Effects of obesity on the relationship of leptin mRNA expression and adipocyte size in anatomically distinct fat depots in mice

Sex-specific differences in metabolic outcomes after sleeve gastrectomy and intermittent fasting in obese middle-aged mice

Despite the high prevalence of obesity among middle-aged subjects, it is unclear if sex differences in middle age affect the metabolic outcomes of obesity therapies. Accordingly, in this study, middle-aged obese female and male mice were randomized to one of three groups: sleeve gastrectomy (SG), sham surgery ad libitum (SH-AL), or sham surgery with weight matching to SG through intermittent fasting with calorie restriction (SH-IF). Comprehensive measures of energy and glucose homeostasis, including energy intake, body weight, energy expenditure, glucose and insulin tolerance, and interscapular brown adipose tissue (iBAT) sympathetic innervation density were obtained. At the end of 8 wk, SG and SH-IF females had better metabolic outcomes than their male counterparts. SG females had improved weight loss maintenance, preservation of fat-free mass (FFM), higher total energy expenditure (TEE), normal locomotor activity, and reduced plasma insulin and white adipose tissue (WAT) inflammatory markers. SH-IF females also had lower plasma insulin and WAT inflammatory markers, and higher TEE than SH-IF males, despite their lower FFM. In addition, SH-IF females had higher iBAT sympathetic nerve density than SG and SH-AL females, whereas there were no differences among males. Notably, SH-IF mice of both sexes had the most improved glucose tolerance, highlighting the benefits of fasting, irrespective of weight loss. Results from this study demonstrate that in middle-aged obese mice, female sex is associated with better metabolic outcomes after SG or IF with calorie restriction. Clinical studies are needed to determine if sex differences should guide the choice of obesity therapies.NEW & NOTEWORTHY SG or IF with calorie restriction produces better metabolic outcomes in females than in males. IF with calorie restriction prevents metabolic adaptation, even in the face of fat-free mass loss. IF with calorie restriction in females only, is associated with increased iBAT sympathetic innervation, which possibly mitigates reductions in energy expenditure secondary to fat-free mass loss. Lastly, IF leads to better glucose homeostasis than SG, irrespective of sex.

Maternal and Offspring Sugar Consumption Increases Perigonadal Adipose Tissue Hypertrophy and Negatively Affects the Testis Histological Organization in Adult Rats

Sugar intake has been associated with the development of male reproductive pathologies because of the increase and dysfunction in different adipose tissue depots. The establishment of these dysfunctions in the early stages of development is unknown. We evaluated the effect of maternal (pregnancy and lactation) and male offspring (from weaning to adulthood) consumption of 5% sucrose on perigonadal adipose tissue (PAT) and testis in adulthood. Moreover, two rat groups were compared, both including pregnant and lactating females: Control (C—drinking tap water) and sugar (S—consuming 5% sucrose solution). From weaning to adulthood with male offspring, four subgroups were formed: Control Mother → Control and Sugar offspring (CC, CS) and Sugar Mother → Control and Sugar offspring (SC, SS). At 120 postnatal days, the testes and PAT were collected and morphologically described. Furthermore, we quantified the number and cross-sectional area of perigonadal adipocytes and their distribution. We found that the males from SC and SS groups showed high PAT weight (p < 0.005), a high number (p < 0.05), and a relative frequency of large adipocytes (p < 0.05), establishing these results during gestational and lactation stages, and enhancing in adulthood since postnatal diet and its interaction. More macrophages, mast cells, and Leydig cells were observed in the interstitial space of the testis for the CS, SC, and SS groups, concluding that consumption of a high-carbohydrate maternal diet, program hypertrophy processes in adult PAT, developing and enhancing with sugar consumption during postnatal life. Furthermore, they are associated with inflammatory processes within the interstitial space of the testis.

Plasticity of Epididymal Adipose Tissue in Response to Diet-Induced Obesity at Single-Nucleus Resolution

Adipose tissues display a remarkable ability to adapt to the dietary status. Here, we have applied single-nucleus RNA-seq to map the plasticity of mouse epididymal white adipose tissue at single-nucleus resolution in response to high-fat-diet-induced obesity. The single-nucleus approach allowed us to recover all major cell types and to reveal distinct transcriptional stages along the entire adipogenic trajectory from preadipocyte commitment to mature adipocytes. We demonstrate the existence of different adipocyte subpopulations and show that obesity leads to disappearance of the lipogenic subpopulation and increased abundance of the stressed lipid-scavenging subpopulation. Moreover, obesity is associated with major changes in the abundance and gene expression of other cell populations, including a dramatic increase in lipid-handling genes in macrophages at the expense of macrophage-specific genes. The data provide a powerful resource for future hypothesis-driven investigations of the mechanisms of adipocyte differentiation and adipose tissue plasticity.

Effect of Yogurt Fermented by Lactobacillus Fermentum TSI and L. Fermentum S2 Derived from a Mongolian Traditional Dairy Product on Rats with High-Fat-Diet-Induced Obesity

This study aimed to investigate the metabolic effect of yogurt fermented by Lactobacillus fermentum TSI and S2 isolated from a Mongolian traditional dairy product on rats with high-fat-diet-induced obesity. Quality characteristics of yogurt fermented by commercial starter (CON), L. fermentum TSI2 (TSI2 group), L. fermentum S2 (S2 group), and mixed TSI2 and S2 strains at 1:1 (MIX group), were verified. Six-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into five groups and administered the following diets: group NOR, normal diet with oral saline administration; group HF, high-fat diet (HD) with oral saline administration; group TSI, HD and L. fermentum TSI-fermented yogurt; group S2, HD and L. fermentum S2-fermented yogurt; and group MIX, HD and MIX-fermented yogurt. After eight weeks, the HD groups displayed significantly increased body weight and fat, serum cholesterol, and abdominal adipose tissue levels. However, serum HDL cholesterol levels were higher, triglyceride levels were lower, and abdominal adipocytes were smaller in the TSI and S2 groups than in the HF group. These results indicate that L. fermentum TSI reduces abdominal fat and improves blood lipid metabolism in HD-induced obese rats.

Up-regulation of bone morphogenetic protein and its signaling molecules following castration of bulls and their association with intramuscular fat content in Korean cattle

We evaluated whether castration affects bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) level and the expression of its signaling molecules in Korean cattle bulls. We also checked whether castration affects the expression of muscle fiber type and oxidative and glycolytic enzyme genes. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays revealed that steers had higher plasma BMP2 and leptin concentrations than bulls. Quantitative real-time PCR showed that steers had higher mRNA levels of the lysyl oxidase gene, a downstream target of the BMP signaling pathway, in the longissimus thoracis (LT) muscle. Steers had higher adipogenic peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and lipogenic fatty acid binding protein 4 mRNA levels in the LT than bulls. Steers had lower mRNA levels for several muscle fiber type 1 genes and fiber type 2A myosin heavy chain 2 gene than bulls. Steers had higher mRNA levels of the glycolytic enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase 1 gene than bulls. Transcript levels of oxidative enzyme genes did not differ between bulls and steers. Regression analysis revealed a positive association between plasma BMP2 levels and intramuscular fat (IMF) content in the steer group. These findings suggest that upregulation of the BMP signaling pathway in response to castration induces increased adipogenic gene expression, contributing to the increased IMF deposition observed in castrated animals.

Rab4b Deficiency in T Cells Promotes Adipose Treg/Th17 Imbalance, Adipose Tissue Dysfunction, and Insulin Resistance

Obesity modifies T cell populations in adipose tissue, thereby contributing to adipose tissue inflammation and insulin resistance. Here, we show that Rab4b, a small GTPase governing endocytic trafficking, is pivotal in T cells for the development of these pathological events. Rab4b expression is decreased in adipose T cells from mice and patients with obesity. The specific depletion of Rab4b in T cells causes adipocyte hypertrophy and insulin resistance in chow-fed mice and worsens insulin resistance in obese mice. This phenotype is driven by an increase in adipose Th17 and a decrease in adipose Treg due to a cell-autonomous skew of differentiation toward Th17. The Th17/Treg imbalance initiates adipose tissue inflammation and reduces adipogenesis, leading to lipid deposition in liver and muscles. Therefore, we propose that the obesity-induced loss of Rab4b in adipose T cells may contribute to maladaptive white adipose tissue remodeling and insulin resistance by altering adipose T cell fate.

Effects of Propolis Extract and Propolis-Derived Compounds on Obesity and Diabetes: Knowledge from Cellular and Animal Models

Propolis is a natural product resulting from the mixing of bee secretions with botanical exudates. Since propolis is rich in flavonoids and cinnamic acid derivatives, the application of propolis extracts has been tried in therapies against cancer, inflammation, and metabolic diseases. As metabolic diseases develop relatively slowly in patients, the therapeutic effects of propolis in humans should be evaluated over long periods of time. Moreover, several factors such as medical history, genetic inheritance, and living environment should be taken into consideration in human studies. Animal models, especially mice and rats, have some advantages, as genetic and microbiological variables can be controlled. On the other hand, cellular models allow the investigation of detailed molecular events evoked by propolis and derivative compounds. Taking advantage of animal and cellular models, accumulating evidence suggests that propolis extracts have therapeutic effects on obesity by controlling adipogenesis, adipokine secretion, food intake, and energy expenditure. Studies in animal and cellular models have also indicated that propolis modulates oxidative stress, the accumulation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), and adipose tissue inflammation, all of which contribute to insulin resistance or defects in insulin secretion. Consequently, propolis treatment may mitigate diabetic complications such as nephropathy, retinopathy, foot ulcers, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. This review describes the beneficial effects of propolis on metabolic disorders.

CD90 serves as differential modulator of subcutaneous and visceral adipose-derived stem cells by regulating AKT activation that influences adipose tissue and metabolic homeostasis

BACKGROUND

White adipose tissue includes subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue (SAT and VAT) with different metabolic features. SAT protects from metabolic disorders, while VAT promotes them. The proliferative and adipogenic potentials of adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) are critical for maintaining adipose tissue homeostasis through driving adipocyte hyperplasia and inhibiting pathological hypertrophy. However, it remains to be elucidated the critical molecules that regulate different potentials of subcutaneous and visceral ADSCs (S-ADSCs, V-ADSCs) and mediate distinct metabolic properties of SAT and VAT. CD90 is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored protein on various cells, which is also expressed on ADSCs. However, its expression patterns and differential regulation on S-ADSCs and V-ADSCs remain unclear.

METHODS

S-ADSCs and V-ADSCs were detected for CD90 expression. Proliferation, colony formation, cell cycle, mitotic clonal expansion, and adipogenic differentiation were assayed in S-ADSCs, V-ADSCs, or CD90-silenced S-ADSCs. Glucose tolerance test and adipocyte hypertrophy were examined in mice after silencing of CD90 in SAT. CD90 expression and its association with CyclinD1 and Leptin were analyzed in adipose tissue from mice and humans. Regulation of AKT by CD90 was detected using a co-transfection system.

RESULTS

Compared with V-ADSCs, S-ADSCs expressed high level of CD90 and showed increases in proliferation, mitotic clonal expansion, and adipogenic differentiation, together with AKT activation and G1-S phase transition. CD90 silencing inhibited AKT activation and S phase entry, thereby curbing proliferation and mitotic clonal expansion of S-ADSCs. In vivo CD90 silencing in SAT inhibited S-ADSC proliferation, which caused adipocyte hypertrophy and glucose intolerance in mice. Furthermore, CD90 was highly expressed in SAT rather than in VAT in human and mouse, which had positive correlation with CyclinD1 but negative correlation with Leptin. CD90 promoted AKT activation through recruiting its pleckstrin homology domain to plasma membrane.

CONCLUSIONS

CD90 is differentially expressed on S-ADSCs and V-ADSCs, and plays critical roles in ADSC proliferation, mitotic clonal expansion, and hemostasis of adipose tissue and metabolism. These findings identify CD90 as a crucial modulator of S-ADSCs and V-ADSCs to mediate distinct metabolic features of SAT and VAT, thus proposing CD90 as a valuable biomarker or target for evaluating ADSC potentials, monitoring or treating obesity-associated metabolic disorders.

Adipose tissue dysfunction in obese horses with equine metabolic syndrome

BACKGROUND

Obesity is a common feature of equine metabolic syndrome (EMS). In other species, obese adipose tissue shows pathological features such as adipocyte hypertrophy, fibrosis, inflammation and impaired insulin signalling all of which contribute to whole body insulin dysregulation. Such adipose tissue dysfunction has not been investigated in horses.

OBJECTIVES

To determine if obese horses with EMS have adipose tissue dysfunction characterised by adipocyte hypertrophy, fibrosis, inflammation and altered insulin signalling.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional post-mortem study.

METHODS

Samples of peri-renal (visceral) and retroperitoneal adipose tissue were obtained at post-mortem from healthy horses (n = 9) and horses with EMS (n = 6). Samples were analysed to determine average adipocyte size, fibrotic content and expression of inflammatory and insulin signalling genes.

RESULTS

Horses with metabolic syndrome showed marked adipocyte hypertrophy and increased expression of adipokines (leptin) and inflammatory cytokines (TNFα, IL1β and CCL2) in both adipose tissue depots compared to healthy horses. There were no differences in fibrosis or expression of genes relating to insulin signalling between the groups.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Cases used in this study had advanced EMS and may represent the end stage of the condition; the design of the study is such that we were unable to relate the identified adipose tissue dysfunction to whole body insulin dysregulation.

CONCLUSIONS

Horses with obesity and EMS have significant dysfunction of the peri-renal and retroperitoneal adipose tissue that may contribute to whole body insulin dysregulation.

Diverse repertoire of human adipocyte subtypes develops from transcriptionally distinct mesenchymal progenitor cells

Single-cell sequencing technologies have revealed an unexpectedly broad repertoire of cells required to mediate complex functions in multicellular organisms. Despite the multiple roles of adipose tissue in maintaining systemic metabolic homeostasis, adipocytes are thought to be largely homogenous with only 2 major subtypes recognized in humans so far. Here we report the existence and characteristics of 4 distinct human adipocyte subtypes, and of their respective mesenchymal progenitors. The phenotypes of these distinct adipocyte subtypes are differentially associated with key adipose tissue functions, including thermogenesis, lipid storage, and adipokine secretion. The transcriptomic signature of "brite/beige" thermogenic adipocytes reveals mechanisms for iron accumulation and protection from oxidative stress, necessary for mitochondrial biogenesis and respiration upon activation. Importantly, this signature is enriched in human supraclavicular adipose tissue, confirming that these cells comprise thermogenic depots in vivo, and explain previous findings of a rate-limiting role of iron in adipose tissue browning. The mesenchymal progenitors that give rise to beige/brite adipocytes express a unique set of cytokines and transcriptional regulators involved in immune cell modulation of adipose tissue browning. Unexpectedly, we also find adipocyte subtypes specialized for high-level expression of the adipokines adiponectin or leptin, associated with distinct transcription factors previously implicated in adipocyte differentiation. The finding of a broad adipocyte repertoire derived from a distinct set of mesenchymal progenitors, and of the transcriptional regulators that can control their development, provides a framework for understanding human adipose tissue function and role in metabolic disease.

Complex lipid globules in early-life nutrition improve long-term metabolic phenotype in intra-uterine growth-restricted rats

Intra-uterine growth restriction (IUGR) is associated with adverse metabolic outcome later in life. Healthy mice challenged with a Western-style diet (WSD) accumulated less body fat when previously fed a diet containing large lipid globules (complex lipid matrix (CLM)). This study was designed to clarify whether an early-life CLM diet mitigates 'programmed' visceral adiposity and associated metabolic sequelae after IUGR. In rats, IUGR was induced either by bilateral uterine vessel ligation (LIG) or sham operation (i.e. intra-uterine stress) of the dam on gestational day 19. Offspring from non-operated (NOP) dams served as controls. Male offspring of all groups were either fed CLM or 'normal matrix' control diet (CTRL) from postnatal days (PND) 15 to 42. Thereafter, animals were challenged with a mild WSD until dissection (PND 98). Fat mass (micro computer-tomograph scan; weight of fat compartments), circulating metabolic markers and expression of 'metabolic' genes (quantitative real-time PCR) were assessed. CLM diet significantly reduced visceral fat mass in LIG at PND 40. At dissection, visceral fat mass, fasted blood glucose, TAG and leptin concentrations were significantly increased in LIG-CTRL v. NOP-CTRL, and significantly decreased in LIG-CLM v. LIG-CTRL. Gene expression levels of leptin (mesenteric fat) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (liver) were significantly reduced in LIG-CLM v. LIG-CTRL. In conclusion, early-life CLM diet mitigated the adverse metabolic phenotype after utero-placental insufficiency. The supramolecular structure of dietary lipids may be a novel aspect of nutrient quality that has to be considered in the context of primary prevention of obesity and metabolic disease in at-risk populations.

Adipose cell size: importance in health and disease

Adipose tissue is necessary to harbor energy. To handle excess energy, adipose tissue expands by increasing adipocyte size (hypertrophy) and number (hyperplasia). Here, we have summarized the different experimental techniques used to study adipocyte cell size and describe adipocyte size in relation to insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and diet interventions. Hypertrophic adipocytes have an impaired cellular function, and inherent mechanisms restrict their expansion to protect against cell breakage and subsequent inflammation. Reduction of large fat cells by diet restriction, physical activity, or bariatric surgery therefore is necessary to improve cellular function and health. Small fat cells may also be dysfunctional and unable to expand. The distribution and function of the entire cell size range of fat cells, from small to very large fat cells, are an important but understudied aspect of adipose tissue biology. To prevent dysmetabolism, therapeutic strategies to expand small fat cells, recruit new fat cells, and reduce large fat cells are needed.

Adipose morphology and metabolic disease

Adipose morphology is defined as the number and size distribution of adipocytes (fat cells) within adipose tissue. Adipose tissue with fewer but larger adipocytes is said to have a 'hypertrophic' morphology, whereas adipose with many adipocytes of a smaller size is said to have a 'hyperplastic' morphology. Hypertrophic adipose morphology is positively associated with insulin resistance, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. By contrast, hyperplastic morphology is associated with improved metabolic parameters. These phenotypic associations suggest that adipose morphology influences risk of cardiometabolic disease. Intriguingly, monozygotic twin studies have determined that adipose morphology is in part determined genetically. Therefore, identifying the genetic regulation of adipose morphology may help us to predict, prevent and ameliorate insulin resistance and associated metabolic diseases. Here, we review the current literature regarding adipose morphology in relation to: (1) metabolic and medical implications; (2) the methods used to assess adipose morphology; and (3) transcriptional differences between morphologies. We further highlight three mechanisms that have been hypothesized to promote adipocyte hypertrophy and thus to regulate adipose morphology.

Sexual Dimorphism in the Age-Induced Insulin Resistance, Liver Steatosis, and Adipose Tissue Function in Rats

Age-linked metabolic disturbances, such as liver steatosis and insulin resistance, show greater prevalence in men than in women. Thus, our aim was to analyze these sex-related differences in male and female Wistar rats (aged 26 days and 3, 7, and 14 months), and to assess their potential relationship with alterations in the capacity of adipose tissue expansion and the dysregulation of the main adipokines produced by the adipose tissue, leptin and adiponectin. Adiposity-related parameters, blood parameters, the expression of genes related to expandability and inflammation (WAT), lipid metabolism (liver), and leptin and insulin signaling (both tissues) were measured. In females, adiposity index and WAT DNA content gradually increased with age, whereas males peaked at 7 months. A similar sex-dependent pattern was observed for leptin expression in WAT, while Mest expression levels decreased with age in males but not in females. Females also showed increased expression of the proliferation marker PCNA in the inguinal WAT compared to males. In males, leptin/adiponectin ratio greatly increased from 7 to 14 months in a more acute manner than in females, along with an increase in HOMA-IR index and hepatic triacylglyceride content, while no changes were observed in females. In liver, 14-month-old males displayed decreased mRNA levels of Insr, Ampkα2, and Cpt1a compared with levels at 7 months. Males also showed decreased mRNA levels of Obrb (both tissues), and increased expression levels of Cd68 and Emr1 (WAT) with age. In conclusion, females are more protected from age-related metabolic disturbances, such as insulin resistance, hepatic lipid deposition, and WAT inflammation compared to males. This may be related to their greater capacity for WAT expansion-reflected by a greater Mest/leptin mRNA ratio-and to their ability to maintain adiponectin levels and preserve leptin sensitivity with aging.

Making sense of metabolic obesity and hedonic obesity

Body weight is neither stationary nor does it change unidirectionally. Rather, body weight usually oscillates up and down around a set point. Two types of forces determine the direction of weight changes. Forces that push body weight away from the set point are defined as non-homeostatic and are governed by multiple mechanisms, including, but not limited to, hedonic regulation of food intake. Forces that restore the set point weight are defined as homeostatic, and they operate through mechanisms that regulate short-term energy balance driven by hunger and satiation and long-term energy balance driven by changes in adiposity. In the normal physiological state, the deviation of body weight from the set point is usually small and temporary, and is constantly corrected by homeostatic forces. Metabolic obesity develops when body weight set point is shifted to an abnormally high level and the obese body weight becomes metabolically defended. In hedonic obesity, the obese body weight is maintained by consistent overeating due to impairments in the reward system, although the set point is not elevated. Adaptive increases in energy expenditure are elicited in hedonic obesity because body weight is elevated above the set point. Neither subtype of obesity undergoes spontaneous resolution unless the underlying disorders are corrected. In this review, the need for both appropriate patient stratification and tailored treatments is discussed in the context of the new framework of metabolic and hedonic obesity.

Exercise Training Attenuates the Dysregulated Expression of Adipokines and Oxidative Stress in White Adipose Tissue

Obesity-induced inflammatory changes in white adipose tissue (WAT), which caused dysregulated expression of inflammation-related adipokines involving tumor necrosis factor-α and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, contribute to the development of insulin resistance. Moreover, current literature reports state that WAT generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the enhanced production of ROS in obese WAT has been closely associated with the dysregulated expression of adipokines in WAT. Therefore, the reduction in excess WAT and oxidative stress that results from obesity is thought to be one of the important strategies in preventing and improving lifestyle-related diseases. Exercise training (TR) not only brings about a decrease in WAT mass but also attenuates obesity-induced dysregulated expression of the adipokines in WAT. Furthermore, some reports indicate that TR affects the generation of oxidative stress in WAT. This review outlines the impact of TR on the expression of inflammation-related adipokines and oxidative stress in WAT.

DNA Methylation Suppresses Leptin Gene in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes

Leptin is a key regulator of energy intake and expenditure. This peptide hormone is expressed in mouse white adipose tissue, but hardly expressed in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Using bisulfite sequencing, we found that CpG islands in the leptin promoter are highly methylated in 3T3-L1cells. 5-azacytidine, an inhibitor of DNA methyltransferase, markedly increased leptin expression as pre-adipocytes matured into adipocytes. Remarkably, leptin expression was stimulated by insulin in adipocytes derived from precursor cells exposed to 5-azacytidine, but suppressed by thiazolidinedione and dexamethasone. In contrast, adipocytes derived from untreated precursor cells were unresponsive to both 5-azacytidine and hormonal stimuli, although lipid accumulation was sufficient to boost leptin expression in the absence of demethylation. Taken together, the results suggest that leptin expression in 3T3-L1 cells requires DNA demethylation prior to adipogenesis, transcriptional activation during adipogenesis, and lipid accumulation after adipogenesis.

Effects of nutritional manipulation on body composition in the developing marsupial, Macropus eugenii

When 60-day-old tammar wallaby pouch young (Macropus eugenii) are fostered to mothers at 120 days of lactation, their growth, developmental rate and maturation of their GH/IGF axes are markedly accelerated. To determine the effect of fostering on energy intake, body composition and fat accretion, we first measured total body fat and lean mass in these young. Next, we mimicked the triglyceride oleic and palmitic acid composition of 120-day milk by supplementing 60 day young with these fatty acids and comparing their growth with that of growth accelerated young. There was no difference in the weight or growth axis maturation of supplemented young but there was significantly more body fat in these and in the growth-accelerated fostered young than in controls. We conclude that the accelerated growth and GH/IGF axis maturation observed previously in fostered young is most likely due to increased milk consumption and earlier access to specific nutrients.

Two opposite extremes of adiposity similarly reduce inflammatory response of antigen-induced acute joint inflammation

OBJECTIVE

Acute inflammation is a normal response of tissue to an injury. During this process, inflammatory mediators are produced and metabolic alterations occur. Adipose tissue is metabolically activated, and upon food consumption, it disrupts the inflammatory response. However, little is known about the acute inflammatory response in joints that results from diet-induced adipose tissue remodeling. The objective of this study was to determine whether alterations in adipose tissue mass arising from food consumption modify the inflammatory response of antigen-induced joint inflammation in mice.

METHODS

Male BALB/c mice were fed a chow diet, a highly refined carbohydrate-containing (HC) diet for 8 wk. They were then immunized and, after 2 wk, received a knee injection of methylated bovine serum albumin (mBSA). They were sacrificed at 6, 24, and 48 h after injection. The effect of the cafeteria diet for 8 wk, which also increases adipose tissue, or conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) supplementation for 4 wk, a model of lipodystrophy, was evaluated 24 h after knee challenge with mBSA.

RESULTS

Cellular influx, predominantly neutrophils, in synovial fluid was attenuated in the HC diet group, as were levels of myeloperoxidase and IL-1β in periarticular tissue and histopathological analysis. These responses were associated with reduced adiponectin and increased leptin in serum, which was pronounced in mice fed the HC diet. Cafeteria diet and CLA supplementation induced a profile similar to that seen with the HC diet in terms of inflammation, disease response, and metabolic alteration. Interestingly, after the injection of mBSA, the area of adipocytes in the infrapatellar fat pad increased in mice fed with chow diet similar to those fed the HC and cafeteria diet.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated that attenuation of joint response induced by diet was independent of adipose tissue remodeling but could be associated with metabolic alterations.

Milk fat globule membrane coating of large lipid droplets in the diet of young mice prevents body fat accumulation in adulthood

Epidemiological studies have demonstrated protective effects of breast-feeding on childhood obesity. Differences between human milk and infant milk formula (IMF) in dietary lipid structure may contribute to this effect. In our mouse model, feeding a diet containing large lipid droplets coated with phospholipids (PL) (Nuturis^®; PL of milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) fraction origin) in early life protected against excessive body fat accumulation following a diet challenge in adult life. We now set out to determine the relevance of increased droplet size and/or MFGM lipid droplet coating to the observed anti-obesogenic effects in adult life. From day 16 to 42, male mouse pups were exposed to diets with small (S) or large (L) lipid droplets (0·3 v. 2·9 µm average mode diameter, respectively), either without MFGM or with MFGM coating around the lipid droplet, resulting in four groups: S (control diet), L, S^coating and L^coating (Nuturis^® IMF diet). Mice were subsequently challenged with a Western-style diet until dissection at postnatal day 98. A non-challenged group served as reference (REF). We repeatedly determined body composition between postnatal day 42 and 98. At day 98 plasma and gene expression measurements were performed. Only the Nuturis^® IMF diet (L^coating) in early life containing MFGM-coated large lipid droplets reduced body fat mass to a level comparable with the REF group. These data support the notion that the structural aspects of lipids in human milk, for example, both lipid droplet size as well as the MFGM coating, may contribute to its reported protective effect against obesity in later life.

Anti-obesity Effect of Yogurt Fermented by Lactobacillus plantarum Q180 in Diet-induced Obese Rats

This study aimed to investigate the anti-obesity effects of yogurt fermented by Lactobacillus plantarum Q180 in diet-induced obese rats. To examine the effects, male Sprague-Dawley rats were fed on six different diets, as follows: Group A was fed an ND and orally administrated saline solution; Group B, an HFD and orally administrated saline solution; Group C, an HFD and orally administrated yogurt fermented by ABT-3 and L. plantarum Q180; Group D, an HFD and orally administrated yogurt with added Garcinia cambogia extract, fermented by ABT-3 and L. plantarum Q180; Group E, an HFD and orally administrated yogurt fermented by L. plantarum Q180; and Group F, an HFD and orally administrated yogurt with added Garcinia cambogia extract, fermented by L. plantarum Q180 for eight weeks. After eight weeks, the rate of increase in bodyweight was 5.14%, 6.5%, 3.35% and 10.81% lower in groups C, D, E and F, respectively, compared with group B; the epididymal fat weight of groups E and F was significantly lower than that of group B; and the level of triglyceride and leptin was significantly reduced in groups C, D, E and F compared to group B. In addition, the level of AST was reduced in group C compared to the other groups. To examine the effects of yogurt on the reduction of adipocyte size, the adipocyte sizes were measured. The number of large-size adipose tissue was less distributed in groups A, C, D, E and F than in group B.

Delivery of Adipose-Derived Stem Cells Attenuates Adipose Tissue Inflammation and Insulin Resistance in Obese Mice Through Remodeling Macrophage Phenotypes

Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) have been used to control several autoimmune or inflammatory diseases due to immunosuppressive properties, but their role in obesity-associated inflammation remains unestablished. This study aims to evaluate the effects of ADSCs on obesity-induced white adipose tissue (WAT) inflammation and insulin resistance. We found that diet-induced obesity caused a remarkable reduction of ADSC fraction in mouse WAT. Delivery of lean mouse-derived ADSCs, which could successfully locate into WAT of obese mice, substantially improved insulin action and metabolic homeostasis of obese mice. ADSC treatment not only reduced adipocyte hypertrophy but also attenuated WAT inflammation by reducing crown-like structures of macrophages and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α secretion. Importantly, ADSC treatment remodeled the phenotypes of adipose-resident macrophages from proinflammatory M1 toward anti-inflammatory M2-like subtypes, as characterized by decreased MHC class II-expressing but increased interleukin (IL)-10-producing macrophages together with low expression of TNF-α and IL-12. Coculture of ADSCs through the transwell or conditional medium with induced M1 macrophages also reproduced the phenotypic switch toward M2-like macrophages, which was substantiated by elevated arginase 1, declined inducible nitric oxide synthase, inhibition of NF-κB activity, and activation of STAT3/STAT6. Taken together, our data support that ADSC supplement in obese mice could sustain IL-10-producing M2-like macrophages in WAT through paracrine action, thereby suggesting the crucial role of ADSCs in resolving WAT inflammation, maintaining adipose homeostasis, and proposing a potential ADSC-based approach for the treatment of obesity-related diseases.

Fat mass- and obesity-associated gene Fto affects the dietary response in mouse white adipose tissue

Common variants of human fat mass- and obesity-associated gene Fto have been linked with higher body mass index, but the biological explanation for the link has remained obscure. Recent findings suggest that these variants affect the homeobox protein IRX3. Here we report that FTO has a role in white adipose tissue which modifies its response to high-fat feeding. Wild type and Fto-deficient mice were exposed to standard or high-fat diet for 16 weeks after which metabolism, behavior and white adipose tissue morphology were analyzed together with adipokine levels and relative expression of genes regulating white adipose tissue adipogenesis and Irx3. Our results indicate that Fto deficiency increases the expression of genes related to adipogenesis preventing adipocytes from becoming hypertrophic after high-fat diet. In addition, we report a novel finding of increased Irx3 expression in Fto-deficient mice after high-fat feeding indicating a complex link between FTO, IRX3 and fat metabolism.

Metabolic vs. hedonic obesity: a conceptual distinction and its clinical implications

Body weight is determined via both metabolic and hedonic mechanisms. Metabolic regulation of body weight centres around the 'body weight set point', which is programmed by energy balance circuitry in the hypothalamus and other specific brain regions. The metabolic body weight set point has a genetic basis, but exposure to an obesogenic environment may elicit allostatic responses and upward drift of the set point, leading to a higher maintained body weight. However, an elevated steady-state body weight may also be achieved without an alteration of the metabolic set point, via sustained hedonic over-eating, which is governed by the reward system of the brain and can override homeostatic metabolic signals. While hedonic signals are potent influences in determining food intake, metabolic regulation involves the active control of both food intake and energy expenditure. When overweight is due to elevation of the metabolic set point ('metabolic obesity'), energy expenditure theoretically falls onto the standard energy-mass regression line. In contrast, when a steady-state weight is above the metabolic set point due to hedonic over-eating ('hedonic obesity'), a persistent compensatory increase in energy expenditure per unit metabolic mass may be demonstrable. Recognition of the two types of obesity may lead to more effective treatment and prevention of obesity.

Long-term inhibition of miR-21 leads to reduction of obesity in db/db mice

OBJECTIVE

To assess the effect of long-term pharmacological inhibition of miR-21 in a model of metabolic syndrome and obesity.

METHODS

Aged db/db mice were treated with locked nucleic acid-modified anti-miRs directed against miR-21 (LNA-21), control LNAs or PBS for 18 weeks. Cardiac function was assessed by echocardiography and the effect on body weight and white adipose tissue (WAT) was evaluated.

RESULTS

MiR-21 expression was efficiently inhibited in the heart and WAT with no apparent liver toxicity or deterioration of kidney function. MiR-21 inhibition had no effect on cardiac hypertrophy as well as systolic and diastolic cardiac functions. However, levels of cardiac collagen 1 were modestly reduced in LNA-21 treated mice. MiR-21 inhibition reduced body weight, as well as adipocyte size and serum triglycerides were significantly decreased. The miR-21 targets TGFβ-receptor 2 (TGFBR2) and phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) were derepressed in WAT of LNA-21 treated mice and Sprouty1 and 2 were increased after miR-21 inhibition.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term treatment with LNA-21 is safe and efficiently suppresses miR-21 expression. Cardiac function was not affected. LNA-21 treatment led to a significant weight loss and reduces adipocyte size as well as derepression of the targets TGFRB2, PTEN, and Sprouty1 and 2.

Impact of light/dark cycle patterns on oxidative stress in an adriamycin-induced nephropathy model in rats

The principal goal of this study was to determine the effect of the photoperiod on oxidative damage biomarkers in rats submitted to different light/darkness patterns, in a hyperlipidemic nephropathy model (induced by adriamycin), as well as its possible relationship with melatonin and leptin secretion rhythms. To test this hypothesis, six different groups were used (N = 6 rats per group): control (12 h/12h light:dark); exposure to permanent illumination (24 h light); exposure to darkness (22 h dark); injected with adriamycin, 12h/12h light:dark; injected with adriamycin + exposure to permanent illumination and injected with adriamycin + exposure to darkness (22 h dark). The different photoperiods were begun two weeks prior to medication and were maintained up to the day of the animal's sacrifice, ten days after medication. The following parameters were analysed: i) weight evolution; ii) in plasma: urea, creatinine, uric acid, total proteins, albumen, lactate dehydrogenase, creatinine-quinase, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and total cholesterol; iii) in urine: urea, creatinine, total proteins and microalbumen; iv) biomarkers of oxidative damage in kidneys, heart, liver and brain: lipoperoxides, total glutathione, reduced glutathione, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase and glutathione transferase; v) melatonin (pineal gland tissue and plasma) and leptin (plasma). From the results obtained it was concluded that the administration of adriamycin generated oxidative stress in renal, cerebral, hepatic and cardiac tissue. Additionally, in the healthy animal, but of a lesser relevance in the adriamycin animal, permanent light worsened the oxidative stress, whereas darkness improved it. This could be related to the circadian rhythm of the inverse release shown by melatonin and leptin, accentuating the release of melatonin in the darkness phase and that of leptin in the light phase. The correlation between melatonin and leptin in the healthy animal seemed to confirm the relationship between both variables and their influence on oxidative damage biomarkers.

Fat cell size and adipokine expression in relation to gender, depot, and metabolic risk factors in morbidly obese adolescents

OBJECTIVE

To understand the regulation of adipocyte size and adipokine expression in relation to gender, anatomic location, adiposity, and metabolic risk factors in adolescents with morbid obesity.

METHODS

Adipocyte size and adipokine expression in paired abdominal subcutaneous (SAT) and omental (VAT) surgical adipose tissues were related to gender, anatomic location, adiposity, and metabolic risk factors in a group of morbidly obese adolescents.

RESULTS

Significant depot- and/or gender-related differences in adipocyte size and adipokine expression were detected. Adjusted for body mass index, adipocyte size in both depots was larger in males than in females and was a major predictor of mRNA levels of leptin, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, and adiponectin. Gender, but not adipocyte size, was significantly correlated with proinflammatory cytokine expression. Body mass index and waist circumference were correlated positively with VAT adipocyte size and negatively with SAT adipocyte size. VAT adiponectin and interleukin-6 expression levels were major predictors of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations, independent of gender, adiposity, and insulin sensitivity.

CONCLUSIONS

Adipose tissue morphology and function in obese adolescents are influenced by gender and anatomic location; the pattern of gender- and depot-related differences in adipocyte size and adipokine expression suggests that adolescent males, relative to the females, are at increased risk for obesity-related metabolic comorbidities.

Leptin gene promoter DNA methylation in WNIN obese mutant rats

BACKGROUND

Obesity has become an epidemic in worldwide population. Leptin gene defect could be one of the causes for obesity. Two mutant obese rats WNIN/Ob and WNIN/GROb, isolated at National Centre for Laboratory Animal Sciences (NCLAS), Hyderabad, India, were found to be leptin resistant. The present study aims to understand the regulatory mechanisms underlying the resistance by promoter DNA methylation of leptin gene in these mutant obese rats.

METHODS

Male obese mutant homozygous, carrier and heterozygous rats of WNIN/Ob and WNIN/GROb strain of 6 months old were studied to check the leptin gene expression (RT-PCR) and promoter DNA methylation (MassARRAY Compact system, SEQUENOM) of leptin gene by invivo and insilico approach.

RESULTS

Homozygous WNIN/Ob and WNIN/GROb showed significantly higher leptin gene expression compared to carrier and lean counterparts. Leptin gene promoter DNA sequence region was analyzed ranging from transcription start site (TSS) to-550 bp length and found four CpGs in this sequence among them only three CpG loci (-309, -481, -502) were methylated in these WNIN mutant rat phenotypes.

CONCLUSION

The increased percentage of methylation in WNIN mutant lean and carrier phenotypes is positively correlated with transcription levels. Thus genetic variation may have effect on methylation percentages and subsequently on the regulation of leptin gene expression which may lead to obesity in these obese mutant rat strains.

Bifidobacterium CECT 7765 improves metabolic and immunological alterations associated with obesity in high-fat diet-fed mice

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of administration of Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum CECT 7765 on metabolic and immune alterations in obese mice.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Adult male wild-type C57BL-6 mice were fed a standard diet or high-fat diet (HFD), supplemented or not with B. pseudocatenulatum CECT 7765 for 7 weeks. The assessments included biochemical and immunological parameters, insulin resistance, glucose tolerance, histology of liver, white-adipose and intestinal tissues, immunocompetent cell functions, and microbiota-related features.

RESULTS

B. pseudocatenulatum CECT 7765 reduced serum cholesterol, triglyceride, and glucose levels and decreased insulin resistance and improved glucose tolerance in obese mice. This strain reduced serum levels of leptin, interleukin (IL)-6 and monocyte chemotactic protein-1, while increased those of IL-4 in HFD-fed mice. B. pseudocatenulatum CECT7765 reduced liver steatosis and the number of larger adipocytes and number of fat micelles in enterocytes of obese mice. The strain also improved the function of macrophages and dendritic cells in relation to phagocytosis, cytokine production, and induction of T-lymphocyte proliferation. The strain administration increased bifidobacteria and reduced enterobacteria and the inflammatory properties of the gut content in HFD-fed mice.

CONCLUSION

B. pseudocatenulatum CECT 7765 was shown to ameliorate both metabolic and immunological dysfunctions related to obesity in HFD-fed mice.

A high-fat diet enriched with low omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acid ratio reduced fat cellularity and plasma leptin concentration in Sprague-Dawley rats

This study was aimed to investigate the effects of dietary fatty acids on the accretion pattern of major fat pads, inguinal fat cellularity, and their relation with plasma leptin concentration. Forty Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned into four groups and received the following diets for 22 weeks: (1) standard rat chow diet (CTRL), (2) CTRL + 10% (w/w) butter (HFAR), (3) CTRL + 3.33% (w/w) menhaden fish oil + 6.67% (w/w) soybean oil (MFAR), and (4) CTRL + 6.67% (w/w) menhaden fish oil + 3.33% (w/w) soybean oil (LFAR). Inguinal fat cellularity and plasma leptin concentration were measured in this study. Results for inguinal fat cellularity showed that the mean adipocyte number for the MFAR (9.2 ∗ 10⁵ ± 3.6) and LFAR (8.5 ∗ 10⁵ ± 5.1) groups was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than the rest, while the mean adipocyte diameter of HFAR group was larger (P < 0.05) (46.2 ± 2.8) than the rest. The plasma leptin concentration in the HFAR group was higher (P < 0.05) (3.22 ± 0.32 ng/mL), than the other groups. The higher inguinal fat cellularity clearly indicated the ability of the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and butter supplemented diets to induce hyperplasia and hypertrophy of fat cells, respectively, which caused adipocyte remodeling due to hyperleptinemia.

KK/Ta Mice Administered Lactobacillus plantarum Strain No. 14 Have Lower Adiposity and Higher Insulin Sensitivity

Excess accumulation of white adipose tissue can lead to obesity-related metabolic abnormalities such as insulin resistance. We previously reported that intragastric administration of Lactobacillus plantarum No. 14 reduced adipocyte size in diet-induced obese C57BL/6 mice. The present study tested whether L. plantarum No. 14 affects adiposity and insulin sensitivity in an animal model of type-2 diabetes mellitus. Male KK/Ta mice were fed a normal-fat diet and intragastrically given L. plantarum No. 14 (10⁸ CFU/mouse) or vehicle daily for 10 weeks. Interscapular brown adipose tissue and inguinal, mesenteric, and retroperitoneal white adipose tissue weights, serum leptin and insulin concentrations, and insulin resistance index (HOMA-IR) were significantly lower in L. plantarum No. 14-fed mice than in vehicle-fed mice. The sum of the inguinal, epididymal, mesenteric and retroperitoneal white adipose tissue weights correlated with serum leptin and non-esterified fatty acid concentrations and HOMA-IR. The mesenteric adipose tissue mRNA levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and tumor necrosis factor-α were significantly lower in L. plantarum No. 14-fed mice than in vehicle-fed mice. Mesenteric adipose tissue weight correlated with interleukin-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and tumor necrosis factor-α mRNA levels. HOMA-IR correlated with monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and tumor necrosis factor-α mRNA levels. These data suggest that L. plantarum No. 14 prevents the development of insulin resistance, which is at least partly attributable to the prevention of obesity, in KK/Ta mice.

Effect of dietary lipid structure in early postnatal life on mouse adipose tissue development and function in adulthood

Obese individuals have more (hyperplastic) and larger (hypertrophic) adipocytes in their white adipose tissue (WAT) than normal-weight individuals. The difference in cell number emerges early in childhood, suggesting that this is a critical period for being susceptible to obesity. Breast-feeding has been shown to be protective against obesity, and we have previously shown in mice that the physical structure of lipids in human milk may contribute to this protective effect. In the present study, we investigated how differences in the physical structure of lipids in the early diet may modulate adipose tissue development. Male mice were fed a diet containing control infant milk formula (Control IMF; Danone Research) or Nuturis® (Concept IMF with large phospholipid-coated lipid droplets; Danone Research) from postnatal day (PN)16 to 42. Subsequently, mice were challenged with a moderate Western-style diet (WSD) until PN98, and body composition was monitored by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Epididymal WAT was analysed for adipocyte size, number and gene expression of metabolic transcription factors. Early Concept IMF exposure reduced fat accumulation during the WSD challenge by 30 % compared with the Control IMF. It reduced adipocyte size without affecting adipocyte number in adult mice. The Concept IMF decreased the expression of PPARγ, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein and retinoid X receptor α in WAT in adulthood, key regulators of metabolic activity. In conclusion, Concept IMF exposure in early life reduced susceptibility to obesity in adult life, by preventing adipocyte hypertrophia upon adult dietary challenge without affecting adipogenesis. These data emphasise the importance of the physical properties of dietary lipids in early life in obesity risk later in life.

More than a simple storage organ: adipose tissue as a source of adipokines involved in cardiovascular disease

Overweight and obesity in many countries have developed into a serious health problem by themselves and by their impact on other pathologies such as insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, heart disease and cancer. The modulation of these diseases by adipose tissue-derived biomolecules, so-called adipokines, could be the key to differentiate between metabolically healthy and unhealthy obesity. This review will discuss the pathophysiological role of selected adipokines, primarily focusing on cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, we will highlight possible therapeutic approaches, which target these biomolecules.

Adipocyte size and cellular expression of caveolar proteins analyzed by confocal microscopy

Caveolae are abundant in adipocytes and are involved in the regulation of lipid accumulation, which is the main volume determinant of these cells. We have developed and applied a confocal microscopic technique for measuring individual cellular expression of the caveolar proteins cavin-1 and caveolin-1 along with the size of individual adipocytes. The technique was applied on collagenase isolated adipocytes from ad libitum fed Sprague-Dawley rats of different age (4–26 wk) and weight (103–629 g). We found that cellular expression of caveolar proteins was variable (SD of log expression in the range from 0.25 to 0.65). Regression analysis of protein expression on adipocyte size revealed that the expression of the caveolar proteins cavin-1 and caveolin-1 on adipocytes from individual rats was tightly related to adipocyte cell surface area (mean coefficient of regression was 0.83 for cavin and 0.77 for caveolin), indicating that caveolar density was the same in membranes from all cells within a biopsy. This intrinsic relation remained unchanged with animal age, but adipocytes from animals with increasing age showed a decrease in mean expression of caveolar proteins per unit cell surface. The different relation between adipocyte size and cellular expression levels of caveolar proteins within and between individuals of different age shows that caveolar density is an age-sensitive characteristic of adipocytes.

Metabolic and immunomodulatory effects of n-3 fatty acids are different in mesenteric and epididymal adipose tissue of diet-induced obese mice

In studies emphasizing antiobesogenic and anti-inflammatory effects of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-n-3 PUFA), diets with very high fat content, not well-defined fat quality, and extreme n-6/n-3 PUFA ratios have been applied frequently. Additionally, comparative analyses of visceral adipose tissues (VAT) were neglected. Considering the link of visceral obesity to insulin resistance or inflammatory bowel diseases, we hypothesized that VAT, especially mesenteric adipose tissue (MAT), may exhibit differential responsiveness to diets through modulation of metabolic and inflammatory processes. Here, we aimed to assess dietary LC-n-3 PUFA effects on MAT and epididymal adipose tissue (EAT) and on MAT-adjacent liver and intestine in diet-induced obese mice fed defined soybean/palm oil-based diets. High-fat (HF) and LC-n-3 PUFA-enriched high-fat diet (HF/n-3) contained moderately high fat with unbalanced and balanced n-6/n-3 PUFA ratios, respectively. Body composition/organ analyses, glucose tolerance test, measurements of insulin, lipids, mRNA and protein expression, and immunohistochemistry were applied. Compared with HF, HF/n-3 mice showed reduced fat mass, smaller adipocytes in MAT than EAT, improved insulin level, and lower hepatic triacylglycerol and plasma NEFA levels, consistent with liver and brown fat gene expression. Gene expression arrays pointed to immune cell activation in MAT and alleviation of intestinal endothelial cell activation. Validations demonstrated simultaneously upregulated pro- (TNFα, MCP-1) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines and M1/M2-macrophage markers in VAT and reduced CD4/CD8α expression in MAT and spleen. Our data revealed differential responsiveness to diets for VAT through preferentially metabolic alterations in MAT and inflammatory processes in EAT. LC-n-3 PUFA effects were pro- and anti-inflammatory and disclose T cell-immunosuppressive potential.

Metabolic syndrome in the rural population of wardha, central India: an exploratory factor analysis

Background and Objectives:

Metabolic syndrome – a plausible precondition for type II diabetes and cardiovascular diseases is also on rise. To understand the mechanistic complexity of metabolic syndrome it is imperative to study the specific contribution of the determinants of metabolic syndrome. Such study can help to identify the most significant factor which may be of use in early detection as well as prevention efforts. Such information is scarcely available from India and especially from rural India. Hence, the present study was undertaken to explore for such factor which might be considered crucial for development of such pathogenesis particularly in rural population of Wardha.

Methods:

A cross-sectional study comprising of 300 subjects was carried out in rural area of Primary Health Center, attached to medical college with approximate 31,000 populations. The anthropometric parameters such as height, weight, waist circumference were measured. Overnight fasting samples were collected for lipid profile (total cholesterol, triglyceride, high density lipoproteins, low density lipoproteins, very low density lipoproteins) and fasting blood glucose levels. The National Cholesterol Education Programme Adult Treatment Panel, ATP-III guidelines were used to categorize the study subjects. As many of the variables are highly intercorrelated, exploratory factor analysis was carried out to reduce the data to a smaller number of independent factors that accounts for the most of the variances in the data. Principal component analysis was used as a method of extraction.

Results:

For both sexes, three factors were extracted accounting for about 71% variance in the measured variables. An adiposity factor which accounted for highest explained variance (28%), was the initial factor extracted. It was loaded positively by waist circumference, triglyceride, and very low density lipoprotein and negatively loaded by high density lipoprotein. Second factor extracted was a cholesterol factor which explained about 20% variance. It was positively loaded by total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein. Blood pressure factor was third to be extracted which again explained about 20% variance. It was positively loaded by systolic and diastolic blood pressure.

Interpretation and Conclusion:

The results clearly indicate the significance of visceral adiposity over the obesity in general or simple abdominal obesity measured anthropometrically as a pathogenic determinant of the metabolic syndrome. The most consistent factor has been found to be dyslipidemia which explained major share of the observed variance and the most significant load of this factor being rested on triglyceride and the VLDL level. Hence, we conclude measurement of triglyceride might be a rewarding screening parameter for assessment of cardio-metabolic risk in general populace and warrants a large scale study focusing into this issue.

The effects of exercise training on obesity-induced dysregulated expression of adipokines in white adipose tissue

Obesity is recognized as a risk factor for lifestyle-related diseases such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. White adipose tissue (WAT) is not only a static storage site for energy; it is also a dynamic tissue that is actively involved in metabolic reactions and produces humoral factors, such as leptin and adiponectin, which are collectively referred to as adipokines. Additionally, because there is much evidence that obesity-induced inflammatory changes in WAT, which is caused by dysregulated expression of inflammation-related adipokines involving tumor necrosis factor- α and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, contribute to the development of insulin resistance, WAT has attracted special attention as an organ that causes diabetes and other lifestyle-related diseases. Exercise training (TR) not only leads to a decrease in WAT mass but also attenuates obesity-induced dysregulated expression of the inflammation-related adipokines in WAT. Therefore, TR is widely used as a tool for preventing and improving lifestyle-related diseases. This review outlines the impact of TR on the expression and secretory response of adipokines in WAT.

Adipose tissue heterogeneity: implication of depot differences in adipose tissue for obesity complications

Obesity, defined as excess fat mass, increases risks for multiple metabolic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and several types of cancer. Over and above fat mass per se, the pattern of fat distribution, android or truncal as compared to gynoid or peripheral, has a profound influence on systemic metabolism and hence risk for metabolic diseases. Increases in upper body adipose tissue (visceral and abdominal subcutaneous) confer an independent risk, while the quantity of gluteofemoral adipose tissue is protective. Variations in the capacity of different depots to store and release fatty acids and to produce adipokines are important determinants of fat distribution and its metabolic consequences. Depot differences in cellular composition and physiology, including innervation and blood flow, likely influence their phenotypic properties. A number of lines of evidence also support the idea that adipocytes from different anatomical depots are intrinsically different as a result of genetic or developmental events. In this chapter, we will review the phenotypic characteristics of different adipose depots and mechanisms that link their depot-specific biology to metabolic complications in men and women.

Mutant amyloid precursor protein differentially alters adipose biology under obesogenic and non-obesogenic conditions

Mutations in amyloid precursor protein (APP) have been most intensely studied in brain tissue for their link to Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathology. However, APP is highly expressed in a variety of tissues including adipose tissue, where APP is also known to exhibit increased expression in response to obesity. In our current study, we analyzed the effects of mutant APP (E693Q, D694N, K670N/M671L) expression toward multiple aspects of adipose tissue homeostasis. These data reveal significant hypoleptinemia, decreased adiposity, and reduced adipocyte size in response to mutant APP, and this was fully reversed upon high fat diet administration. Additionally, mutant APP was observed to significantly exacerbate insulin resistance, triglyceride elevations, and macrophage infiltration of adipose tissue in response to a high fat diet. Taken together, these data have significant implications for linking mutant APP expression to adipose tissue dysfunction and global changes in endocrine and metabolic function under both obesogenic and non-obesogenic conditions.

Bacteroides uniformis CECT 7771 ameliorates metabolic and immunological dysfunction in mice with high-fat-diet induced obesity

BACKGROUND

Associations have been made between obesity and reduced intestinal numbers of members of the phylum Bacteroidetes, but there is no direct evidence of the role these bacteria play in obesity. Herein, the effects of Bacteroides uniformis CECT 7771 on obesity-related metabolic and immune alterations have been evaluated.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

Adult (6-8 week) male wild-type C57BL-6 mice were fed a standard diet or a high-fat-diet HFD to induce obesity, supplemented or not with B. uniformis CECT 7771 for seven weeks. Animal weight was monitored and histologic, biochemical, immunocompetent cell functions, and features of the faecal microbiota were analysed after intervention. The oral administration of B. uniformis CECT 7771 reduced body weight gain, liver steatosis and liver cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations and increased small adipocyte numbers in HFD-fed mice. The strain also reduced serum cholesterol, triglyceride, glucose, insulin and leptin levels, and improved oral tolerance to glucose in HFD fed mice. The bacterial strain also reduced dietary fat absorption, as indicated by the reduced number of fat micelles detected in enterocytes. Moreover, B. uniformis CECT 7771 improved immune defence mechanisms, impaired in obesity. HFD-induced obesity led to a decrease in TNF-α production by peritoneal macrophages stimulated with LPS, conversely, the administration of B. uniformis CECT 7771 increased TNF-α production and phagocytosis. Administering this strain also increased TNF-α production by dendritic cells (DCs) in response to LPS stimulation, which was significantly reduced by HFD. B. uniformis CECT 7771 also restored the capacity of DCs to induce a T-cell proliferation response, which was impaired in obese mice. HFD induced marked changes in gut microbiota composition, which were partially restored by the intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Altogether, the findings indicate that administration of B. uniformis CECT 7771 ameliorates HFD-induced metabolic and immune dysfunction associated with intestinal dysbiosis in obese mice.

New insights into adipocyte-specific leptin gene expression

The adipocyte-derived hormone leptin is a critical regulator of many physiological functions, ranging from satiety to immunity. Surprisingly, very little is known about the transcriptional pathways that regulate adipocyte-specific expression of leptin. In a recent published study, we pursued a strategy integrating BAC transgenic reporter mice, in vitro reporter assays, and chromatin state mapping to locate an adipocyte-specific cis-element upstream of the LEP gene in human fat cells. Quantitative proteomics (stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture, SILAC) with affinity enrichment of protein-DNA complexes identified the transcription factor FOSL2 as a specific binder to the identified region. We confirmed that FOSL2 is an important regulator of LEP gene expression in vitro and in vivo using cell culture models and genetic mouse models. In this commentary, we discuss the transcriptional regulation of LEP gene expression, our strategy to identify an adipocyte-specific cis-regulatory element and the transcription factor(s) responsible for LEP gene expression. We also discuss our data on FOSL2 and leptin levels in physiology and pathophysiology. We speculate on unanswered questions and future directions.

Sympathetic denervation of one white fat depot changes norepinephrine content and turnover in intact white and brown fat depots

It is well-established that the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) regulates adipocyte metabolism and recently it has been reported that sensory afferents from white fat overlap anatomically with sympathetic efferents to white fat. The studies described here characterize the response of intact fat pads to selective sympathectomy (local 6-hydroxydopamine (6OHDA) injections) of inguinal (ING) or epididymal (EPI) fat in male NIH Swiss mice and provide in vivo evidence for communication between individual white and brown fat depots. The contralateral ING pad, both EPI pads, perirenal (PR), and mesenteric (MES) pads were significantly enlarged 4 weeks after denervating one ING pad, but only intrascapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT) increased when both ING pads were denervated. Denervation of one or both EPI pad had no effect on fat depot weights. In an additional experiment, norepinephrine turnover (NETO) was inhibited in ING, retroperitoneal (RP), MES, and IBAT 2 days after denervation of both EPI or of both ING pads. NE content was reduced to 10-30% of control values in all fat depots. There was no relation between early changes in NETO and fat pad weight 4 weeks after denervation, even though the reduction in NE content of intact fat pads was maintained. These data demonstrate that there is communication among individual fat pads, presumably through central integration of activity of sensory afferent and sympathetic efferent fibers, that changes sympathetic drive to white adipose tissue in a unified manner. In specific situations, removal of sympathetic efferents to one pad induces a compensatory enlargement of other intact depots.

Prolactin activation of the long form of its cognate receptor causes increased visceral fat and obesity in males as shown in transgenic mice expressing only this receptor subtype

To date the best defined function of prolactin (PRL) is its action on the ovary and mammary gland, although it has also been shown to have an effect on lipid metabolism. Using mice engineered to express only the long form of the prolactin receptor (PRL-RL), we demonstrate that PRL acting through PRL-RL alone causes severe adipose accumulation in visceral fat of males at 6 months of age. The increase in visceral fat accumulation is attributed to loss of adipose-derived leptin, which results in diminished lipolysis. The reduction in leptin also corresponds to decreased activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which further results in diminished fatty acid oxidation and increased fatty acid synthesis. Interestingly, the blunted AMPK response was only observed in adipose tissue and not in liver suggesting that this PRL mediated effect is tissue specific. A glucose tolerance study inferred that PRL-RL mice may suffer from insulin resistance or a reduction in insulin production that is not due to aberrant expression of glucose transporter 4 (Glut4). Collectively, our findings demonstrate that PRL signaling through the long form receptor causes reduced fatty acid oxidation, increased lipid storage, glucose intolerance, and obesity. These findings are of great importance towards understanding the etiology of obesity associated with hyperprolactinemia in humans as well as the role of PRL as a metabolic regulator in adipose tissue.