Amelioration of Scopolamine-Induced Learning and Memory Impairment by α-Pinene in C57BL/6 Mice

Neuroprotective effects of alpha-pinene against behavioral deficits in ketamine-induced mice model of schizophrenia: Focusing on oxidative stress status

Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a profound neurological disorder that affects approximately 1% of the global population. Alpha-pinene (α-pinene) is a natural and active monoterpene found in coniferous tree oil, primarily pine, with diverse pharmacological characteristics, including antioxidative, anxiolytic, and antidepressant properties. This research study delves into the neuroprotective effects of α-pinene on oxidative stress, memory deficits, and depressive and anxiety-like behaviors in a ketamine-induced mice model of SCZ using male mice. The mice were randomly divided into six groups: vehicle, control, positive control, ketamine, α-pinene at 50 mg/kg, and α-pinene at 100 mg/kg. Treatment of the ketamine-induced mice model of SCZ with α-pinene yielded significant improvements in depressive and anxiety-like behaviors and cognitive impairments. Furthermore, it significantly elevated glutathione (GSH) levels, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), dopamine levels, catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities while markedly reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. The current study establishes that α-pinene treatment effectively mitigates oxidative damage, cognitive deficits, and depressive and anxiogenic-like behaviors in the brains of ketamine-treated mice. Therefore, α-pinene treatment is an efficacious approach to forestall the neurobehavioral and neurobiochemical adverse effects of the ketamine-induced SCZ model of mice.

Prophylactic and therapeutic inhalation of two essential oils ameliorates scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment in mice

Clover and lemongrass essential oils of contrasting composition, at three concentration levels (1%, 5%, 10%), were administrated via prophylactic and therapeutic inhalation to scopolamine-treated mice. Chemical analysis showed that clover oil was dominant in eugenol (47.69%) and lemongrass free of eugenol but mainly containing monoterpenoids of comparable proportions. Animal behavioural and brain biochemical tests showed that injection of scopolamine caused memory and learning deficit in mice while prophylactic and therapeutic inhalation of two oils at moderate to high concentrations all obviously reversed the cognitive impairment via inhibiting acetylcholinesterase activities, oxidation and inflammation. Lemongrass essential oil with diverse monoterpenoids can be as effective as or a little bit more potent than eugenol-rich clover essential oil possibly due to the synergistic effect of various monoterpenoids. These findings implied that sniffing of such aroma recipes could be a promising complementary approach for the mitigation of Alzheimer's disease-related cognitive impairment.

Alpha-pinene ameliorate behavioral deficit induced by early postnatal hypoxia in the rat: study the inflammatory mechanism

Neonatal hypoxia has a negative impact on the developing brain during the sensitive period. Inflammation plays a key role in the physiological response to hypoxic stress. Considering the anti-inflammatory properties of alpha-pinene, which has received a lot of attention in recent years, in this research we focused on the impact of alpha-pinene on the behavioral responses and proinflammatory factors in rats subjected to the neonatal hypoxia. This study involved Wistar rats (7-day-old) that were divided into six experimental groups, including a control group, groups receiving different doses of alpha-pinene (5 and 10 mg/kg), a hypoxia group receiving 7% O2 and 93% N2, 90 min duration for 7 days, and groups receiving alpha-pinene 30 min before hypoxia. All injections were done intraperitoneally. The rats were evaluated for proinflammatory factors 24 h after exposure to hypoxia (PND14) and at the end of the behavioral test (PND54). The results showed that hypoxia led to decreased motor activity, coordination, and memory, as well as increased inflammation. However, the rats that received alpha-pinene showed improved behavioral responses and reduced inflammation compared to the hypoxia group (all cases p < 0.05). This suggests that alpha-pinene may have a protective effect via anti-inflammatory properties against the negative impacts of hypoxia on the developing brain.

Neuroprotection by Polyherbal Medicine Divya-Medha-Vati Against Scopolamine-Induced Cognitive Impairment Through Modulation of Oxidative Stress, Acetylcholine Activity, and Cell Signaling

Alzheimer disease is associated with cognitive impairments and neuronal damages. In this study, Scopolamine, a model drug used for the generation of Alzheimer-like symptoms induced cognitive dysfunction in C57BL/6 mice. It also elevated acetylcholine esterase (AcHE) activity, and reduced antioxidant (superoxide dismutase and catalase) activity in cortex tissue. Scop reduced neuronal density and increased pyknotic neurons in hippocampus tissue. In mouse neuroblastoma (Neuro2a) cells, Scop triggered a dose-dependent loss of cell viability and neurite outgrowth reduction. Scop-treated Neuro2a cells showed oxidative stress and reduction in mRNA expression for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), nerve growth factor-1 (NGF-1), and Synapsin-1 (SYN-1) genes. Mice treated with Divya-Medha-Vati (DMV), an Ayurvedic polyherbal medicine showed protection against Scop-induced cognitive impairment (Morris Water Maze Escape Latency, and Elevated Plus Maze Transfer Latency). DMV protected against Scop-induced AcHE activity, and loss of antioxidant activities in the mice brain cortex while sustaining neuronal density in the hippocampus region. In the Neuro2a cells, DMV reduced Scop-induced loss of cell viability and neurite outgrowth loss. DMV protected the cells against induction of oxidative stress and promoted mRNA expression of BDNF, NGF-1, and SYN-1 genes. Phytochemical profiling of DMV showed the presence of Withanolide A, Withanolide B, Bacopaside II, Jujubogenin, Apigenin, Gallic acid, Caffeic acid, and Quercetin that are associated with antioxidant and neurostimulatory activities. In conclusion, the study showed that Divya-Medha-Vati was capable of promoting neuronal health and inhibiting Alzheimer-like cognitive dysfunction through enhanced antioxidant activities and modulation of neuronal activities.

Alpha-pinene neutralizes cisplatin-induced reproductive toxicity in male rats through activation of Nrf2 pathway

PURPOSE

Testicular toxicity is one of the most important side effects of cisplatin (CP) therapy. Alpha-pinene (AP) is a naturally occurring monoterpene with antioxidant character in plants. Here, we aimed to evaluate the therapeutic activity of AP against CP-induced testicular toxicity by including the nuclear factor erythroid 2-associated factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway in rats.

METHODS

Thirty male rats were divided into 5 groups: control, CP, CP + AP (5 and 10 mg/kg) and only AP (10 mg/kg). CP was administered intraperitoneally at a dose of 5 mg/kg on the first day, followed by three consecutive injections of AP. Serum reproductive hormone levels were evaluated using ELISA kits. Oxidative stress (OS), inflammation, endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) and apoptosis markers in testicular tissue were also determined colorimetrically. In addition, how CP affects Nrf2 pathway and the effect of AP on this situation were also addressed.

RESULTS

Treatment with CP significantly increased OS, inflammation, ERS and apoptosis in testicular tissue. Administrations of AP resulted in an amelioration of these altered parameters. The mechanism of therapeutic effect of AP appeared to involve induction of Nrf2. Furthermore, these results were also confirmed by histological data.

CONCLUSION

Results suggest that AP can exhibit therapeutic effects against CP-induced testicular toxicity. It can be concluded that AP may be a potential molecule to abolish reproductive toxicity after chemotherapy.

Characterizing cannabis-prevalent terpenes for neuroprotection reveal a role for α and β-pinenes in mitigating amyloid β-evoked neurotoxicity and aggregation in vitro

BACKGROUND

Cannabis sativa L. (C. sativa) can efficiently synthesize of over 200 terpenes, including monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and triterpenes that may contribute to the known biological activities of phytocannabinoids of relevance for the burgeoning access to medicinal cannabis formulations globally; however, to date have been uncharacterized. We assessed twelve predominant terpenes in C. sativa for neuroprotective and anti-aggregative properties in semi-differentiated PC12 neuronal cell line that is robust and validated as a cell model responsive to amyloid β (Aβ1-42) protein exposure and oxidative stress.

METHODS

Cell viability was assessed biochemically using the MTT assay in the presence of myrcene, β-caryophyllene, terpinolene, limonene, linalool, humulene, α-pinene, nerolidol, β-pinene, terpineol, citronellol and friedelin (1-200 μM) for 24 hr. Sub-toxic threshold test concentrations of each terpene were then applied to cells, alone or with concomitant incubation with the lipid peroxidant tert-butyl hyrdroperoxide (t-BHP; 0-250 μM) or amyloid β (Aβ1-42; 0-1 μM) to assess neuroprotective effects. Direct effects of each terpene on Aβ fibril formation and aggregation were also evaluated using the Thioflavin T (ThT) fluorometric kinetic assay and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to visualize fibril and aggregate morphology.

RESULTS

Terpenes were intrinsically benign to PC12 cells up to 50 μM, with higher concentrations of β-caryophyllene, humulene and nerolidol inducing some loss of PC12 cell viability. No significant protective effects of terpenes were observed following t-BHP (0-200 µM) administration, with some enhanced toxicity instead demonstrated from both β-caryophyllene and humulene treatment (each at 50 µM). α-pinene and β-pinene demonstrated a significant neuroprotective effect against amyloid β exposure. α-pinene, β-pinene, terpineol, terpinolene and friedelin were associated with a variable inhibition of Aβ1-42 fibril and aggregate density.

CONCLUSIONS

The outcomes of this study underline a neuroprotective role of α-pinene and β-pinene against Aβ-mediated neurotoxicity associated with an inhibition of Aβ1-42 fibrilization and density. This demonstrates the bioactive potential of selected terpenes for consideration in the development of medicinal cannabis formulations targeting neurodegenerative diseases.

Animal models of Alzheimer's disease: An originof innovativetreatments and insight to the disease's etiology

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder. The main pathogenic features are the development and depositionof senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in brain. Recent developments in the knowledge of the pathophysiological mechanisms behind Alzheimer's disease and other cognitive disorders have suggested new approaches to treatment development. These advancements have been significantly aided by the use of animal models, which are also essential for the assessment of therapies. Various approaches as transgenic animal model, chemical models, brain injury are used. This review will presentAD pathophysiology and emphasize several Alzheimer like dementia causingchemical substances, transgenic animal model and stereotaxy in order to enhance our existing knowledge of their mechanism of AD induction, dose, and treatment duration.

Ranuncoside's attenuation of scopolamine-induced memory impairment in mice via Nrf2 and NF-ĸB signaling

Scopolamine is a well-known pharmacological agent responsible for causing memory impairment in animals, as well as oxidative stress and neuroinflammation inducer which lead to the development of Alzheimer disease. Although a cure for Alzheimer's disease is unavailable. Ranuncoside, a metabolite obtained from a medicinal plant has demonstrated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in vitro, making it a promising treatment with potential anti-Alzheimer disease properties. However, as ranuncoside has not been evaluated for its antioxidant and anti-neuroinflammatory properties in any in vivo model, our study aimed to evaluate its neurotherapeutic efficacy against scopolamine-induced memory impairment in adult male albino mice. Mice were randomly divided into four experimental groups. Mice of group I was injected with saline, group II was injected with scopolamine (1 mg/kg/day) for 3 weeks. After receiving a daily injection of scopolamine for 1 week, the mice of group III were injected with ranuncoside (10 mg/kg) every other day for 2 weeks along with scopolamine daily and group IV were injected with ranuncoside on 5th alternate days. Behavioral tests (i.e., Morris water maze and Y-maze) were performed to determine the memory-enhancing effect of ranuncoside against scopolamine's memory deleterious effect. Western blot analysis was also performed to further elucidate the anti-neuroinflammatory and antioxidant effects of ranuncoside against scopolamine-induced neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. Our results showed memory-enhancing, anti-neuroinflammatory effect, and antioxidant effects of ranuncoside against scopolamine by increasing the expression of the endogenous antioxidant system (i.e., Nrf2 and HO-1), followed by blocking neuroinflammatory markers such as NF-κB, COX-2, and TNF-α. The results also revealed that ranuncoside possesses hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects against scopolamine-induced hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia in mice as well as scopolamine's hyperglycemic effect. In conclusion, our findings suggest that ranuncoside could be a potential agent for the management of Alzheimer's disease, hyperglycemia, and hyperlipidemia.

Alpha-pinene moderates memory impairment induced by kainic acid via improving the BDNF/TrkB/CREB signaling pathway in rat hippocampus

Introduction

The potential benefits of natural ingredients in the alleviation of neurodegenerative disorders are of great interest. Alpha-pinene (APN) is an essential oil belonging to monoterpenes with multiple beneficial effects. In this study, the possible improving effects of alpha-pinene on memory impairment induced by kainic acid and the underlying molecular mechanisms were examined.

Methods

Memory impairment was induced by i.c.v. injection of kainic acid (KA) in male Wistar rats. Alpha-pinene (50 mg/kg/day, i.p.) was injected for 21 days, including 14 days before the KA injection and seven days afterward. Spatial working memory and inhibitory avoidance (IA) memory performance were assessed five and even days following KA injection, respectively. The hippocampal protein levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), tropomyosin-like receptor kinase B (TrkB), cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), and neuronal loss in the CA1 region were also examined.

Results

Results revealed that the i.c.v. injection of KA triggered memory impairment, which was notably diminished by alpha-pinene pre-and post-treatment. Histopathological evaluation revealed that alpha-pinene significantly moderated the attenuation in CA1 alive neurons induced by KA injection. Western blotting analysis confirmed that alpha-pinene pre-and post-treatment significantly reversed the KA-induced decreases in the hippocampal levels of BDNF, TrkB, phosphorylated TrkB, CREB, and phosphorylated CREB.

Discussion

These findings suggest that alpha-pinene pre-and post-treatment moderate memory impairment induced by KA by restoring the BDNF/TrkB/CREB signaling pathway in the rat hippocampus.

Thymol in Trachyspermum ammi seed extract exhibits neuroprotection, learning, and memory enhancement in scopolamine-induced Alzheimer's disease mouse model

Several reports have stated the neuroprotective and learning/memory effects of Tachyspermum ammi seed extract (TASE) and its principal component thymol; however, little is known about its underlying molecular mechanisms and neurogenesis potential. This study aimed to provide insights into TASE and a thymol-mediated multifactorial therapeutic approach in a scopolamine-induced Alzheimer's disease (AD) mouse model. TASE and thymol supplementation significantly reduced oxidative stress markers such as brain glutathione, hydrogen peroxide, and malondialdehyde in mouse whole brain homogenates. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha was significantly downregulated, whereas the elevation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and phospho-glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (serine 9) enhanced learning and memory in the TASE- and thymol-treated groups. A significant reduction in the accumulation of Aβ 1-42 peptides was observed in the brains of TASE- and thymol-treated mice. Furthermore, TASE and thymol significantly promoted adult neurogenesis, with increased doublecortin positive neurons in the subgranular and polymorphic zones of the dentate gyrus in treated-mice. Collectively, TASE and thymol could  potentially act as natural therapeutic agents for the treatment of  neurodegenerative disorders, such as  AD.

Effect of sulfonamide derivatives of phenylglycine on scopolamine-induced amnesia in rats

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disease responsible for dementia and other neuropsychiatric symptoms. In the present study, compounds 30 and 33, developed earlier in our laboratory as selective butyrylcholinesterase inhibitors, were tested against scopolamine-induced amnesia to evaluate their pharmacodynamic effect. The efficacy of the compounds was determined by behavioral experiments using the Y-maze and the Barnes maze and neurochemical testing. Both compounds reduced the effect of scopolamine treatment in the behavioral tasks at a dose of 20 mg/kg. The results of the neurochemical experiment indicated a reduction in cholinesterase activity in the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus. The levels of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase were restored compared to the scopolamine-treated groups. The docking study on rat butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) indicated tight binding, with free energies of -9.66 and -10.23 kcal/mol for compounds 30 and 33, respectively. The two aromatic amide derivatives of 2-phenyl-2-(phenylsulfonamido) acetic acid produced stable complexes with rat BChE in the molecular dynamics investigation.

Evaluating Cannabis sativa L.'s neuroprotection potential: From bench to bedside

BACKGROUND

Neurodegenerative diseases and dementia pose a global health challenge in an aging population, exemplified by the increasing incidence and prevalence of its most common form, Alzheimer's disease. Although several approved treatments exist for Alzheimer's disease, they only afford transient symptomatic improvements and are not considered disease-modifying. The psychoactive properties of Cannabis sativa L. have been recognized for thousands of years and now with burgeoning access to medicinal formulations globally, research has turned to re-evaluate cannabis and its myriad phytochemicals as a potential treatment and adjunctive agent for neurodegenerative diseases.

PURPOSE

This review evaluated the neuroprotective potential of C. sativa's active constituents for potential therapeutic use in dementia and Alzheimer's disease, based on published studies demonstrating efficacy in experimental preclinical settings associated with neurodegeneration.

STUDY DESIGN

Relevant information on the neuroprotective potential of the C. sativa's phytoconstituents in preclinical studies (in vitro, in vivo) were included. The collated information on C. sativa's component bioactivity was organized for therapeutic applications against neurodegenerative diseases.

METHODS

The therapeutic use of C. sativa related to Alzheimer's disease relative to known phytocannabinoids and other phytochemical constituents were derived from online databases, including PubMed, Elsevier, The Plant List (TPL, www.theplantlist.org), Science Direct, as well as relevant information on the known pharmacological actions of the listed phytochemicals.

RESULTS

Numerous C. sativa -prevalent phytochemicals were evidenced in the body of literature as having efficacy in the treatment of neurodegenerative conditions exemplified by Alzheimer's disease. Several phytocannabinoids, terpenes and select flavonoids demonstrated neuroprotection through a myriad of cellular and molecular pathways, including cannabinoid receptor-mediated, antioxidant and direct anti-aggregatory actions against the pathological toxic hallmark protein in Alzheimer's disease, amyloid β.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide strong evidence for a role of cannabis constituents, individually or in combination, as potential neuroprotectants timely to the emergent use of medicinal cannabis as a novel treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. Future randomized and controlled clinical studies are required to substantiate the bioactivities of phytocannabinoids and terpenes and their likely synergies.

Relaxing Effects of Breathing Pseudotsuga menziesii and Lavandula angustifolia Essential Oils on Psychophysiological Status in Older Adults

We evaluated the effects of breathing Pseudotsuga menziesii (P. menziesii) and Lavandula angustifolia (L. angustifolia) essential oils (EOs) during a horticultural activity on older adults. A total number of 92 older adult (71.2 ± 7.7 years old) participants were guided through a leaf printing procedure. In the meantime, water vapor and EOs were diffused in an orderly manner. The heart rate variability-related parameters as well as the brain waves were recorded. In addition, we also collected data for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-State (STAI-S) questionnaires before and after the whole indoor natural activity program. The physiological parameters including standard deviation of normal to normal intervals, normalized high frequency (nHF), and high alpha wave increased while the normalized low frequency (nLF), the ratio of LF-to-HF power, high beta wave, and gamma wave decreased following the breathing of P. menziesii and L. angustifolia EOs. These changes indicated a relaxing effect of breathing both EOs during a horticultural activity on older adults. Our results demonstrated a beneficial effect of P. menziesii EO which is as good as a well-known relaxant L. angustifolia EO. This notion was supported by the results of STAI-S. Here we developed an indoor natural activity program for older adults to promote physical and mental health.

Mechanistic Insights into the Neuroprotective Potential of Sacred Ficus Trees

Ficus religiosa (Bo tree or sacred fig) and Ficus benghalensis (Indian banyan) are of immense spiritual and therapeutic importance. Various parts of these trees have been investigated for their antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticonvulsant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, hepatoprotective, dermoprotective, and nephroprotective properties. Previous reviews of Ficus mostly discussed traditional usages, photochemistry, and pharmacological activities, though comprehensive reviews of the neuroprotective potential of these Ficus species extracts and/or their important phytocompounds are lacking. The interesting phytocompounds from these trees include many bengalenosides, carotenoids, flavonoids (leucopelargonidin-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside, leucopelargonidin-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside, lupeol, cetyl behenate, and α-amyrin acetate), flavonols (kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin), leucocyanidin, phytosterols (bergapten, bergaptol, lanosterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol), terpenes (α-thujene, α-pinene, β-pinene, α-terpinene, limonene, β-ocimene, β-bourbonene, β-caryophyllene, α-trans-bergamotene, α-copaene, aromadendrene, α-humulene, alloaromadendrene, germacrene, γ-cadinene, and δ-cadinene), and diverse polyphenols (tannin, wax, saponin, leucoanthocyanin), contributing significantly to their pharmacological effects, ranging from antimicrobial action to neuroprotection. This review presents extensive mechanistic insights into the neuroprotective potential, especially important phytochemicals from F. religiosa and F. benghalensis. Owing to the complex pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs), the currently existing drugs merely alleviate the symptoms. Hence, bioactive compounds with potent neuroprotective effects through a multitarget approach would be of great interest in developing pharmacophores for the treatment of NDDs.

Butin Mitigates Memory Impairment in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rats by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Responses

It has been reported from the previous literature that butin restores mitochondrial dysfunction by modulation of oxidative stress and glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in mouse hippocampus HT22 cells. Butin also possesses an anti-Huntington's effect in rats. Considering the current background, this study was designed to evaluate the neuroprotective effect of butin against memory loss caused by streptozotocin (STZ). STZ (40 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally injected into rats. Three days later, diabetic rats were identified and included in the study. A total of 30 rats (12 nondiabetic and 18 diabetics) were grouped as Group A (control-non-diabetic rats) and Group B (STZ diabetic control) were treated with 1 mL of sodium CMC (0.5% w/v). Group C (STZ+ butin 25) were treated with butin 25 mg/kg. Group D (STZ+ butin 50) and Group E (butin per se) were administered with butin 50 mg/kg. Each therapy was administered orally once each day for 15-day. The Morris water maze and the Y-maze behavioural tests were run throughout the experimental programme. Animals were put to death on day 15 and their brains were removed for biochemical assays (CAT, SOD, GSH, MDA, nitrite, acetylcholinesterase (AchE), IL-1, and mitochondrial enzyme complexes). Rats with neurobehavioral impairments brought on by STZ have less spontaneous movement, learning capacity, and memory. Additionally, STZ decreased endogenous antioxidants and increased pro-inflammatory cytokines, nitrite, MDA, and AchE. Neurobehavioral deficits and metabolic markers were dramatically improved by butin.

Synthetic Mono-Carbonyl Curcumin Analogues Attenuate Oxidative Stress in Mouse Models

Alzheimer’s disease is the commonest form of dementia associated with short-term memory loss and impaired cognition and, worldwide, it is a growing health issue. A number of therapeutic strategies have been studied to design and develop an effective anti-Alzheimer drug. Curcumin has a wide spectrum of biological properties. In this regard, the antioxidant potentials of mono-carbonyl curcumin analogues (h1−h5) were investigated using in vitro antioxidant assays and hippocampal-based in vivo mouse models such as light−dark box, hole board, and Y-maze tests. In the in vitro assay, mono-carbonyl curcumin analogues h2 and h3 with methoxy and chloro-substituents, respectively, showed promising 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2, 2′-azinobis-3-ethylbenzothiazo-line-6-sulfonate (ABTS) free radical scavenging activities. In the in vivo studies, scopolamine administration significantly (p < 0.001) induced oxidative stress and memory impairment in mice, in comparison to the normal control group. The pretreatment with mono-carbonyl curcumin analogues, specifically h2 and h3, significantly decreased (123.71 ± 15.23 s (p < 0.001), n = 8; 156.53 ± 14.13 s (p < 0.001), n = 8) the duration of time spent in the light chamber and significantly enhanced (253.95 ± 19.05 s (p < 0.001), n = 8, and 239.57 ± 9.98 s (p < 0.001), n = 8) the time spent in the dark compartment in the light−dark box arena. The numbers of hole pokings were significantly (p < 0.001, n = 8) enhanced in the hole board test and substantially increased the percent spontaneous alternation performance (SAP %) in the Y-maze mouse models in comparison to the stress control group. In the biomarker analysis, the significant reduction in the lipid peroxidation (MDA) level and enhanced catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione (GSH) activities in the brain hippocampus reveal their antioxidant and memory enhancing potentials. However, further research is needed to find out the appropriate mechanism of reducing oxidative stress in pathological models.

Punica granatum peel supplementation attenuates cognitive deficits and brain injury in rat by targeting the Nrf2-HO-1 pathway

The critical role of nutrition to prevent neurodegenerative disorders is well documented. Punica granatum fruit is identified as a highly nutritional food for alleviating various ailments. The ameliorating properties of P. granatum peel on memory dysfunction and the possible roles of oxidative stress, acetylcholinesterase (AchE), and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-heme oxygenase (HO)-1 pathway in the scopolamine-treated rats were assessed. The hydroethanolic extract was standardized using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The animal groups were as follows: Control, scopolamine (2 mg/kg), and treatment groups (the extract at doses of 200-800 mg/kg). The behavioral performance was evaluated using the Morris water maze (MWM) and passive avoidance equipment. Various biochemical parameters were then measured. Rats received the extract properly found on the platform location, indicated by a shorter traveling time and distance during 5 days of learning MWM. Moreover, the extract increased the delay and light time, while decreasing dark time and the frequency of entries to the dark in the passive avoidance test. The extract also exerted a significant increase in superoxide dismutase activity and thiol content, while decreasing AchE activity and lipid peroxidation in the brain of scopolamine-injured rats. Our results demonstrated the neuroprotective effects of P. granatum peel in minimizing scopolamine injury possibly through targeting the Nrf2-HO-1 pathway.

Forest Biomass as a Promising Source of Bioactive Essential Oil and Phenolic Compounds for Alzheimer's Disease Therapy

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder affecting elderly people worldwide. Currently, there are no effective treatments for AD able to prevent disease progression, highlighting the urgency of finding new therapeutic strategies to stop or delay this pathology. Several plants exhibit potential as source of safe and multi-target new therapeutic molecules for AD treatment. Meanwhile, Eucalyptus globulus extracts revealed important pharmacological activities, namely antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which can contribute to the reported neuroprotective effects. This review summarizes the chemical composition of essential oil (EO) and phenolic extracts obtained from Eucalyptus globulus leaves, disclosing major compounds and their effects on AD-relevant pathological features, including deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) in senile plaques and hyperphosphorylated tau in neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), abnormalities in GABAergic, cholinergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission, inflammation, and oxidative stress. In general, 1,8-cineole is the major compound identified in EO, and ellagic acid, quercetin, and rutin were described as main compounds in phenolic extracts from Eucalyptus globulus leaves. EO and phenolic extracts, and especially their major compounds, were found to prevent several pathological cellular processes and to improve cognitive function in AD animal models. Therefore, Eucalyptus globulus leaves are a relevant source of biological active and safe molecules that could be used as raw material for nutraceuticals and plant-based medicinal products useful for AD prevention and treatment.

Angelica purpurascens (Avé-Lall.) Gilli. Essential Oil Improved Brain Function via Cholinergic Modulation and Antioxidant Effects in the Scopolamine-Induced Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Model

Angelica purpurascens (Avé-Lall.) Gilli. is a medicinal plant that displays antioxidant, anticholinesterase, and neuroprotective properties. The effect of A. purpurascens essential oil (APO) on memory impairments and brain oxidative stress in zebrafish (Danio rerio) treated with scopolamine (Sco), as well as the underlying mechanism involved, were investigated in this study. Exposure to Sco (100 μM) resulted in anxiety in zebrafish, as assessed by the novel tank diving test (NTT), whereas spatial memory and novelty response dysfunctions, as evidenced by the Y-maze test and novel object recognition test (NOR), were noticed. When zebrafish were given Sco and simultaneously given APO (25 and 150 μL/L, once daily for 13 days), the deficits were averted. An increase in brain antioxidant enzymes, a reduction of lipid peroxidation, and protein oxidation were linked to this impact. Furthermore, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was significantly reduced in the brains of APO-treated zebrafish. The main detected components in the APO composition were β-phellandrene (33.80%), sabinene (6.80%), α-pinene (5.30%), germacrene-D (4.50%), α-phellandrene (4.20%), and p-cymene (3.80%) based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) investigations. Our findings show that APO's beneficial effect in a zebrafish model of Sco-induced memory impairment is mediated through multiple mechanisms, including the restoration of cholinergic system function and the improvement of the brain antioxidant state. As a result, APO could be employed as a potential source of bioactive molecules with useful biological properties and medicinal uses.

Attenuation of Scopolamine-Induced Amnesia via Cholinergic Modulation in Mice by Synthetic Curcumin Analogs

Alzheimer’s disease is an emerging health disorder associated with cognitive decline and memory loss. In this study, six curcumin analogs (1a−1f) were synthesized and screened for in vitro cholinesterase inhibitory potential. On the basis of promising results, they were further investigated for in vivo analysis using elevated plus maze (EPM), Y-maze, and novel object recognition (NOR) behavioral models. The binding mode of the synthesized compounds with the active sites of cholinesterases, and the involvement of the cholinergic system in brain hippocampus was determined. The synthesized curcumin analog 1d (p < 0.001, n = 6), and 1c (p < 0.01, n = 6) showed promising results by decreasing retention time in EPM, significantly increasing % SAP in Y-maze, while significantly (p < 0.001) enhancing the % discrimination index (DI) and the time exploring the novel objects in NORT mice behavioral models. A molecular docking study using MOE software was used for validation of the inhibition of cholinesterase(s). It has been indicated from the current research work that the synthesized curcumin analogs enhanced memory functions in mice models and could be used as valuable therapeutic molecules against neurodegenerative disorders. To determine their exact mechanism of action, further studies are suggested.

Long-Term Effect of Porcine Brain Enzyme Hydrolysate Intake on Scopolamine-Induced Memory Impairment in Rats

No study has revealed the effect of porcine brain enzyme hydrolysate (PBEH) on memory impairment. We aimed to examine the hypothesis that PBEH intake modulates memory deficits and cognitive behavior in scopolamine (SC)-induced amnesia rats, and its mechanism, including gut microbiota changes, was determined. Sprague–Dawley male rats had intraperitoneal injections of SC (2 mg/kg body weight/day) at 30 min after daily feeding of casein (MD-control), PBEH (7 mg total nitrogen/mL) at 0.053 mL (Low-PBEH), 0.159 mL (Medium-PBEH), 0.478 mL (High-PBEH), or 10 mg donepezil (Positive-control) per kilogram body weight per day through a feeding needle for six weeks. The Normal-control rats had casein feeding without SC injection. PBEH dose-dependently protected against memory deficits determined by passive avoidance test, Y-maze, water-maze, and novel object recognition test in SC-induced rats compared to the MD-control. The High-PBEH group had a similar memory function to the Positive-control group. Systemic insulin resistance determined by HOMA-IR was lower in the PBEH groups than in the Normal-control but not the Positive-control. In parallel with systemic insulin resistance, decreased cholesterol and increased glycogen contents in the hippocampus in the Medium-PBEH and High-PBEH represented reduced brain insulin resistance. PBEH intake prevented the increment of serum TNF-α and IL-1β concentrations in the SC-injected rats. Hippocampal lipid peroxide and TNF-α contents and mRNA TNF-α and IL-1β expression were dose-dependently reduced in PBEH and Positive-control. PBEH decreased the hippocampal acetylcholinesterase activity compared to the MD-control, but not as much as the Positive-control. PBEH intake increased the α-diversity of the gut microbiota compared to the MD-control, and the gut microbiota community was separated from MD-control. In metagenome function analysis, PBEH increased the energy metabolism-related pathways of the gut microbiota, including citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, glycolysis, and amino acid metabolism, which were lower in the MD-control than the Normal-control. In conclusion, alleviated memory deficit by PBEH was associated potentially with not only reducing acetylcholinesterase activity but also improving brain insulin resistance and neuroinflammation potentially through modulating gut microbiota. PBEH intake (1.5–4.5 mL of 7 mg total nitrogen/mL for human equivalent) can be a potential therapeutic agent for improving memory impairment.

Effects of Moringa oleifera in Two Independents Formulation and as Neuroprotective Agent Against Scopolamine-Induced Memory Impairment in Mice

Background

The cognitive deficit has frequently been found in the elderly population. Several studies have shown that every single part of Moringa oleifera, including leaves, roots, and seeds, has abundant micronutrients, such as flavonoids, which improve the neurobehavioral capacity. However, herb parts that display optimal neuropharmacological properties remain unknown.

Objective

We investigate whether M. oleifera seed oil (MOO) or aqueous M. oleifera leaves extracts (MOEs) may ameliorate memory impairment in mice induced with scopolamine (Sco). Additionally, the phytochemical analyses of those two independent formulations were analyzed.

Methods

In this study, 2 ml/kg body weight (BW) of MOO and 500 mg/kg BW of MOE were orally administered to the mice for 28 days, followed by intraperitoneal injection of Sco (1 mg/kg) at the day 22–28 to induce cognitive impairment in those mice.

Results

The Sco group showed memory retention impairment represented by the Y-maze and novel object recognition tests, significant enhancement of acetylcholine esterase (AChE) activity in hippocampus tissue (p < 0.0001), and increased the level of total antioxidant capacity (TAOC) in serum. Interestingly, the Sco-induced memory defect was improved and completely blunted the AChE exacerbation in Sco+MOO-treated mice (p < 0.0001), although the TAOC level was comparable among the groups. Mechanistically, both tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), as a brain-derived neurotrophic factor-receptor, and nuclear factor-kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) protein expressions were enhanced with the hippocampus isolated from the Sco group. Nonetheless, pretreatment with MOO only, but not with MOE, ameliorated the enhanced protein expression levels of TrkB and NF-κB (p < 0.05 and p = 0.09, respectively).

Conclusion

Our data reveal that MOO is preferable to MOE as a neuroprotective as evidenced by improving memory impairment. This effect, at least in part, through inhibiting the AChE and NF-κB activities and modulating the TrkB expression level.

Neuroprotective Effects of Myrtenal in an Experimental Model of Dementia Induced in Rats

There is growing attention on natural substances capable of stimulating the cholinergic system and of exerting antioxidant effects, as potential therapeutic agents in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The aim of the present study is to evaluate the expected neuroprotective mechanisms of myrtenal (M) in an experimental model of dementia in rats. Dementia was induced in male Wistar rats by scopolamine (Sc) administration (0.1 mg/kg for 8 days and 20.0 mg/kg on day 9). The animals were divided into 5 groups (1) Controls; (2) Sc; (3) Sc + Myrtenal (40 mg/kg), (4) Sc + Galantamine (1 mg/kg); (5) Sc + Lipoic acid (30 mg/kg). Changes in recognition memory and habituation were evaluated via the Novel Object Recognition and Open Field tests. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, ACh levels, and changes in oxidative status of the brain were measured biochemically. The histological changes in two brain regions—cortex and hippocampus, were evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively. Myrtenal improved recognition memory and habituation, exerted antioxidant effects and significantly increased ACh brain levels. Histologically, the neuroprotective capacity of myrtenal was also confirmed. For the first time, we have demonstrated the neuroprotective potential of myrtenal in an experimental model of dementia. Our study provides proof-of-concept for the testing of myrtenal, in association with standard of care treatments, in patients affected by cognitive decline.

Anti-Amnesic Effects of Epigallocatechin Gallate on Scopolamine-Induced Learning and Memory Dysfunction in Sprague-Dawley Rats

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is a major flavan-3-ol of green tea polyphenols that exhibits various beneficial health effects, including antioxidant, anti-bacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties. This study aimed to evaluate whether EGCG prevents scopolamine-induced learning and memory impairment in in vivo and ex vivo models. Male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were pre-treated with EGCG (5 mg/kg/day; intraperitoneal injection (i.p.)) for 10 days. Then, EGCG and scopolamine (1 mg/kg/day; i.p.) were applied 60 and 30 min before the behavioral tests, respectively, for another 9 days. EGCG alleviated the cognitive deficits in the Y-maze, passive avoidance, and Morris water maze tests. EGCG showed improved cholinergic functions by decreasing acetylcholinesterase activity in hippocampi dissected from the brain of the rats after the behavioral tests. EGCG also reduced oxidative stress, partly due to increased superoxide dismutase activity and decreased malondialdehyde level in the hippocampi of the rat brains after the behavioral tests. Furthermore, EGCG attenuated the scopolamine-induced blockade of long-term potentiation in organotypic hippocampal tissue of seven-day-old SD rats. Taken together, these results suggested that EGCG is a potential therapeutic agent for alleviating cognitive dysfunction.

Mechanistic Aspects of Apiaceae Family Spices in Ameliorating Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative diseases worldwide. In an effort to search for new strategies for treating AD, natural products have become candidates of choice. Plants are a rich source of bioactive and effective compounds used in treating numerous diseases. Various plant extracts are known to display neuroprotective activities by targeting different pathophysiological pathways in association with the diseases, such as inhibiting enzymes responsible for degrading neurotransmitters, reducing oxidative stress, neuroprotection, inhibiting amyloid plaque formation, and replenishing mitochondrial function. This review presented a comprehensive evaluation of the available scientific literature (in vivo, in vitro, and in silico) on the neuroprotective mechanisms displayed by the extracts/bioactive compounds from spices belonging to the Apiaceae family in ameliorating AD.

α-Pinene: A never-ending story

α-Pinene represents a member of the monoterpene class and is highly distributed in higher plants like conifers, Juniper ssp. and Cannabis ssp. α-Pinene has been used to treat respiratory tract infections for centuries. Furthermore, it plays a crucial role in the fragrance and flavor industry. In vitro assays have shown an enantioselective profile of (+)- and (-)-α-pinene for antibacterial and insecticidal activity, respectively. Recent research has used pre-validated biological structures to synthesize new chemical entities with pharmacological and herbicidal activities. In summary, this review focuses on recent literature covering synthetic pathways of flavor compounds and scaffold hopping based on the α-pinene core domaine, as well as the (enantioselective) activities of α-pinene. Recent approaches for authenticity control of essential oils based on their enantiomeric profile are also presented.

A Review of the Potential Use of Pinene and Linalool as Terpene-Based Medicines for Brain Health: Discovering Novel Therapeutics in the Flavours and Fragrances of Cannabis

"Medicinal cannabis" is defined as the use of cannabis-based products for the treatment of an illness. Investigations of cannabis compounds in psychiatric and neurological illnesses primarily focus on the major cannabinoids, cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), which are hypothesised to benefit multiple illnesses manifesting cognitive impairment, neurodegeneration and neuro-inflammation, as well as chronic pain, epilepsy and post-traumatic stress disorder, respectively. The cannabis plant contains >500 compounds, including terpenes responsible for the flavour and fragrance profiles of plants. Recently, research has begun providing evidence on the potential use of certain plant-derived terpenes in modern medicine, demonstrating anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects of these compounds. This review examined the effects of two key terpenes, pinene and linalool, on parameters relevant to neurological and psychiatric disorders, highlighting gaps in the literature and recommendations for future research into terpene therapeutics. Overall, evidence is mostly limited to preclinical studies and well-designed clinical trials are lacking. Nevertheless, existing data suggests that pinene and linalool are relevant candidates for further investigation as novel medicines for illnesses, including stroke, ischemia, inflammatory and neuropathic pain (including migraine), cognitive impairment (relevant to Alzheimer's disease and ageing), insomnia, anxiety, and depression. Linalool and pinene influence multiple neurotransmitter, inflammatory and neurotrophic signals as well as behaviour, demonstrating psycho-activity (albeit non-intoxicating). Optimising the phytochemical profile of cannabis chemovars to yield therapeutic levels of beneficial terpenes and cannabinoids, such as linalool, pinene and CBD, could present a unique opportunity to discover novel medicines to treat psychiatric and neurological illnesses; however, further research is needed.

Mitigation of oxidative stress with dihydroactinidiolide, a natural product against scopolamine-induced amnesia in Swiss albino mice

The present work describes the neuroprotective efficacy of DHAc under escalated oxidative stress condition in scopolamine-induced amnesic mice. During the toxicity test of DHAc in mice, the acute dose (LD₅₀) is found to be 3.468 mg/kg bw and the sub-acute dose is 0.68 mg/kg bw. Improved cognitive and learning abilities are observed in Morris water maze and Y-maze test in 10 days DHAc (0.68 mg/kg bw) treated scopolamine-induced male Swiss albino mice. In the molecular level these changes are monitored as reduced oxidative load followed by significantly lower lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation, increased superoxide dismutase, catalase, acetylcholinesterase, caspase-3 activity and glutathione content followed by higher expression of anti apoptotic protein bcl-2 in mice brain as compared to scopolamine (1 mg/kg bw) treated mice. Meanwhile real time PCR shows higher expression of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and synaptophysin in DHAc pretreated scopolamine treated mice brain. HPLC analysis suggested its possible blood brain barrier crossing ability. Overall DHAc reversed behavioral anomalies in the scopolamine treated mice via oxidative stress quenching, enhancing antioxidative enzyme activity, enhancing BDNF and synaptophysin mRNA levels and reducing expression of apoptotic protein Bax.

Ancient psychoactive plants in a global village: The ritual use of cannabis in a self-managed community in Catalonia

BACKGROUND

Cannabis is a plant with a rich history of medical, recreational, industrial and spiritual uses. This paper aims to explore drug use rituals as methods of community-controlled use that help maintain a self-regulated and healthy relation to the substance in questions. Furthermore, it explores how cannabis is used in developing spirituality and a sense of community. The ritual use of cannabis is discussed in the context of drug policy.

METHODS

Ethnographic research methods, such as fieldwork, participant observation, in-depth interviews, and qualitative analysis, were used to research a phenomenological community in rural Catalonia, where ancient psychoactive plants (APP), such as ayahuasca and cannabis, are regularly used in a ritual context.

RESULTS

Cannabis has a long history of ritual/spiritual uses and is still being used for such purposes in Catalonia. The rituals are effective harm reduction techniques and can even generate beneficial effects for the individual as well as the community by strengthening bonds between community members. The rituals associated with APP are seen as spiritual or religious practices, as well as forms of self-care and community-care, rather than involving drug dependence or addiction.

CONCLUSION

The contemporary use of APP in Western societies is gaining popularity. International drug policies and the schedule of controlled drugs claim to be based on scientific evidence, but this evidence is limited. The contemporary myopic focus on the risks and harms of drugs overlooks important realities, such as the benefits of non-problematic drug use. These omissions could in part be rectified through the consideration of scientific findings from the field of ethnography regarding the spiritual and community dimensions of drug use.

Activity of Selected Group of Monoterpenes in Alzheimer's Disease Symptoms in Experimental Model Studies-A Non-Systematic Review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia and cognitive function impairment. The multi-faced character of AD requires new drug solutions based on substances that incorporate a wide range of activities. Antioxidants, AChE/BChE inhibitors, BACE1, or anti-amyloid platelet aggregation substances are most desirable because they improve cognition with minimal side effects. Plant secondary metabolites, used in traditional medicine and pharmacy, are promising. Among these are the monoterpenes-low-molecular compounds with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, enzyme inhibitory, analgesic, sedative, as well as other biological properties. The presented review focuses on the pathophysiology of AD and a selected group of anti-neurodegenerative monoterpenes and monoterpenoids for which possible mechanisms of action have been explained. The main body of the article focuses on monoterpenes that have shown improved memory and learning, anxiolytic and sleep-regulating effects as determined by in vitro and in silico tests-followed by validation in in vivo models.

Investigation of alpha-lipoic acid effect on memory impairment considering strain-dependent differences in mice

AIMS

Memory impairment is regarded as one of the most challenging neurological disorders. The present study aimed to investigate behavioral and biochemical differences among similar mouse strains following Scopolamine (SCO) exposure as a widespread memory disturbing agent, and a supremely potent antioxidant, alpha-lipoic acid (ALA).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three sets of mouse strains (i.e. SW, NMRI, and NIH mice) were subjected to 2 mg/kg intraperitoneal SCO and/or 50 mg/kg ALA 30 min before each Morris Water Maze (MWM) trial for five consecutive days. Upon completion of the trials, the hippocampal region of the animals was dissected for histopathological and biochemical analyses.

KEY FINDINGS

The results exhibited significant impairments caused by SCO in behavioral tests, including probe test, escape latency, and distance traveled in two strains of NMRI and NIH. Nevertheless, at swimming speed, SCO had no meaningful effect on SW and NIH strains. The level of oxidative stress parameters including MDA, ROS, and SOD increased, FRAP and TTM levels related to the hippocampus decreased. There was also a significant increase in hippocampal acetylcholinesterase levels, ADP/ATP ratio, p-NFkB, and Cyt-c. Conversely, ALA administration resulted in a significant improvement in SCO-induced spatial learning and memory impairments only in the SW and NIH mice, which was associated with a significant reduction in hippocampal AChE activity, ADP/ATP ratio, ROS and MDA levels, and SOD activity.

SIGNIFICANCE

In addition of highlighting the efficacious role of ALA in cognitive functions, the findings of this study signified the behavioral dissimilarities among similar animal strains in case of different chemical exposures.

Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers. Ethanolic Extract with Antioxidant Properties on Scopolamine-Induced Memory Deficits in a Zebrafish Model of Cognitive Impairment

Hericium erinaceus (H. erinaceus) is a rare and appreciated fungal species belonging to the division Basidiomycota used for centuries in traditional Chinese medicine for its medicinal value. This species of mushrooms brings the most diverse benefits for the human body, and can have beneficial effects for treating Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This study investigated whether ethanolic extract from the fungal biomass of H. erinaceus enhances cognitive function via the action on cholinergic neurons using the scopolamine (SCOP)-induced zebrafish (Danio rerio) model of memory impairment. The ethanolic extract from the fungal biomass of H. erinaceus was previously obtained using an ultrasonic extraction method (UE). The administration of H. erinaceus extract to zebrafish, with a pattern of AD induced by scopolamine, showed an improvement in memory evaluated by behavioral and biochemical tests on brain tissue. These results suggest that H. erinaceus has preventive and therapeutic potentials in managing memory deficits and brain oxidative stress in zebrafish with AD.

Analysing Curcuma caesia fractions and essential oil for neuroprotective potential against anxiety, depression, and amnesia

Scientific pieces of evidence support the pharmacological activity of Curcuma caesia for its antidepressant, analgesic, anticonvulsant and antioxidant effect. Here, we evaluate the bioactivity of essential oil and the various polarity-based solvent partitioned fractions obtained from Curcuma caesia for anti-amnesia, anxiolytic and antidepressant activities using Elevated plus maze and Morris water maze models. The cold maceration technique using methanol was adopted for extraction from dried powdered rhizomes and essential oil was extracted by hydrodistillation method. Partitioning of the methanolic extract based on solvent polarity by hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol was continued, followed by column chromatography of the ethyl acetate fraction. Suspensions were prepared for fractions (dissolved in distilled water) and essential oil (dissolved in tween 20) at 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg after acute toxicity study and were orally administered to Wistar albino female rats after the orientation of hypoxia by sodium nitrite (50 mg/kg) and amnesia by scopolamine (1 mg/kg). Behavioural observations, biochemical and histopathological examinations were carried out for all the treated groups. Diazepam (12 mg/kg) and galantamine (3 mg/kg) were used as standard drugs for this study against hypoxia and amnesia. Data acquired from behavioural, biochemical (acetylcholinesterase, myeloperoxidase, superoxide dismutase, reduced glutathione, catalase) and histopathological studies have illustrated that fraction II acquires highly significant memory-enhancing, anxiolytic and antidepressant effects. Rest fractions (I and III) and essential oil showed moderate efficacy. In prospects, identification of active molecules from the most active fraction (fraction II) and further studies on a molecular basis would substantiate its specific mechanism of neuroprotective action.

Ficus erecta Thunb Leaves Alleviate Memory Loss Induced by Scopolamine in Mice via Regulation of Oxidative Stress and Cholinergic System

We examined the neuropharmacological effects of ethanol extract of Ficus erecta Thunb leaves (EEFE) on cognitive dysfunction in a scopolamine (SCO)-induced memory impairment animal model. Memory impairment was measured using the Y-maze test and passive avoidance task (PAT). For 19 days, EEFE (100 or 200 mg/kg) was treated through oral administration. Treatment with EEFE ameliorated memory impairment in behavioral tests, along with significant protection from neuronal oxidative stress and neuronal cell loss in the brain tissues of SCO-injected mice. Antioxidant and neuroprotective effects of EEFE were further confirmed using in vitro assays. Our findings indicate that the mechanisms of neuroprotection and antioxidation of EEFE are regulated by the cholinergic system, promotion of cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation, and the nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase (HO)-1 signaling activation. The current study proposes that EEFE could be an encouraging plant resource and serve as a potent neuropharmacological drug candidate against neurodegenerative diseases.

Bay Leaf (Laurus Nobilis L.) Incense Improved Scopolamine-Induced Amnesic Rats by Restoring Cholinergic Dysfunction and Brain Antioxidant Status

Bay leaf (Laurus nobilis L.) has been shown to possesses various biological activities such as wound healing activity, antioxidant activity, antibacterial activity, antiviral activity, immunostimulant activity, anticholinergic activity, antifungal activity, insect repellant activity, anticonvulsant activity, antimutagenic activity, and analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity. The present study aimed to investigate whether the bay leaf incense (BL) elicits the memory formation via the action on the cholinergic system using a scopolamine (Sco)-induced rat model. Rats were exposed to BL over 5 min in a smoking chamber apparatus once daily for 22 days, whereas memory impairment was induced by Sco (0.7 mg/kg), a muscarinic receptor antagonist, delivered 30 min before each behavioral test. The phytochemical composition of BL was achieved by gas chromatograph–mass spectrometry (GCMS). Behavioral effects in rats were assessed by Y-maze, radial arm maze (RAM), and novel object recognition (NOR) paradigms. Additionally, the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and the oxidative stress markers in the rat hippocampus were also evaluated. Exposure to BL significantly ameliorated Sco-induced cognitive impairment and oxidative stress in the rat hippocampus. The obtained results suggested that BL-induced ameliorative cognitive effects are mediated by enhancement of the cholinergic system and antioxidant activities.

Amelioration of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in lipopolysaccharide-induced memory impairment using Rosmarinic acid in mice

Oxidative stress plays a pivotal part in the manifestation of neuroinflammation, which further leads to neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease (AD). Systemic administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induces neuroinflammation resulting in memory impairment (MI) and cognitive decline. In this study, we evaluated whether prophylactic administration of Rosmarinic acid (RA), a naturally occurring compound, exerts a neuroprotective effect in LPS-induced MI and cognitive decline. Herein, Swiss albino mice were pre-treated with RA (0.5 mg/kg and 1 mg/kg i.p.) for 28 days and were intermittently exposed to LPS (0.25 mg/kg i.p.) for 7 days. LPS caused poor memory retention and increased cognitive decline in Morris water maze (MWM) and Y maze paradigms respectively. Additionally, LPS increased oxidative stress which was denoted by a decrease in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, decrease in reduced glutathione (GSH) levels, and increased lipid peroxidation in the brain. Imbalance in the cholinergic system was analyzed by measuring the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. Pre-treatment with RA improved memory and behavioral disturbances by alleviating oxidative stress and AChE activity. LPS augmented levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, caspase-3, and c-Jun. Pre-treatment with RA revitalized the elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines and apoptotic proteins. In conclusion, this study showcases the amelioration of MI by RA in LPS-challenged memory and cognitive decline, which could be credited to its anti-oxidant effect, inhibitory effect on both proinflammatory cytokines and apoptotic regulators, and reduction in AChE activity.

Neuroprotective Studies on Polygonum hydropiper L. Essential Oils Using Transgenic Animal Models

Polygonum hydropiper L. and related species are reported to possess neuroprotective potentials. In an attempt to validate its anti-Alzheimer's potentials, leaf oils (Ph. Lo) were extensively evaluated in this study against several in vitro and in vivo models of Alzheimer's disease. The Ph. Lo were tested against pathological targets of Alzheimer's diseases (ADs). The in vitro and in vivo assays were done for cholinesterase inhibition, anti-radical properties and cognitive assessments using transgenic animal models. In preliminary cholinesterase inhibition assays, Ph. Lo were more active against acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2-azinobis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) radicals. Subsequently, Ph. Lo was evaluated for its effects on special memory, exploratory behavior, and coordination using shallow water maze (SWM), Y-maze, open filed, and balance beam tests. Animal pre-genotyping was done via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to confirm amyloid precursor protein (APP) transgene, and after completion of drug therapy, brain homogenates from the cortex and hippocampus were evaluated for cholinesterase and free radical studies. In SWM task, disease control animals treated with 10 mg/kg of Ph. Lo for 5 days exhibited significant improvement in cognitive performance indicated by low escape times on 5th day compared with normal animals. In the Y-maze test, transgenic animals showed higher spontaneous alternation behavior than disease control animals and standard control group animals. Ph. Lo therapy has improved the exploratory behavior and declined anxiety behavior in diseased animals as accessed via open field test. Ph. Lo administration significantly augmented the motor and coordination abilities of transgenic animals when compared to other groups of animals and declined AChE, BChE activities as well as free radicals load in the cortex and hippocampus tissues. Based on our finding, it is concluded that Ph. Lo exhibit significant neuroprotective potentials preliminary due to their anti-radicals and cholinesterase inhibitory activities. Ph. Lo need further detailed studies as potential aromatherapy against neurodegenerative disorders.

Computational and Pharmacological Investigation of (E)-2-(4-Methoxybenzylidene)Cyclopentanone for Therapeutic Potential in Neurological Disorders

Purpose

This study involved the computational and pharmacological evaluation of (E)-2-(4-methoxybenzylidene)cyclopentan-1-one (A2K10).

Methods

In silico studies were conducted through virtual screening. Morris water and Y-maze tests were conducted to evaluate Alzheimer’s disease. Acute epilepsy haloperidol,and hyperalgesia were used to calculate the epilepsy model, with Parkinson’s disease and mechanical allodynia at a dose of 1–10 mg/kg in the mouse model.

Results

A2K10 exhibited the highest binding affinity against α₇ nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (−256.02 kcal/mol). A2K10 decreased escape latency in the Morris water test during different trials. In the Y-maze test, A2K10 dose-dependently increased spontaneous alteration behavior, with maximum effect of 75.5%±0.86%. Furthermore, A2K10 delayed onset of pentylenetetrazole-induced myoclonic jerks and tonic–clonic seizures and decreased duration of tonic–clonic convulsions in mice, with maximum effect of 93.8±5.30, 77.8±2.91, and 12.9±1.99 seconds, respectively. In the haloperidol-induced Parkinson’s disease model, A2K10 significantly prolonged hanging time and reduced tardive dyskinesia. Moreover, A2K10 extended latency in hot-plate hyperalgesia and increased the paw-withdrawal threshold in mechanical allodynia. In toxicity studies, no mortality was observed.

Conclusion

Overall, the results indicated that A2K10 has potential as an anti-Alzheimer’s, antiepileptic, antiparkinsonian, and analgesic therapeutic compound.

Croton argyrophyllus Kunth Essential Oil-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Evaluation of Release Profile, Antioxidant Activity and Cytotoxicity in a Neuroblastoma Cell Line

The essential oil from Croton argyrophyllus Kunth is known for its antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and anticancer activities, and is recognized as a source of phytochemicals for potential use in pharmaceutic and food sectors. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) have been produced to load Croton argyrophyllus (CA) Kunth essential oil (CAEO) and its antioxidant properties evaluated in vitro as a new approach for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Cetyl palmitate SLN loading CAEO (CAEO-SLN) with a mean particle size of 201.4 ± 2.3 nm (polydispersity index 0.211) have been produced by hot high-pressure homogenisation. The release of the oil followed the Korsmeyers-Peppas model. The risk of lipid peroxidation has been determined by applying the production of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) standard assay. The antioxidant activity was determined by the capacity of the antioxidants existing in CAEO to scavenge the stable radical DPPH•. The cytotoxicity of CA Kunth essential oil-loaded SLN (CAEO-SLN) was evaluated in a human cell line SH-SY5Y (derived from human neuroblastoma) by determining the reduction of the yellow dye 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT). Both free essential oil (fEO) and loaded essential oil (CAEO-SLN) were demonstrated to inhibit the Fenton reaction. CAEO-SLN showed DPPH• radical scavenging capacity. The loading of the oil into cetyl palmitate SLN reduced the risk of cytotoxicity.

Neuroprotective effect of Reinwardtia indica against scopolamine induced memory-impairment in rat by attenuating oxidative stress

Reinwardtia indica belongs to Linaceae family and used as a folk medicine in Asian countries. Traditionally, it has been used in the treatment of paralysis and anti-microbial in wound healing, etc. The current study was undertaken in order to investigate the antioxidant and memory protective effect of the alcoholic (99.90%) (AERI) and hydro-alcoholic (70:30) leaves extract (HAERI) of Reinwardtia indica, against scopolamine-induced memory impairment in animals and also tried to determine the possible mechanism of action. In addition, phytochemical profiling of alcoholic leaves extract was also conducted through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Rats were pretreated with AERI, HAERI (dose 250 and 500 mg/kg) and Donepezil (standard drug) along with scopolamine (1 mg/kg) for a period of 14 days followed by different test like elevated plus maze, passive avoidance, and Morris water maze to assess learning and memory ability. Acetylcholine levels, acetylcholinesterase (AChE), antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT & GSH), histopathology of the brain and biochemical test were also performed at the end of the treatment period. The scopolamine treatment resulted in learning and memory deficits which were partially and significantly ameliorated by the AERI at higher dose among other doses of extracts. The AERI at higher dose also counteracted the scopolamine-induced decrease in acetylcholine levels, increase in AChE activity, and decrease in antioxidant enzymes activities. No significant changes observed in the biochemical estimation of all dose of extracts. Histology of brain tissue showed the marked cellular changes in only scopolamine treated group while the standard, AERI and HAERI treated group were showing less damage at hippocampus region of the brain. The phytochemicals found after chemical profiling through GC-MS also supported the activity because of the presence of chemicals already reported for the neuroprotective, memory-enhancing and antioxidant activity, etc. The results demonstrated that the ability of the AERI at higher dose among all doses of extracts has more potential to revert the scopolamine-induced learning and memory deficits in rats by attenuating the decreased level of acetylcholine and antioxidant enzymes.

Phytol loaded PLGA nanoparticles ameliorate scopolamine-induced cognitive dysfunction by attenuating cholinesterase activity, oxidative stress and apoptosis in Wistar rat

OBJECTIVE

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an acquired neurological disorder of cognitive and behavioral impairments, with a long and progressive route. Currently, efforts are being made to develop potent drugs that target multiple pathological mechanisms that drive the successful treatment of AD in human beings. The development of nano-drug delivery systems has recently emerged as an effective strategy to treat AD.

METHODS

In the present study, the protective effect of Phytol and Phytol loaded Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid nanoparticles (Phytol-PLGANPs) were evaluated in Wistar rat scopolamine model of AD.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The consumption of Phytol and Phytol-PLGANPs significantly ameliorated the cognitive deficits caused by scopolamine on spatial and short term memory. Phytol and Phytol-PLGANPs significantly enhanced the cholinergic effect by inhibiting both acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase (AChE & BuChE), β-secretase 1 (BACE1) activity, attenuating macromolecular damage, reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) level by activating antioxidative defense system (Superoxide dismutase and catalase) and restoring glutathione metabolizing enzyme systems (Glutathione S-transferase) and also regulating the apoptotic mediated cell death. Moreover, in vivo toxicity study suggests that Phytol and Phytol-PLGANPs did not cause any adverse pathological alteration in rats treated with a higher concentration of Phytol-PLGANPs (200 mg/kg). Pharmacokinetic study revealed that Phytol-PLGANPs enhanced the biodistribution and sustained the release profile of phytol in the brain and plasma.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the outcome of the study suggests that Phytol and Phytol-PLGANPs act as a potent candidate with better anti-amnesic effects and multi-faceted neuroprotective potential against scopolamine-induced memory dysfunction in Wistar rats.

Evaluation of neuroprotective and anti-amnesic effects of Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. On scopolamine-induced memory impairment in mice

BACKGROUND

Elaeagnus umbellata is abundantly found in Himalayan regions of Pakistan which is traditionally used to treat various health disorders. However, the experimental evidence supporting the anti-amnesic effect is limited. Therefore the study was aimed to evaluate the prospective beneficial effect of E. umbellata on learning and memory in mice.

OBJECTIVES

To assess neuroprotective and anti-amnesic effects of E. umbellata fruit extracts and isolated compounds on the central nervous system.

METHODS

Major phytochemical groups present in methanolic extract of E. umbellata were qualitatively determined. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents were also determined in extract/fractions of E. umbellata. On the basis of in vitro promising anticholinesterases (AChE & BChE) and antioxidant activities observed for CHF. Ext and isolated compound-I (Chlorogenic acid = CGA), they were further evaluated for learning and memory in normal and scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment in mice using memory behavioral tests such as the Y maze and Novel object recognition using standard procedures. The test sample were further assessed for in vivo anticholinesterases (AChE & BChE) and DPPH free radical scavenging activities in mice brain sample and finally validated by molecular docking study using GOLD software.

RESULTS

The extract/fractions and isolated compounds were tested for their anticholinesterase and antioxidant potentials. The CHF. Ext and CGA showed maximum % inhibition of tested cholinesterases and free radicals. The CHF. Ext and CGA reversed the effects of scopolamine in mice. The CHF. Ext and CGA significantly increased the alternate arm returns and % spontaneous alteration performance while escape latency times (second) significantly decreased in Y maze test. The CHF. Ext and CGA significantly increased the time spent with novel object and also increased the discrimination index in the Novel object recognition test. Furthermore, molecular docking was used to validate the mechanism of cholinesterases inhibition of isolated compounds.

CONCLUSION

The data obtained from behavioral and biochemical studies (AChE/BChE and DPPH/ABTS inhibition) have shown that E. umbellata possessed significant memory enhancing potency. These results suggest that E. umbellata extract possess potential antiamnesic effects and amongst the isolated compounds, compound I could be more effective anti-amnesic therapeutics. However, further studies are needed to identify the exact mechanism of action.

Heterogeneous Disease Progression in a Mouse Model of Vascular Cognitive Impairment

Recently, an asymmetric vascular compromise approach that replicates many aspects of human vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) has been reported. The present study aimed to first investigate on the reproducibility in the disease progression of this newly reported VCI model using wild-type C57BL6/J mice. The second aim was to assess how this approach will affect the disease progression of transgenic Alzheimer’s disease (AD) 5XFAD mice subjected to VCI. C57BL6/J and 5XFAD mice were subjected to VCI by placing an ameroid constrictor on the right CCA and a microcoil on the left CCA. Infarcts and hippocampal neuronal loss did not appear predominantly in the right (ameroid side) as expected but randomly in both hemispheres. The mortality rate of C57BL6/J mice was unexpectedly high. Inducing VCI reduced amyloid burden in the hippocampi of 5XFAD mice. Since VCI is known to be complex and complicated, the heterogeneous disease progression observed from this current study shares close resemblance to the clinical manifestation of VCI. This heterogeneity, however, makes it challenging to test novel treatment options using this model. Further study is warranted to tackle the heterogeneous nature of VCI.

Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the Cannabis Plant

Medicinal use of Cannabis sativa L. has an extensive history and it was essential in the discovery of phytocannabinoids, including the Cannabis major psychoactive compound—Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC)—as well as the G-protein-coupled cannabinoid receptors (CBR), named cannabinoid receptor type-1 (CB1R) and cannabinoid receptor type-2 (CB2R), both part of the now known endocannabinoid system (ECS). Cannabinoids is a vast term that defines several compounds that have been characterized in three categories: (i) endogenous, (ii) synthetic, and (iii) phytocannabinoids, and are able to modulate the CBR and ECS. Particularly, phytocannabinoids are natural terpenoids or phenolic compounds derived from Cannabis sativa. However, these terpenoids and phenolic compounds can also be derived from other plants (non-cannabinoids) and still induce cannabinoid-like properties. Cannabimimetic ligands, beyond the Cannabis plant, can act as CBR agonists or antagonists, or ECS enzyme inhibitors, besides being able of playing a role in immune-mediated inflammatory and infectious diseases, neuroinflammatory, neurological, and neurodegenerative diseases, as well as in cancer, and autoimmunity by itself. In this review, we summarize and critically highlight past, present, and future progress on the understanding of the role of cannabinoid-like molecules, mainly terpenes, as prospective therapeutics for different pathological conditions.

Cognitive Facilitation and Antioxidant Effects of an Essential Oil Mix on Scopolamine-Induced Amnesia in Rats: Molecular Modeling of In Vitro and In Vivo Approaches

The present study investigated the capability of an essential oil mix (MO: 1% and 3%) in ameliorating amnesia and brain oxidative stress in a rat model of scopolamine (Sco) and tried to explore the underlying mechanism. The MO was administered by inhalation to rats once daily for 21 days, while Sco (0.7 mg/kg) treatment was delivered 30 min before behavioral tests. Donepezil (DP: 5 mg/kg) was used as a positive reference drug. The cognitive-enhancing effects of the MO in the Sco rat model were assessed in the Y-maze, radial arm maze (RAM), and novel object recognition (NOR) tests. As identified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), the chemical composition of the MO is comprised by limonene (91.11%), followed by γ-terpinene (2.02%), β-myrcene (1.92%), β-pinene (1.76%), α-pinene (1.01%), sabinene (0.67%), linalool (0.55%), cymene (0.53%), and valencene (0.43%). Molecular interactions of limonene as the major compound in MO with the active site of butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) was explored via molecular docking experiments, and Van der Waals (vdW) contacts were observed between limonene and the active site residues SER198, HIS438, LEU286, VAL288, and PHE329. The brain oxidative status and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and BChE inhibitory activities were also determined. MO reversed Sco-induced memory deficits and brain oxidative stress, along with cholinesterase inhibitory effects, which is an important mechanism in the anti-amnesia effect. Our present findings suggest that MO ameliorated memory impairment induced by Sco via restoration of the cholinergic system activity and brain antioxidant status.

Effects of Hypericum scabrum extract on dentate gyrus synaptic plasticity in high fat diet-fed rats

High-fat diet (HFD) can induce deficits in neural function, oxidative stress, and decrease hippocampal neurogenesis. Hypericum (H.) scabrum extract (Ext) contains compounds that could treat neurological disorders. This study aimed to examine the neuroprotective impacts of the H. scabrum Ext on hippocampal synaptic plasticity in rats that were fed HFD. Fifty-four male Wistar rats (220 ± 10 g) were randomly arranged in six groups: (1) HFD group; (2) HFD + Ext300 group; (3) HFD + Ext100 group; (4) Control group; (5) Ext 300 mg/kg group; (6) Ext 100 mg/kg group. These protocols were administrated for 3 months. After this stage, a stimulating electrode was implanted in the perforant pathway (PP), and a bipolar recording electrode was embedded into the dentate gyrus (DG). Long-term potentiation (LTP) was provoked by high-frequency stimulation (HFS) of the PP. Field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) and population spikes (PS) were recorded at 5, 30, and 60 min after HFS. The HFD group exhibited a large and significant decrease in their PS amplitude and EPSP slope as compared to the control and extract groups. In reverse, H. scabrum administration in the HFD + Ext rats reversed the effect of HFD on the PS amplitude and EPSP slope. The results of the study support that H. scabrum Ext can inhibit diminished synaptic plasticity caused by the HFD. These effects are probably due to the extreme antioxidant impacts of the Ext and its capability to scavenge free radicals.

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity and neuroprotection in vitro, molecular docking, and improved learning and memory functions of demethylcurcumin in scopolamine-induced amnesia ICR mice

In this study, demethylcurcumin (DC), a minor constituent in curcuminoids, showed better anti-acetylcholinesterase (anti-AChE) activities, anti-amyloid β peptide aggregation, neuroprotective activities in 6-hydroxydopamine-treated SH-SY5Y cell models, and anti-nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharide-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages than those of curcumin. Based on molecular docking analyses with AChE, the meta-hydroxyl group in DC, nonexistent in curcumin, showed the formation of hydrogen bonds with Ser293 and Tyr341 in the binding sites of AChE. For animal experiments, scopolamine-induced amnesia ICR mice were used to analyze the learning and memory functions of DC in comparison with the positive control donepezil. Mice fed with DC (50 mg kg^-1) or donepezil (5 mg kg^-1) showed improvement and a significant difference compared to those in the control group (P < 0.05, 0.01, or 0.001) in a passive avoidance test and in a water maze probe test. The brain extracts of the mice in the DC or donepezil group showed reduced AChE activities and higher ORAC activities and also showed a significant difference compared to those in the control group (P < 0.05, 0.01, or 0.001). DC might be beneficial for developing functional foods or as a lead compound for the treatment of degenerative disorders.

β-glucan and anisodamine can enhance the immersion immune efficacy of inactivated cyprinid herpesvirus 2 vaccine in Carassius auratus gibelio

As one of the most important fish in freshwater aquaculture, gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) is easily susceptible to Cyprinid herpesvirus 2 (CyHV-2). Immersion vaccination has attracted many researchers due to its simple operation in preventing infectious diseases. However, the unavoidable disadvantage is that the immersion vaccine must be used with adjuvants to get a better performance. In this study, gibel carps were vaccinated by a 60 min bath in a β-propiolactone-inactivated Cyprinid herpesvirus 2, mixed with DTT, β-glucan, anisodamine and scopolamine, respectively. After immunization, the fishs were challenged by CyHV-2 in 2 weeks. By analyzing pathological section, we found that β-glucan, anisodamine and scopolamine groups protected the gibel carp compared to the control group, which was consistent with the trend of survival rate. Specifically, β-glucan group in serum appeared best on lysozyme, TSOD and complement C3. Real time quantitative RT-PCR results demonstrated that in both spleen and head kidney tissues, mRNA expressions of typical Th1 immune response cytokines IL-2 and IFN-γ2 in β-glucan group and anisodamine group were significantly higher than other groups and the level of immunoglobulins related to systemic immunity (IgM) and mucosal immunity (IgZ) were also enhanced in the immune period. DTT group slightly affected immune gene and serum enzyme activity, while did not show an adjuvant effect on survival rate. In addition, four adjuvant groups could obviously inhibit CyHV-2 replication. This study explored and proved the good efficiency of β-glucan or anisodamine as immersion immune adjuvant and also provided reference for improving the efficiency of immersion immunity.

The Potential Production of the Bioactive Compound Pinene Using Whey Permeate

Pinene is a secondary plant metabolite that has functional properties as a flavor additive as well as potential cognitive health benefits. Although pinene is present in low concentrations in several plants, it is possible to engineer microorganisms to produce pinene. However, feedstock cost is currently limiting the industrial scale-up of microbial pinene production. One potential solution is to leverage waste streams such as whey permeate as an alternative to expensive feedstocks. Whey permeate is a sterile-filtered dairy effluent that contains 4.5% weight/weight lactose, and it must be processed or disposed of due its high biochemical oxygen demand, often at significant cost to the producer. Approximately 180 million m3 of whey is produced annually in the U.S., and only half of this quantity receives additional processing for the recovery of lactose. Given that organisms such as recombinant Escherichia coli grow on untreated whey permeate, there is an opportunity for dairy producers to microbially produce pinene and reduce the biological oxygen demand of whey permeate via microbial lactose consumption. The process would convert a waste stream into a valuable coproduct. This review examines the current approaches for microbial pinene production, and the suitability of whey permeate as a medium for microbial pinene production.