still unclear. In this study, we developed an acute liver injury model induced by GA in mice, and investigated the mechanism of GA induced liver injury from the perspectives of oxidative stress, steatosis, apoptosis, and immune response. Intraperitoneal injection of GA (400 mg/kg) can cause liver damage. The levels of serum transaminase, oxidation and triglycerides were increased, liver fibrosis, hepatocyte apoptosis, G2/M phase arrest of the hepatic cell cycle and monocyte infiltration in the liver were detected in GA-treated mice. Flow cytometry analysis of cells separated from the spleen showed that the proportion of Th1 and Th17 cells were increased, and the proportion of Th2 cells were decreased in GA-treated mice. The rise in Th1/Th2 ratio and Th17 cell ratio usually cause inflammatory problems. At the same time, cleaved Caspase-8 and Caspase-3 were detected in hepatocytes, indicating that GA may induce apoptosis through FADD pathway. Although GA is capable of causing the above problems, the inflammation and damage in liver tissue are not severe and there are certain individual differences. Our study reveals the potential hepatotoxicity of GA in ginkgo and its mechanism of action, providing a new perspective for the intervention and prevention of ginkgo toxicity.

Topical Application of Nitrate Ameliorates Skin Fibrosis by Regulating ST2+CD4+ T Cells in Systemic Sclerosis Mouse Model

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is characterized by intractable multiorgan fibrosis caused by vascular and immune dysfunction. Currently, effective therapeutic options for patients with SSc are limited. Nitrate, an abundant nutrient in the diet, has been demonstrated to be preventative and therapeutic for several diseases. To determine whether nitrate can slow or reverse SSc progression, topical application of nitrate delivered by dissolving microneedles was used to treat a bleomycin-induced dermal fibrosis mouse model. In this study, nitrate considerably attenuated dermal thickness, stiffness, and collagen deposition. Bulk RNA sequencing of skin revealed that Cd4 was a key hub gene in SSc nitrate therapy. In addition, bleomycin-induced cytokines and chemokines were inhibited by nitrate, and CD4+ T cells infiltration markedly declined. Il4, Il6, Il13, and Tgfb expressions in CD4+ T cells isolated from skin biopsies also significantly decreased. Mechanistically, Il1rl1, a type 2 immune response inducer, was markedly repressed in isolated CD4+ T cells and dermal tissues after nitrate treatment. Remarkably, compared with wild-type mice, mice lacking Il1rl1 showed impaired transcriptional profiles after intradermal bleomycin injection. Adoptive transfer of ST2+CD4+ T cells promoted bleomycin-induced Rag2-/- mice dermal fibrosis. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that nitrate targeting ST2+CD4+ T cells is an effective therapeutic option for SSc.

Boosting PRRSV-Specific Cellular Immunity: The Immunological Profiling of an Fc-Fused Multi-CTL Epitope Vaccine in Mice

The continuously evolving PRRSV has been plaguing pig farms worldwide for over 30 years, with conventional vaccines suffering from insufficient protection and biosecurity risks. To address these challenges, we identified 10 PRRSV-specific CTL epitopes through enzyme-linked immunospot assay (ELISPOT) and constructed a multi-epitope peptide (PTE) by linking them in tandem. This PTE was then fused with a modified porcine Fc molecule to create the recombinant protein pFc-PTE. Our findings indicate that pFc-PTE effectively stimulates PRRSV-infected specific splenic lymphocytes to secrete high levels of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and is predicted to be non-toxic and non-allergenic. Compared to PTE alone, pFc-PTE not only induced a comparable cellular immune response in mice but also extended the duration of the immune response to at least 10 weeks post-immunization. Additionally, pFc-PTE predominantly induced a Th1 immune response, suggesting its potential advantage in enhancing cellular immunity. Consequently, pFc-PTE holds promise as a novel, safe, and potent candidate vaccine for PRRSV and may also provide new perspectives for vaccine design against other viral diseases.

A comprehensive analysis of m6A/m7G/m5C/m1A-related gene expression and immune infiltration in liver ischemia-reperfusion injury by integrating bioinformatics and machine learning algorithms

BACKGROUND

Liver ischemia-reperfusion injury (LIRI) is closely associated with immune infiltration, which commonly occurs after liver surgery, especially liver transplantation. Therefore, it is crucial to identify the genes responsible for LIRI and develop effective therapeutic strategies that target immune response. Methylation modifications in mRNA play various crucial roles in different diseases. This study aimed to identify potential methylation-related markers in patients with LIRI and evaluate the corresponding immune infiltration.

METHODS

Two Gene Expression Omnibus datasets containing human liver transplantation data (GSE12720 and GSE151648) were downloaded for integrated analysis. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analyses were conducted to investigate the functional enrichment of differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Differentially expressed methylation-related genes (DEMRGs) were identified by overlapping DEG sets and 65 genes related to N6-methyladenosine (m6A), 7-methylguanine (m7G), 5-methylcytosine (m5C), and N1-methyladenosine (m1A). To evaluate the relationship between DEMRGs, a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was utilized. The core DEMRGs were screened using three machine learning algorithms: least absolute shrinkage and selection operator, random forest, and support vector machine-recursive feature elimination. After verifying the diagnostic efficacy using the receiver operating characteristic curve, we validated the expression of the core DEMRGs in clinical samples and performed relative cell biology experiments. Additionally, the immune status of LIRI was comprehensively assessed using the single sample gene set enrichment analysis algorithm. The upstream microRNA and transcription factors of the core DEMRGs were also predicted.

RESULTS

In total, 2165 upregulated and 3191 downregulated DEGs were identified, mainly enriched in LIRI-related pathways. The intersection of DEGs and methylation-related genes yielded 28 DEMRGs, showing high interaction in the PPI network. Additionally, the core DEMRGs YTHDC1, METTL3, WTAP, and NUDT3 demonstrated satisfactory diagnostic efficacy and significant differential expression and corresponding function based on cell biology experiments. Furthermore, immune infiltration analyses indicated that several immune cells correlated with all core DEMRGs in the LIRI process to varying extents.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified core DEMRGs (YTHDC1, METTL3, WTAP, and NUDT3) associated with immune infiltration in LIRI through bioinformatics and validated them experimentally. This study may provide potential methylation-related gene targets for LIRI immunotherapy.

Exploration of the combined role of immune checkpoints and immune cells in the diagnosis and treatment of ankylosing spondylitis: a preliminary study immune checkpoints in ankylosing spondylitis

OBJECTIVE

Immune checkpoints have emerged as promising therapeutic targets for autoimmune diseases. However, the specific roles of immune checkpoints in the pathophysiology of ankylosing spondylitis (AS) remain unclear.

METHODS

Hip ligament samples were obtained from two patient groups: those with AS and femoral head deformity, and those with femoral head necrosis but without AS, undergoing hip arthroplasty. Label-Free Quantification (LFQ) Protein Park Analysis was used to identify the protein composition of the ligaments. Peripheral blood samples of 104 AS patients from public database were used to validate the expression of key proteins. KEGG, GO, and GSVA were employed to explore potential pathways regulated by immune checkpoints in AS progression. xCell was used to calculate cell infiltration levels, LASSO regression was applied to select key cells, and the correlation between immune checkpoints and immune cells was analyzed. Drug sensitivity analysis was conducted to identify potential therapeutic drugs targeting immune checkpoints in AS. The expression of key genes was validated through immunohistochemistry (IHC).

RESULTS

HLA-DMB and HLA-DPA1 were downregulated in the ligaments of AS and this has been validated through peripheral blood datasets and IHC. Significant differences in expression were observed in CD8 + Tcm, CD8 + T cells, CD8 + Tem, osteoblasts, Th1 cells, and CD8 + naive T cells in AS. The infiltration levels of CD8 + Tcm and CD8 + naive T cells were significantly positively correlated with the expression levels of HLA-DMB and HLA-DPA1. Immune cell selection using LASSO regression showed good predictive ability for AS, with AUC values of 0.98, 0.81, and 0.75 for the three prediction models, respectively. Furthermore, this study found that HLA-DMB and HLA-DPA1 are involved in Th17 cell differentiation, and both Th17 cell differentiation and the NF-kappa B signaling pathway are activated in the AS group. Drug sensitivity analysis showed that AS patients are more sensitive to drugs such as doramapimod and GSK269962A.

CONCLUSION

Immune checkpoints and immune cells could serve as avenues for exploring diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for AS.

Conventional dendritic cells 2, the targeted antigen-presenting-cell, induces enhanced type 1 immune responses in mice immunized with CVC1302 in oil formulation

Multifunctional CD4+ T helper 1 (Th1) cells, producing IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-2, define a correlate of vaccine-mediated protection against intracellular infection. In our previous study, we found that CVC1302 in oil formulation promoted the differentiation of IFN-γ+/TNF-α+/IL-2+Th1 cells. In order to extend the application of CVC1302 in oil formulation, this study aimed to elucidate the mechanism of action in improving the Th1 immune response. Considering the signals required for the differentiation of CD4+ T cells to Th1 cells, we detected the distribution of innate immune cells and the model antigen OVA-FITC in lymph node (LN), as well as the quantity of cytokines produced by the innate immune cells. The results of these experiments show that, cDC2 and OVA-FITC localized to interfollicular region (IFR) of the draining lymph nodes, inflammatory monocytes localized to both IFR and T cell zone, which mainly infiltrate from the blood. In this inflammatory niche within LN, CD4+ T cells were attracted into IFR by CXCL10, secreted by inflammatory monocytes, then activated by cDC2, secreting IL-12. Above all, CVC1302 in oil formulation, on the one hand, targeted antigen and inflammatory monocytes into the LN IFR in order to attract CD4+ T cells, on the other hand, targeted cDC2 to produce IL-12 in order to promote optimal Th1 differentiation. The new finding will provide a blueprint for application of immunopotentiators in optimal formulations.

Decreased Treg cells induced by bisphenol A is associated with up-regulation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway and Foxp3 DNA methylation in spleen of adolescent mice

The current study aimed to explore whether bisphenol A (BPA) exposure aggravated the decrease in Tregs induced by ovalbumin (OVA) in adolescent female mouse models of asthma, and whether the process was associated with mTOR-mediated signaling pathways and DNA methylation levels. A total of 40 female C57BL/6 mice at the age of four weeks were used and divided into five groups after 1 week of domestication. Each group consisted of eight mice: the control group, OVA group, OVA + BPA (0.1 μg mL-1) group, OVA + BPA (0.2 μg mL-1) group, and OVA + BPA (0.4 μg mL-1) group. Results revealed that Foxp3 protein levels decreased in the spleens of mice exposed to BPA compared to those in the OVA group. After an elevation in BPA dose, the mRNAs of methyltransferases (Dnmt1, Dnmt3a, and Dnmt3b) were gradually upregulated. The mechanism was related to the activity of TLR4/NF-κB and PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways and the enhancement of Foxp3 DNA methylation. Our results, collectively, provided a new view for studying the mechanisms underlying BPA exposure-induced immune dysfunction. Investigation of the regulatory mechanisms of DNA methylation in the abnormal Th immune response caused by BPA exposure could help reveal the causes and molecular mechanisms underlying the high incidence of allergic diseases in children in recent years.

The Transcription Factor Zfp335 Promotes Differentiation and Survival of Effector Th1 Cells by Directly Regulating Lmna Expression

Ag-specific effector CD4+ T cells play a crucial role in defending against exogenous pathogens. However, the mechanisms governing the differentiation and function of IFN-γ-producing effector CD4+ Th1 cells in immune responses remain largely unknown. In this study, we elucidated the pivotal role of zinc finger protein 335 (Zfp335) in regulating effector Th1 cell differentiation and survival during acute bacterial infection. Mice with Zfp335 knockout in OT-II cells exhibited impaired Ag-specific CD4+ T cell expansion accompanied by a significant reduction in resistance to Listeria infection. Furthermore, Zfp335 deficiency restricted the effector CD4+ Th1 cell population and compromised their survival upon Listeria challenge. The expression of T-bet and IFN-γ was accordingly decreased in Zfp335-deficient Th1 cells. Mechanistically, Zfp335 directly bound to the promoter region of the Lmna gene and regulated its expression. Overexpression of Lmna was able to rescue the survival and function of Zfp335-deficient effector Th1 cells. Therefore, our study provides novel insights into the mechanisms governing effector Th1 cell differentiation and survival during acute infection.

EFHD2 regulates T cell receptor signaling and modulates T helper cell activation in early sepsis

EFHD2 (EF-hand domain family, member D2) has been identified as a calcium-binding protein with immunomodulatory effects. In this study, we characterized the phenotype of Efhd2-deficient mice in sepsis and examined the biological functions of EFHD2 in peripheral T cell activation and T helper (Th) cell differentiation. Increased levels of EFHD2 expression accompanied peripheral CD4+ T cell activation in the early stages of sepsis. Transcriptomic analysis indicated that immune response activation was impaired in Efhd2-deficient CD4+ T cells. Further, Efhd2-deficient CD4+ T cells isolated from the spleen of septic mice showed impaired T cell receptor (TCR)-induced Th differentiation, especially Th1 and Th17 differentiation. In vitro data also showed that Efhd2-deficient CD4+ T cells exhibit impaired Th1 and Th17 differentiation. In the CD4+ T cells and macrophages co-culture model for antigen presentation, the deficiency of Efhd2 in CD4+ T cells resulted in impaired formation of immunological synapses. In addition, Efhd2-deficient CD4+ T cells exhibited reduced levels of phospho-LCK and phospho-ZAP70, and downstream transcription factors including Nfat, Nfκb and Nur77 following TCR engagement. In summary, EFHD2 may promote TCR-mediated T cell activation subsequent Th1 and Th17 differentiation in the early stages of sepsis by regulating the intensity of TCR complex formation.

Immunotherapy in the context of sepsis-induced immunological dysregulation

Sepsis is a clinical syndrome caused by uncontrollable immune dysregulation triggered by pathogen infection, characterized by high incidence, mortality rates, and disease burden. Current treatments primarily focus on symptomatic relief, lacking specific therapeutic interventions. The core mechanism of sepsis is believed to be an imbalance in the host's immune response, characterized by early excessive inflammation followed by late immune suppression, triggered by pathogen invasion. This suggests that we can develop immunotherapeutic treatment strategies by targeting and modulating the components and immunological functions of the host's innate and adaptive immune systems. Therefore, this paper reviews the mechanisms of immune dysregulation in sepsis and, based on this foundation, discusses the current state of immunotherapy applications in sepsis animal models and clinical trials.

Optimal CXCR5 Expression during Tfh Maturation Involves the Bhlhe40-Pou2af1 Axis

The pair of transcription factors Bcl6-Blimp1 is well-known for follicular T helper (Tfh) cell fate determination, however, the mechanism(s) for Bcl6-independent regulation of CXCR5 during Tfh migration into germinal center (GC) is still unclear. In this study, we uncovered another pair of transcription factors, Bhlhe40-Pou2af1, that regulates CXCR5 expression. Pou2af1 was specifically expressed in Tfh cells whereas Bhlhe40 expression was found high in non-Tfh cells. Pou2af1 promoted Tfh formation and migration into GC by upregulating CXCR5 but not Bcl6, while Bhlhe40 repressed this process by inhibiting Pou2af1 expression. RNA-Seq analysis of antigen-specific Tfh cells generated in vivo confirmed the role of Bhlhe40-Pou2af1 axis in regulating optimal CXCR5 expression. Thus, the regulation of CXCR5 expression and migration of Tfh cells into GC involves a transcriptional regulatory circuit consisting of Bhlhe40 and Pou2af1, which operates independent of the Bcl6-Blimp1 circuit that determines the Tfh cell fate.

Regulation of T helper cell differentiation by the interplay between histone modification and chromatin interaction

The development and function of the immune system are controlled by temporospatial gene expression programs, which are regulated by cis-regulatory elements, chromatin structure, and trans-acting factors. In this study, we cataloged the dynamic histone modifications and chromatin interactions at regulatory regions during T helper (Th) cell differentiation. Our data revealed that the H3K4me1 landscape established by MLL4 in naive CD4+ T cells is critical for restructuring the regulatory interaction network and orchestrating gene expression during the early phase of Th differentiation. GATA3 plays a crucial role in further configuring H3K4me1 modification and the chromatin interaction network during Th2 differentiation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that HSS3-anchored chromatin loops function to restrict the activity of the Th2 locus control region (LCR), thus coordinating the expression of Th2 cytokines. Our results provide insights into the mechanisms of how the interplay between histone modifications, chromatin looping, and trans-acting factors contributes to the differentiation of Th cells.

Molecular investigations on T cell subsets in patients affected by Hypomorphic DCLRE1C Mutation

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we explored the expression of transcription factors, cytokines, and co-stimulatory molecules within the helper T (Th) cell subsets (Th1, Th2, Th17 and Treg) of patients with hypomorphic DCLRE1C gene mutations.

METHODS

The study comprised eight patients and five controls. Transcription factor and cytokine expressions of Th subsets and co-stimulatory molecules were investigated by qPCR and flow cytometric following T cell stimulation. The findings were compared between patients (non-HSCT) and with hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT).

RESULTS

Flow cytometric analyses; while the Treg rate was significantly lower in non-HSCT than in controls (p = 0.010), the IFN-γ rate was significantly higher in patients than in the control and HSCT groups (p = 0.016, p = 0.022 respectively). Co-stimulatory molecule expressions were significantly lower in non-HSCT than in control (p < 0.001), and there was a significant improvement after HSCT. Post-stimulation qPCR analysis, significant changes were detected in non-HSCT/control, non-HSCT/HSCT and HSCT/control comparisons.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study is the first study to molecularly investigate Th cell subsets in hypomorphic DCLRE1C patients. It was determined that abnormalities in Th cell subsets still persisted despite HSCT. There are still many conditions to be explained in these patients, and we believe that our study may shed light on future studies.

Unraveling breast cancer prognosis: a novel model based on coagulation-related genes

Objective

Breast cancer is highly heterogeneous, presenting challenges in prognostic assessment. Developing a universally applicable prognostic model could simplify clinical decision-making. This study aims to develop and validate a novel breast cancer prognosis model using coagulation-related genes with broad clinical applicability.

Methods

A total of 203 genes related to coagulation were obtained from the KEGG database, and the mRNA data of 1,099 tumor tissue samples and 572 samples of normal tissue were retrieved from the TCGA-BRCA cohort and GTEx databases. The R package "limma" was utilized to detect variations in gene expression related to coagulation between the malignancies and normal tissue. A model was constructed in the TCGA cohort through a multivariable Cox regression analysis, followed by validation using the GSE42568 dataset as the testing set. Constructing a nomogram incorporating clinical factors to enhance the predictive capacity of the model. Utilizing the ESTIMATE algorithm to investigate the immune infiltration levels in groups with deferent risk. Performing drug sensitivity analysis using the "oncoPredict" package.

Results

A risk model consisting of six coagulation-associated genes (SERPINA1, SERPINF2, C1S, CFB, RASGRP1, and TLN2) was created and successfully tested for validation. Identified were 6 genes that serve as protective factors in the model's development. Kaplan-Meier curves revealed a worse prognosis in the high-risk group compared to the low-risk group. The ROC analysis showed that the model accurately forecasted the overall survival (OS) of breast cancer patients at 1, 3, and 5 years. Nomogram accompanied by calibration curves can also provide better guidance for clinical decision-making. The low-risk group is more likely to respond well to immunotherapy, whereas the high-risk group may show improved responses to Gemcitabine treatment. Furthermore, individuals in distinct risk categories displayed different responses to various medications within the identical therapeutic category.

Conclusion

We established a breast cancer prognostic model incorporating six coagulation-associated genes and explored its clinical utility. This model offers valuable insights for clinical decision-making and drug selection in breast cancer patients, contributing to personalized and precise treatment advancements.

Immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and immunotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma: current status and prospectives

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major health concern worldwide, with limited therapeutic options and poor prognosis. In recent years, immunotherapies such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have made great progress in the systemic treatment of HCC. The combination treatments based on ICIs have been the major trend in this area. Recently, dual immune checkpoint blockade with durvalumab plus tremelimumab has also emerged as an effective treatment for advanced HCC. However, the majority of HCC patients obtain limited benefits. Understanding the immunological rationale and exploring novel ways to improve the efficacy of immunotherapy has drawn much attention. In this review, we summarize the latest progress in this area, the ongoing clinical trials of immune-based combination therapies, as well as novel immunotherapy strategies such as chimeric antigen receptor T cells, personalized neoantigen vaccines, oncolytic viruses, and bispecific antibodies.

Immunization of turkeys with Clostridium septicum alpha toxin-based recombinant subunit proteins can confer protection against experimental Clostridial dermatitis

Clostridial dermatitis (CD), caused by Clostridium septicum, is an emerging disease of increasing economic importance in turkeys. Currently, there are no effective vaccines for CD control. Here, two non-toxic domains of C. septicum alpha toxin, namely ntATX-D1 and ntATX-D2, were identified, cloned, and expressed in Escherichia coli as recombinant subunit proteins to investigate their use as potential vaccine candidates. Experimental groups consisted of a Negative control (NCx) that did not receive C. septicum challenge, while the adjuvant-only Positive control (PCx), ntATX-D1 immunization (D1) and ntATX-D2 immunization (D2) groups received C. septicum challenge. Turkeys were immunized subcutaneously with 100 μg of protein at 7, 8 and 9 weeks of age along with an oil-in-water nano-emulsion adjuvant, followed by C. septicum challenge at 11 weeks of age. Results showed that while 46.2% of birds in the PCx group died post-challenge, the rate of mortality in D1- or D2-immunization groups was 13.3%. The gross and histopathological lesions in the skin, muscle and spleen showed that the disease severity was highest in PCx group, while the D2-immunized birds had significantly lower lesion scores when compared to PCx. Gene expression analysis revealed that PCx birds had significantly higher expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine genes in the skin, muscle and spleen than the NCx group, while the D2 group had significantly lower expression of these genes compared to PCx. Peripheral blood cellular analysis showed increased frequencies of activated CD4+ and/or CD8+ cells in the D1 and D2-immunized groups. Additionally, the immunized turkeys developed antigen-specific serum IgY antibodies. Collectively, these findings indicate that ntATX proteins, specifically the ntATX-D2 can be a promising vaccine candidate for protecting turkeys against CD and that the protection mechanisms may include downregulation of C. septicum-induced inflammation and increased CD4+ and CD8+ cellular activation.

Efficacy and safety of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells in the treatment of refractory immune thrombocytopenia: a prospective, single arm, phase I trial

Patients with refractory immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) frequently encounter substantial bleeding risks and demonstrate limited responsiveness to existing therapies. Umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (UC-MSCs) present a promising alternative, capitalizing on their low immunogenicity and potent immunomodulatory effects for treating diverse autoimmune disorders. This prospective phase I trial enrolled eighteen eligible patients to explore the safety and efficacy of UC-MSCs in treating refractory ITP. The research design included administering UC-MSCs at escalating doses of 0.5 × 106 cells/kg, 1.0 × 106 cells/kg, and 2.0 × 106 cells/kg weekly for four consecutive weeks across three cohorts during the dose-escalation phase, followed by a dose of 2.0 × 106 cells/kg weekly for the dose-expansion phase. Adverse events, platelet counts, and changes in peripheral blood immunity were monitored and recorded throughout the administration and follow-up period. Ultimately, 12 (with an addition of three patients in the 2.0 × 106 cells/kg group due to dose-limiting toxicity) and six patients were enrolled in the dose-escalation and dose-expansion phase, respectively. Thirteen patients (13/18, 72.2%) experienced one or more treatment emergent adverse events. Serious adverse events occurred in four patients (4/18, 22.2%), including gastrointestinal hemorrhage (2/4), profuse menstruation (1/4), and acute myocardial infarction (1/4). The response rates were 41.7% in the dose-escalation phase (5/12, two received 1.0 × 106 cells/kg per week, and three received 2.0 × 106 cells/kg per week) and 50.0% (3/6) in the dose-expansion phase. The overall response rate was 44.4% (8/18) among all enrolled patients. To sum up, UC-MSCs are effective and well tolerated in treating refractory ITP (ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT04014166).

Potential therapeutic targets for COVID-19 complicated with pulmonary hypertension: a bioinformatics and early validation study

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and pulmonary hypertension (PH) are closely correlated. However, the mechanism is still poorly understood. In this article, we analyzed the molecular action network driving the emergence of this event. Two datasets (GSE113439 and GSE147507) from the GEO database were used for the identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs).Common DEGs were selected by VennDiagram and their enrichment in biological pathways was analyzed. Candidate gene biomarkers were selected using three different machine-learning algorithms (SVM-RFE, LASSO, RF).The diagnostic efficacy of these foundational genes was validated using independent datasets. Eventually, we validated molecular docking and medication prediction. We found 62 common DEGs, including several ones that could be enriched for Immune Response and Inflammation. Two DEGs (SELE and CCL20) could be identified by machine-learning algorithms. They performed well in diagnostic tests on independent datasets. In particular, we observed an upregulation of functions associated with the adaptive immune response, the leukocyte-lymphocyte-driven immunological response, and the proinflammatory response. Moreover, by ssGSEA, natural killer T cells, activated dendritic cells, activated CD4 T cells, neutrophils, and plasmacytoid dendritic cells were correlated with COVID-19 and PH, with SELE and CCL20 showing the strongest correlation with dendritic cells. Potential therapeutic compounds like FENRETI-NIDE, AFLATOXIN B1 and 1-nitropyrene were predicted. Further molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations showed that 1-nitropyrene had the most stable binding with SELE and CCL20.The findings indicated that SELE and CCL20 were identified as novel diagnostic biomarkers for COVID-19 complicated with PH, and the target of these two key genes, FENRETI-NIDE and 1-nitropyrene, was predicted to be a potential therapeutic target, thus providing new insights into the prediction and treatment of COVID-19 complicated with PH in clinical practice.

CD4+ and CD8+ T cells reduce inflammation and promote bone healing in response to titanium implants

T cells are adaptive immune cells essential in pathogenic response, cancer, and autoimmune disorders. During the integration of biomaterials with host tissue, T cells modify the local inflammatory environment by releasing cytokines that promote inflammatory resolution following implantation. T cells are vital for the modulation of innate immune cells, recruitment and proliferation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and formation of functional tissue around the biomaterial implant. We have demonstrated that deficiency of αβ T cells promotes macrophage polarization towards a pro-inflammatory phenotype and attenuates MSC recruitment and proliferation in vitro and in vivo. The goal of this study was to understand how CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, subsets of the αβ T cell family, impact the inflammatory response to titanium (Ti) biomaterials. Deficiency of either CD4+ or CD8+ T cells increased the proportion of pro-inflammatory macrophages, lowered anti-inflammatory macrophages, and diminished MSC recruitment in vitro and in vivo. In addition, new bone formation at the implantation site was significantly reduced in T cell-deficient mice compared to T cell-competent mice. Deficiency of CD4+ T cells exacerbated these effects compared to CD8+ T cell deficiency. Our results show the importance of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in modulating the inflammatory response and promoting new bone formation in response to modified Ti implants. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are essential in modulating the peri-implant microenvironment during the inflammatory response to biomaterial implantation. This study shows that deficiency of either CD4+ or CD8+ T cell subsets altered macrophage polarization and reduced MSC recruitment and proliferation at the implantation site.

Innate-like T cell subset commitment in the murine thymus is independent of TCR characteristics and occurs during proliferation

How T-cell receptor (TCR) characteristics determine subset commitment during T-cell development is still unclear. Here, we addressed this question for innate-like T cells, mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, and invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells. MAIT and iNKT cells have similar developmental paths, leading in mice to two effector subsets, cytotoxic (MAIT1/iNKT1) and IL17-secreting (MAIT17/iNKT17). For iNKT1 vs iNKT17 fate choice, an instructive role for TCR affinity was proposed but recent data argue against this model. Herein, we examined TCR role in MAIT and iNKT subset commitment through scRNAseq and TCR repertoire analysis. In our dataset of thymic MAIT cells, we found pairs of T-cell clones with identical amino acid TCR sequences originating from distinct precursors, one of which committed to MAIT1 and the other to MAIT17 fates. Quantitative in silico simulations indicated that the number of such cases is best explained by lineage choice being independent of TCR characteristics. Comparison of TCR features of MAIT1 and MAIT17 clonotypes demonstrated that the subsets cannot be distinguished based on TCR sequence. To pinpoint the developmental stage associated with MAIT sublineage choice, we demonstrated that proliferation takes place both before and after MAIT fate commitment. Altogether, we propose a model of MAIT cell development in which noncommitted, intermediate-stage MAIT cells undergo a first round of proliferation, followed by TCR characteristics-independent commitment to MAIT1 or MAIT17 lineage, followed by an additional round of proliferation. Reanalyzing a published iNKT TCR dataset, we showed that this model is also relevant for iNKT cell development.

UV-stimulated riboflavin exerts immunosuppressive effects in BALB/c mice and human PBMCs

Riboflavin (RF) as a photosensitizer has been used in corneal surgery and the inactivation of blood products. However, the effect of RF on immune cells after ultraviolet (UV) light stimulation has not been investigated. This study pioneered a novel application method of RF. Firstly, UV-stimulated RF was co-cultured with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro, and the apoptosis rate of lymphocyte subsets, cell proliferation inhibition rate and concentrations of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α were assessed. UV-stimulated RF was then administered intravenously to mice via the tail vein for a consecutive period of 5 days. The levels of immunoglobulin (IgG, IgM, IgA), complement (C3, C4) and cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-4, IL17, TGF-β) were detected by ELISA. Flow cytometry was employed to analyze the populations of CD3+T, CD4+T, CD8+T and CD4+T/CD8+T cells in spleen lymphocytes of mice. The data showed that UV-stimulated RF can effectively induce apoptosis in lymphocytes, and different lymphocyte subtypes exhibited varying degrees of treatment tolerance. Additionally, the proliferative capacity of lymphocytes was suppressed, while their cytokine secretion capability was augmented. The animal experiments demonstrated that UV-stimulated RF led to a significant reduction observed in serum immunoglobulin and complement levels, accompanied by an elevation in IFN-γ, IL-17 and TGF-β levels, as well as a decline in IL-4 level. In summary, the results of both in vitro and in vivo experiments have demonstrated that UV-stimulated RF, exhibits the ability to partially inhibit immune function. This novel approach utilizing RF may offer innovative perspectives for diseases requiring immunosuppressive treatment.