Genome Analysis of Latin American Cervical Cancer: Frequent Activation of the PIK3CA Pathway

Mechanisms of KRAS inhibitor resistance in KRAS-mutant colorectal cancer harboring Her2 amplification and aberrant KRAS localization

KRAS-specific inhibitors have shown promising antitumor effects, especially in non-small cell lung cancer, but limited efficacy in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. Recent studies have shown that EGFR-mediated adaptive feedback mediates primary resistance to KRAS inhibitors, but the other resistance mechanisms have not been identified. In this study, we investigated intrinsic resistance mechanisms to KRAS inhibitors using patient-derived CRC cells (CRC-PDCs). We found that KRAS-mutated CRC-PDCs can be divided into at least an EGFR pathway-activated group and a PI3K/AKT pathway-activated group. In the latter group, PDCs with PIK3CA major mutation showed high sensitivity to PI3K+mTOR co-inhibition, and a PDC with Her2 amplification with PIK3CA minor mutation showed PI3K-AKT pathway dependency but lost KRAS-MAPK dependency by cytoplasmic localization of KRAS. In the PDC, Her2 knockout restored KRAS plasma membrane localization and KRAS inhibitor sensitivity. The current study provides insight into the mechanisms of primary resistance to KRAS inhibitors, including aberrant KRAS localization.

Analysis of the progression of cervical cancer in a low-and-middle-income country: From pre-malignancy to invasive disease

To better understand cervical cancer progression, we analyzed RNA from 262 biopsies from women referred for colposcopy. We determined the HPV type and analyzed the expression of 51 genes. HPV31 was significantly more prevalent in precancer than stage 1 cancer and invasive cancer (p < 0.0001), and HPV16 increased in invasive disease (p < 0.0001). CCNE1, MELTF, and ULBP2 were significantly increased in HPV16-positive compared to HPV31 precancers, while NECTIN2 and HLA-E expression decreased. Markers of the innate immune system, DNA repair genes, and cell cycle genes are significantly increased during cancer progression (p = 0.0001). In contrast, the TP53 and RB1 tumor suppressor gene expression is significantly decreased in cancer cells. The T cell markers CD28 and FLT3LG expression decreased in cancer while FOXP3, IDO1, and ULBP2 expression increased. There is a significantly higher survival rate in individuals with increased expression of CD28 (p = 0.0005), FOXP3 (p = 0.0002), IDO1 (p = 0.038), FLT3LG (p = 0.026), APOBEC3B (p = 0.0011), and RUNX3 (p = 0.019), and a significantly lower survival rate in individuals with increased expression of ULBP2 (p = 0.035). These results will help us elucidate the molecular factors influencing the progression of cervical precancer to cancer. Understanding the risk of progression of specific HPV types and sublineages may aid in the triage of positive patients, and better knowledge of the immune response may aid in developing and applying immunotherapies.

Somatic mutations in 3929 HPV positive cervical cells associated with infection outcome and HPV type

Invasive cervical cancers (ICC), caused by HPV infections, have a heterogeneous molecular landscape. We investigate the detection, timing, and HPV type specificity of somatic mutations in 3929 HPV-positive exfoliated cervical cell samples from individuals undergoing cervical screening in the U.S. using deep targeted sequencing in ICC cases, precancers, and HPV-positive controls. We discover a subset of hotspot mutations rare in controls (2.6%) but significantly more prevalent in precancers, particularly glandular precancer lesions (10.2%), and cancers (25.7%), supporting their involvement in ICC carcinogenesis. Hotspot mutations differ by HPV type, and HPV18/45-positive ICC are more likely to have multiple hotspot mutations compared to HPV16-positive ICC. The proportion of cells containing hotspot mutations is higher (i.e., higher variant allele fraction) in ICC and mutations are detectable up to 6 years prior to cancer diagnosis. Our findings demonstrate the feasibility of using exfoliated cervical cells for detection of somatic mutations as potential diagnostic biomarkers.

Insights into the mechanisms and structure of breakage-fusion-bridge cycles in cervical cancer using long-read sequencing

Cervical cancer is caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, has few approved targeted therapeutics, and is the most common cause of cancer death in low-resource countries. We characterized 19 cervical and four head and neck cancer cell lines using long-read DNA and RNA sequencing and identified the HPV types, HPV integration sites, chromosomal alterations, and cancer driver mutations. Structural variation analysis revealed telomeric deletions associated with DNA inversions resulting from breakage-fusion-bridge (BFB) cycles. BFB is a common mechanism of chromosomal alterations in cancer, and our study applies long-read sequencing to this important chromosomal rearrangement type. Analysis of the inversion sites revealed staggered ends consistent with exonuclease digestion of the DNA after breakage. Some BFB events are complex, involving inter- or intra-chromosomal insertions or rearrangements. None of the BFB breakpoints had telomere sequences added to resolve the dicentric chromosomes, and only one BFB breakpoint showed chromothripsis. Five cell lines have a chromosomal region 11q BFB event, with YAP1-BIRC3-BIRC2 amplification. Indeed, YAP1 amplification is associated with a 10-year-earlier age of diagnosis of cervical cancer and is three times more common in African American women. This suggests that individuals with cervical cancer and YAP1-BIRC3-BIRC2 amplification, especially those of African ancestry, might benefit from targeted therapy. In summary, we uncovered valuable insights into the mechanisms and consequences of BFB cycles in cervical cancer using long-read sequencing.

The Intricate Interplay between APOBEC3 Proteins and DNA Tumour Viruses

APOBEC3 proteins are cytidine deaminases that play a crucial role in the innate immune response against viruses, including DNA viruses. Their main mechanism for restricting viral replication is the deamination of cytosine to uracil in viral DNA during replication. This process leads to hypermutation of the viral genome, resulting in loss of viral fitness and, in many cases, inactivation of the virus. APOBEC3 proteins inhibit the replication of a number of DNA tumour viruses, including herpesviruses, papillomaviruses and hepadnaviruses. Different APOBEC3s restrict the replication of different virus families in different ways and this restriction is not limited to one APOBEC3. Infection with DNA viruses often leads to the development and progression of cancer. APOBEC3 mutational signatures have been detected in various cancers, indicating the importance of APOBEC3s in carcinogenesis. Inhibition of DNA viruses by APOBEC3 proteins appears to play a dual role in this process. On the one hand, it is an essential component of the innate immune response to viral infections, and, on the other hand, it contributes to the pathogenesis of persistent viral infections and the progression of cancer. The current review examines the complex interplay between APOBEC3 proteins and DNA viruses and sheds light on the mechanisms of action, viral countermeasures and the impact on carcinogenesis. Deciphering the current issues in the interaction of APOBEC/DNA viruses should enable the development of new targeted cancer therapies.

Cervical cancer treatment update: A Society of Gynecologic Oncology clinical practice statement

Cervical cancer is the most commonly diagnosed gynecologic cancer worldwide. Although the incidence has declined with increased screening and higher uptake of human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination in high-income countries, this disease remains the second highest cause of cancer mortality among women in low- and middle-income countries. In this clinical practice statement, we describe therapies for cervical cancer by treatment setting, as well as quality of life, financial toxicity, and disparities associated with this disease. In addition to chemotherapy and radiation, therapeutic strategies for cervical cancer include immune checkpoint blockade, antiangiogenics, and antibody-drug conjugates. Optimal treatment for recurrent cervical cancer remains an area of unmet need, necessitating further exploration of rational and innovative treatment approaches, including cell and immune-based therapies. Importantly, development of effective therapies for cervical cancer must incorporate strategies to ensure universal equitable access to HPV vaccination, screening, and treatment. Important consequences of the disease and treatment that impact quality of life must also be addressed. Patients with cervical cancer are at increased risk for financial toxicity, which can lead to downstream detrimental effects on physical, financial, and career outcomes. Underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities in gynecologic oncology clinical trials highlights the urgent need for collaborative and focused initiatives to bridge the significant divide and alleviate inequalities in the prevention and treatment of cervical cancer.

The SGK3-Catalase antioxidant signaling axis drives cervical cancer growth and therapy resistance

Cancer cells frequently exhibit aberrant redox homeostasis and adaptation to oxidative stress. Hence abrogation of redox adaptation in cancer cells can be exploited for therapeutic benefit. Here we report SGK3 functions as an anti-oxidative factor to promote cell growth and drug resistance in cervical cancers harboring PIK3CA helical domain mutations. Mechanistically, SGK3 is activated upon oxidative stress and exerts anti-ROS activity by stabilizing and activating the antioxidant enzyme catalase. SGK3 interacts with and phosphorylates catalase, promoting its tetrameric state and activity. Meanwhile, SGK3 phosphorylates GSK3β and protects catalase from GSK3β-β-TrCP mediated ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Furthermore, SGK3 inhibition not only potentiates CDK4/6 inhibitor Palbociclib-mediated cytotoxicity, but also overcomes cisplatin resistance through ROS-mediated mechanisms. These data uncover the role of SGK3 in maintaining redox homeostasis and suggest that the SGK3-catalase antioxidant signaling axis may be therapeutically targeted to improve treatment efficacy for cervical cancers carrying PIK3CA helical domain mutations.

RBM15 m6 A modification-mediated OTUB2 upregulation promotes cervical cancer progression via the AKT/mTOR signaling

Cervical cancer (CC) is a deadly gynecological tumor worldwide. Otubain 2 (OTUB2) has been recently identified as an oncogene in human malignancies. However, its expression and function remain unclear. This work aims to explore the role of OTUB2 in CC progression. Herein, The Cancer Genome Atlas data revealed that OTUB2 expression was significantly upregulated in cervical squamous cell carcinoma and endocervical adenocarcinoma (CESC) and gradually increased with CESC progression; moreover, OTUB2 expression predicted poor outcomes of CESC patients. Then, RT-qPCR and Western blotting were applied to determine mRNA and protein expression in CC and normal cells. Our results confirmed that OTUB2 was highly expressed in CC cell lines. As indicated by CCK-8, Transwell, and flow cytometry results, OTUB2 silencing attenuated proliferative and metastatic capacities of CC cells but promoted CC cell apoptosis. Then, RBM15, an N6-methyladenosine (m6 A) methyltransferase "writer," was also demonstrated to be upregulated in CESC and CC cells. Mechanistically, m6 A RNA immunoprecipitation (Me-RIP) results showed that RBM15 inhibition reduced the m6 A methylation level of OTUB2 in CC cells, leading to the decline of OTUB2 expression. In addition, OTUB2 inhibition deactivated the AKT/mTOR signaling in CC cells. Furthermore, SC-79 (AKT/mTOR activator) partially abated the inhibitory effects of OTUB2 knockdown on the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and the malignant phenotypes of CC cells. In summary, this work showed that RBM15-mediated m6 A modification led to OTUB2 upregulation, thereby promoting malignant behaviors of CC cells via the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway.

Insights into the Mechanisms and Structure of Breakage-Fusion-Bridge Cycles in Cervical Cancer using Long-Read Sequencing

Cervical cancer is caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, has few approved targeted therapeutics, and is the most common cause of cancer death in low-resource countries. We characterized 19 cervical and four head and neck cell lines using long-read DNA and RNA sequencing and identified the HPV types, HPV integration sites, chromosomal alterations, and cancer driver mutations. Structural variation analysis revealed telomeric deletions associated with DNA inversions resulting from breakage-fusion-bridge (BFB) cycles. BFB is a common mechanism of chromosomal alterations in cancer, and this is one of the first analyses of these events using long-read sequencing. Analysis of the inversion sites revealed staggered ends consistent with exonuclease digestion of the DNA after breakage. Some BFB events are complex, involving inter- or intra-chromosomal insertions or rearrangements. None of the BFB breakpoints had telomere sequences added to resolve the dicentric chromosomes and only one BFB breakpoint showed chromothripsis. Five cell lines have a Chr11q BFB event, with YAP1/BIRC2/BIRC3 gene amplification. Indeed, YAP1 amplification is associated with a 10-year earlier age of diagnosis of cervical cancer and is three times more common in African American women. This suggests that cervical cancer patients with YAP1/BIRC2/BIRC3-amplification, especially those of African American ancestry, might benefit from targeted therapy. In summary, we uncovered new insights into the mechanisms and consequences of BFB cycles in cervical cancer using long-read sequencing.

Network modeling suggests HIV infection phenocopies PI3K-AKT pathway mutations to enhance HPV-associated cervical cancer

Women coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and human papillomavirus (HPV) are six times as likely to develop invasive cervical carcinoma compared to those without HIV. Unlike other HIV-associated cancers, the risk of cervical cancer development does not change when HPV/HIV coinfected women begin antiretroviral therapy, suggesting HIV-associated immune suppression is not a key driver of cervical cancer development in coinfected women. Here, we investigated whether the persistent secretion of inflammatory factors in HIV-positive patients on antiretroviral therapy could enhance cancer signaling in HPV-infected cervical cells via endocrine mechanisms. We integrated previously reported HIV-induced secreted inflammatory factors (Hi-SIFs), HIV and HPV virus-human protein interactions, and cervical cancer patient genomic data using network propagation to understand the pathways underlying disease development in HPV/HIV coinfection. Our results pinpointed the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway to be enriched at the interface between Hi-SIFs and HPV-host molecular networks, in alignment with PI3K pathway mutations being prominent drivers of HPV-associated, but HIV independent, cervical cancer development. Furthermore, we experimentally stimulated cervical cells with 14 Hi-SIFs to assess their ability to activate PI3K-AKT signaling. Strikingly, we found 8 factors (CD14, CXCL11, CXCL9, CXCL13, CXCL17, AHSG, CCL18, and MMP-1) to significantly upregulate AKT phosphorylation (pAKT-S473) relative to a phosphate buffered saline control. Our findings suggest that Hi-SIFs cooperate with HPV infection in cervical cells to over-activate PI3K-AKT signaling, effectively phenocopying PI3K-AKT pathway mutations, resulting in enhanced cervical cancer development in coinfected women. Our insights could support the design of therapeutic interventions targeting the PI3K-AKT pathway or neutralizing Hi-SIFs in HPV/HIV coinfected cervical cancer patients.

Extrachromosomal Amplification of Human Papillomavirus Episomes Is a Mechanism of Cervical Carcinogenesis

SIGNIFICANCE

Multimers of the HPV genome are generated in cervical tumors replicating as extrachromosomal episomes, which is associated with deletion and rearrangement of the HPV genome and provides a mechanism for oncogenesis without integration.

Molecular Heterogeneity of Cervical Cancer Among Different Ethnic/Racial Populations

The study aimed to find differential gene mutation profile and gene expression status among different ethnic/racial human populations relevant for cervical cancer pathogenesis. The study was based on freely available datasets of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) of cervical cancer samples in Genomic Data Commons (GDC) data portal. We identified that choline metabolism in cancer and Ras signaling pathways were significantly associated with the Hispanic and Latino group of cervical cancer patients. In these pathways, mutations in the PIK3CA gene, especially E545K, were significantly associated with the Hispanic and LATINO group. We found that AFF3 gene mutation was associated with downregulation of its expression only among the White racial category of cervical cancer cases. Additionally, hypomethylation of the CpG position in the S shore region of the PM20D1 gene was associated with overexpression among the Asian category of cervical cancer cases. Heterogeneity of the molecular profile of AFF3 and PM20D1 gene among racial groups reflects the potential of differential targeted therapy of cervical cancer.

Single-cell RNA-sequencing dissects cellular heterogeneity and identifies two tumor-suppressing immune cell subclusters in HPV-related cervical adenosquamous carcinoma

The intratumor heterogeneity of human papillomavirus (HPV)-related cervical cancer remains poorly defined. We performed single-cell RNA sequencing on 18 046 individual cells derived from two HPV-related cervical adenosquamous carcinoma samples to analyze the transcriptional heterogeneity of both epithelial and immune constituents, identifying seven epithelial (Epi1-7) and 11 immune subclusters. Based on expression of known cervical cancer markers, Epi1-2 primarily displayed features of adenocarcinoma, whereas Epi3-6 were instead characterized by features of squamous carcinoma. Our analyses also revealed that hypoxia and Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene signaling were highly represented within Epi1; metabolic pathways mediating glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation were enriched in Epi2-4; while Epi5 was enriched in p53 pathway components and features of epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Moreover, CD8⁺ FGFBP2⁺ T cells and FGFBP2⁺ natural killer cells were found to display high levels of cytotoxic effectors (GZMA, GZMB, GNLY, and PRF1) and low levels of inhibitory markers (PDCD1, TIGIT, and CTLA4), such that tumor infiltration by these populations was positively associated with survival in a cohort of n = 165 patients with HPV-related cervical cancer from The Cancer Genome Atlas database (p = 0.017 and 0.014, respectively). These results shed new light on the intratumor heterogeneity of HPV-related cervical adenosquamous carcinoma, which will help to refine diagnostic and treatment approaches.

Cervical cancer heterogeneity: a constant battle against viruses and drugs

Cervical cancer is the first identified human papillomavirus (HPV) associated cancer and the most promising malignancy to be eliminated. However, the ever-changing virus subtypes and acquired multiple drug resistance continue to induce failure of tumor prevention and treatment. The exploration of cervical cancer heterogeneity is the crucial way to achieve effective prevention and precise treatment. Tumor heterogeneity exists in various aspects including the immune clearance of viruses, tumorigenesis, neoplasm recurrence, metastasis and drug resistance. Tumor development and drug resistance are often driven by potential gene amplification and deletion, not only somatic genomic alterations, but also copy number amplifications, histone modification and DNA methylation. Genomic rearrangements may occur by selection effects from chemotherapy or radiotherapy which exhibits genetic intra-tumor heterogeneity in advanced cervical cancers. The combined application of cervical cancer therapeutic vaccine and immune checkpoint inhibitors has become an effective strategy to address the heterogeneity of treatment. In this review, we will integrate classic and recently updated epidemiological data on vaccination rates, screening rates, incidence and mortality of cervical cancer patients worldwide aiming to understand the current situation of disease prevention and control and identify the direction of urgent efforts. Additionally, we will focus on the tumor environment to summarize the conditions of immune clearance and gene integration after different HPV infections and to explore the genomic factors of tumor heterogeneity. Finally, we will make a thorough inquiry into completed and ongoing phase III clinical trials in cervical cancer and summarize molecular mechanisms of drug resistance among chemotherapy, radiotherapy, biotherapy, and immunotherapy.

Genomic landscape, immune characteristics and prognostic mutation signature of cervical cancer in China

Purpose

This study aimed to analyse the genomic alteration profiles and immune characteristics of a cohort of Chinese cervical cancer patients to understand why certain patients benefited from molecular targeted therapies and immunotherapy as well as their prognostic significance.

Methods

PD-L1 expression and clinicopathological information were obtained from 98 cervical cancer patients. Differences in PD-L1 expression and gene mutations between squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and adenocarcinoma (AC) were analysed by the chi-square test or Fisher's exact test. Differences in gene mutations between our cohort and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) cohort were tested by Fisher's exact test. Logistic regression was used to analyse factors influencing TMB-high.

Results

Positive PD-L1 expression was significantly higher in cervical SCC than in cervical AC (87% vs. 39%, p < 0.001). Frequently mutated genes in cervical cancer included the PIK3CA, KMT2D, and KMT2C genes, among others. PIK3CA gene mutation rates were significantly higher in SCC than in AC (p = 0.004). The TERT gene mutation rate was significantly higher in our cohort than in the TCGA cohort (12% vs. 1%, p < 0.001). The independent predictors of high TMB were KMT2C and LRP1B gene mutations (p < 0.05). We also found that PTEN mutations were associated with worse survival (median PFS, 12.16 vs. 21.75 months, p = 0.0024).

Conclusion

Cervical SCC and AC have different molecular profiles and immune characteristics, suggesting that targeted treatments for SCC and AC patients may improve clinical outcomes. KMT2C and LRP1B gene mutations are independent predictors of TMB-high status in cervical cancer. We also proposed the prognostic value of PTEN mutations.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12920-022-01376-9.

HPV16 E7 Nucleotide Variants Found in Cancer-Free Subjects Affect E7 Protein Expression and Transformation

The human papillomavirus (HPV) type 16 E7 oncogene is critical to carcinogenesis and highly conserved. Previous studies identified a preponderance of non-synonymous E7 variants amongst HPV16-positive cancer-free controls compared to those with cervical cancer. To investigate the function of E7 variants, we constructed full-length HPV16 E7 genes and tested variants at positions H9R, D21N, N29S, E33K, T56I, D62N, S63F, S63P, T64M, E80K, D81N, P92L, and P92S (found only in controls); D14E, N29H cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN2), and P6L, H51N, R77S (CIN3). We determined the steady-state level of cytoplasmic and nuclear HPV16 E7 protein. All variants from controls showed a reduced level of E7 protein, with 7/13 variants having lower protein levels. In contrast, 2/3 variants from the CIN3 precancer group had near-wild type E7 levels. We assayed the activity of representative variants in stably transfected NIH3T3 cells. The H9R, E33K, P92L, and P92S variants found in control subjects had lower transforming activity than D14E and N29H variants (CIN2), and the R77S (CIN3) had activity only slightly reduced from wild-type E7. In addition, R77S and WT E7 caused increased migration of NIH3T3 cells in a wound-healing assay compared with H9R, E33K, P92L, and P92S (controls) and D14E (CIN2). These data provide evidence that the E7 variants found in HPV16-positive cancer-free women are partially defective for transformation and cell migration, further demonstrating the importance of fully active E7 in cancer development.

The human ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily

The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily comprises membrane proteins that efflux various substrates across extra- and intracellular membranes. Mutations in ABC genes cause 21 human disorders or phenotypes with Mendelian inheritance, including cystic fibrosis, adrenoleukodystrophy, retinal degeneration, cholesterol, and bile transport defects. To provide tools to study the function of human ABC transporters we compiled data from multiple genomics databases. We analyzed ABC gene conservation within human populations and across vertebrates and surveyed phenotypes of ABC gene mutations in mice. Most mouse ABC gene disruption mutations have a phenotype that mimics human disease, indicating they are applicable models. Interestingly, several ABCA family genes, whose human function is unknown, have cholesterol level phenotypes in the mouse. Genome-wide association studies confirm and extend ABC traits and suggest several new functions to investigate. Whole-exome sequencing of tumors from diverse cancer types demonstrates that mutations in ABC genes are not common in cancer, but specific genes are overexpressed in select tumor types. Finally, an analysis of the frequency of loss-of-function mutations demonstrates that many human ABC genes are essential with a low level of variants, while others have a higher level of genetic diversity.

Role of Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase and Its Catalytic Unit PIK3CA in Cervical Cancer: A Mini-Review

In complicated disorders like cancer, signaling pathways form a tangled network. Targeting one gene may result in an unfavorable reaction from another off-target gene. Such entwined complexities may result in treatment resistance or failure in cancer patients. The PI3K/Akt/mTOR (phosphoinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin) pathway is dysregulated in cervical cancer and is used as a biomarker for therapy. PI3K is a kinase that consists of a regulatory and catalytic domain and has phosphorylation capability. Class I components like the catalytic part (PIK3CA and PIK3CD) and regulatory part (like PIK3R1, PIK3R2, PIK3R3, and PIK3R5) are associated with oncogenesis and growth factors in cervical cancer. This review is aimed at discussing the involvement of the PI3K component of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR network in cervical cancer. Specifically, class I catalytic subunit PIK3CA has been identified as a pharmacological target, making it therapeutically significant. Apart from discussing the function of PI3K and PIK3CA in cervical cancer, we also discuss their inhibitors, which may be beneficial in treating cervical cancer.

Squamous and Glandular Epithelial Tumors of the Cervix: A Pragmatical Review Emphasizing Emerging Issues in Classification, Diagnosis, and Staging

Squamous cell carcinoma is the most frequent epithelial malignant tumor of the cervix and among the most frequent neoplasm in women worldwide. Endocervical adenocarcinoma is the second most common malignancy. Both tumors and their precursors are currently classified based on human papillomavirus status, with prognostic and predictive value. Various prognostic biomarkers and alternative morphologic parameters have been recently described and could be used in the management of these patients. This pragmatical review highlights recent developments, emerging issues as well as controversial areas regarding the cause-based classification, diagnosis, staging, and prognostic parameters of epithelial malignant tumors of the cervix.

Genomic alterations associated with mutational signatures, DNA damage repair and chromatin remodeling pathways in cervical carcinoma

Despite recent advances in the prevention of cervical cancer, the disease remains a leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women worldwide. By applying the GISTIC2.0 and/or the MutSig2CV algorithms on 430 whole-exome-sequenced cervical carcinomas, we identified previously unreported significantly mutated genes (SMGs) (including MSN, GPX1, SPRED3, FAS, and KRT8), amplifications (including NFIA, GNL1, TGIF1, and WDR87) and deletions (including MIR562, PVRL1, and NTM). Subset analyses of 327 squamous cell carcinomas and 86 non-squamous cell carcinomas revealed previously unreported SMGs in BAP1 and IL28A, respectively. Distinctive copy number alterations related to tumors predominantly enriched for *CpG- and Tp*C mutations were observed. CD274, GRB2, KRAS, and EGFR were uniquely significantly amplified within the Tp*C-enriched tumors. A high frequency of aberrations within DNA damage repair and chromatin remodeling genes were detected. Facilitated by the large sample size derived from combining multiple datasets, this study reveals potential targets and prognostic markers for cervical cancer.

mTOR Pathway Activation Assessed by Immunohistochemistry in Cervical Biopsies of HPV-associated Endocervical Adenocarcinomas (HPVA): Correlation With Silva Invasion Patterns

The Silva pattern of invasion, recently introduced to stratify patients at risk for lymph node metastases in human papillomavirus-associated endocervical adenocarcinomas (HPVAs), can only be assessed in cone and loop electrosurgical excision procedure excisions with negative margins or in a hysterectomy specimen. Previous studies found associations between destructive stromal invasion patterns (Silva patterns B and C) and mutations in genes involved in the MEK/PI3K pathways that activate the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. The primary aim of this study was to use cervical biopsies to determine whether markers of mTOR pathway activation associate with aggressive invasion patterns in matched excision specimens. The status of the markers in small biopsy specimens should allow us to predict the final and biologically relevant pattern of invasion in a resection specimen. Being able to predict the final pattern of invasion is important, since prediction as Silva A, for example, might encourage conservative clinical management. If the pattern in the resection specimen is B with lymphovascular invasion or C, further surgery can be performed 34 HPVA biopsies were evaluated for expression of pS6, pERK, and HIF1α. Immunohistochemical stains were scored semiquantitatively, ranging from 0 to 4+ with scores 2 to 4+ considered positive, and Silva pattern was determined in follow-up excisional specimens. Silva patterns recognized in excisional specimens were distributed as follows: pattern A (n=8), pattern B (n=4), and pattern C (n=22). Statistically significant associations were found comparing pS6 and pERK immunohistochemistry with Silva pattern (P=0.034 and 0.05, respectively). Of the 3 markers tested, pERK was the most powerful for distinguishing between pattern A and patterns B and C (P=0.026; odds ratio: 6.75, 95% confidence interval: 1.111-41.001). Although the negative predictive values were disappointing, the positive predictive values were encouraging: 90% for pERK, 88% for pS6 and 100% for HIF1α. mTOR pathway activation assessed by immunohistochemistry in cervical biopsies of HPVA correlate with Silva invasion patterns.

Germline variants in hereditary breast cancer genes are associated with early age at diagnosis and family history in Guatemalan breast cancer

Purpose

Mutations in hereditary breast cancer genes play an important role in the risk for cancer.

Methods

Cancer susceptibility genes were sequenced in 664 unselected breast cancer cases from Guatemala. Variants were annotated with ClinVar and VarSome.

Results

A total of 73 out of 664 subjects (11%) had a pathogenic variant in a high or moderate penetrance gene. The most frequently mutated genes were BRCA1 (37/664, 5.6%) followed by BRCA2 (15/664, 2.3%), PALB2 (5/664, 0.8%), and TP53 (5/664, 0.8%). Pathogenic variants were also detected in the moderate penetrance genes ATM, BARD1, CHEK2, and MSH6. The high ratio of BRCA1/BRCA2 mutations is due to two potential founder mutations: BRCA1 c.212 + 1G > A splice mutation (15 cases) and BRCA1 c.799delT (9 cases). Cases with pathogenic mutations had a significantly earlier age at diagnosis (45 vs 51 years, P < 0.001), are more likely to have had diagnosis before menopause, and a higher percentage had a relative with any cancer (51% vs 37%, P = 0.038) or breast cancer (33% vs 15%, P < 0.001).

Conclusions

Hereditary breast cancer mutations were observed among Guatemalan women, and these women are more likely to have early age at diagnosis and family history of cancer. These data suggest the use of genetic testing in breast cancer patients and those at high risk as part of a strategy to reduce breast cancer mortality in Guatemala.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10549-021-06305-5.

Genomic Characterization of HPV-related and Gastric-type Endocervical Adenocarcinoma: Correlation With Subtype and Clinical Behavior

The majority of endocervical adenocarcinomas (EAs) are caused by human papillomavirus (HPV). Gastric-type EA, the second most common EA and unrelated to HPV, is biologically different with a more aggressive clinical course. Our knowledge of the molecular fingerprint of these important EA types and its role in diagnosis, prognosis and management is still evolving. Thus, we sought to evaluate the genomic profile of HPV-related and gastric EA. Clinical information including patient outcome was gathered for 56 tumors (45 HPV-associated and 11 gastric-type) surveying evaluated by a targeted massively parallel sequencing assay (OncoPanel platform) which surveys exonic DNA sequences of 447 cancer genes and 191 regions across 60 genes for rearrangement detection. KRAS, TP53, and PIK3CA were the most commonly mutated genes (10, 10, and 9 cases, respectively). Alterations in TP53, STK11, CDKN2A, ATM, and NTRK3 were significantly more common in gastric-type EA (P<0.05, Fisher exact test). Disease recurrence and/or death occurred in 14/49 (29%) cases with clinical information available 7 HPV-related (18% of HPV-related cases with clinical information available) and 7 gastric-type (64% of gastric-type cases with clinical information available). Tumors associated with adverse outcome, regardless of histotype, more commonly had alterations in KRAS (2 HPV-related, 4 gastric-type), GNAS (3 HPV-related, 1 gastric-type), and CDKN2A (0 HPV-related, 3 gastric type) compared with indolent-behaving cases (P<0.05, Fisher exact test). A total of 8/56 (14%) tumors harbored at least one actionable mutation; of these, 6 (75%) were associated with recurrence and/or cancer-related death. Copy number variations were detected in 45/56 cases (80%). The most frequent were chromosome 20 gain and 16q loss, identified in 7 cases each (all HPV-associated EA). The mutational profile of EA is diverse and correlates with clinical behavior and EA subtype. Thus, targeted sequencing assays can potentially serve as a diagnostic and prognostic tool. It can also identify targetable alterations, which may benefit patients with recurrent/metastatic disease.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence of therapeutic targets in cervical cancer

Cervical Cancer (CC) is a significantly prevalent disease in developing countries. Currently, targeted therapies are not a primary standard of care in CC. This information could be crucial for developing directed therapies and patient screening for biomarkers that would allow personalised treatment of CC. This systematic review aimed to estimate the prevalence of potential therapeutic targets such as the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and the PI3K/Akt/mTOR and Ras/Raf/MAPK pathways in patients with CC, identified through genomic and non-genomic testing. Studies were identified through an ad-hoc search strategy from the available on MEDLINE (Ovid), CENTRAL, LILACS, SCOPUS, through the Clinical Trial registry on Clinicaltrials.gov, International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, RENIS (Argentine National Registry of Health Research) and grey literature sources. We included 74 studies which represented a total pool of 7,862 participants. Forty-five studies informed mutations of EGFR, with a combined positivity rate of 53% (95%CI: 45%-60%; I2 = 95%). Twenty studies informed the presence of mutations in PIK3CA with a combined positivity rate of 30% (95%CI: 21%-39%; I2 = 96%). Twenty-three studies reported a mutation in Ras, with a combined positivity rate of 14% (95%CI: 8%-21%; I2 = 95%). Raf mutations were informed in six studies. Six studies informed the presence of Akt mutations, two studies informed mTOR mutations and only one study reported mutations of MAPK. The most frequently described therapeutic targets were EGFR, and the PIK3CA and Ras pathways, though inconsistency in positivity rates was significant. Our study did not allow the identification of any specific clinical characteristics that might explain the observed heterogeneity. Despite the overall good quality of the included studies, the applicability of these results to patients' general population with CC is still unclear.

Tumor Typing of Endocervical Adenocarcinoma: Contemporary Review and Recommendations From the International Society of Gynecological Pathologists

The incidence of endocervical adenocarcinoma, the second most common cervical cancer in the world, has been on the rise. While most cervical cancers are squamous cell carcinomas and associated with high-risk oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV), approximately 15% of endocervical adenocarcinomas, which now represent about one quarter of all cervical cancers, are HPV-independent. In this review, we will focus on the shortcomings of historical histologic classification systems of female genital tract tumors as they pertain to endocervical adenocarcinomas, and we will highlight the advantages of the new International Endocervical Adenocarcinoma Criteria and Classification system, which forms the basis for the WHO 2020 classification. We will cover the various histologic types, subtypes, and variants of endocervical adenocarcinoma with regard to morphology, immunophenotype, molecular genetics, HPV status and differential diagnosis, and we will provide International Society of Gynecological Pathologists recommendations for diagnosing these tumors.

The prognostic significance of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in cervical cancer

Objective

To predict the prognosis of cervical cancer, we constructed a novel model with 5 specific cell types and identified a potential biomarker.

Methods

We employed CIBERSORT and xCell method to evaluate the abundances of 23 cells types in tumor microenvironment. Five specific cell types were filtrated to determine different immunotypes by applying least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) Cox regression method. The expression of immune checkpoints (ICPs) and effectors were validated by immunohistochemistry. Correlation analysis was performed to examine the relevance between PIK3CA mutational status and ICPs.

Results

Unsupervised clustering of patients on the basis of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes and fibroblasts identified patients with shorter overall survival (OS) (hazard ratio [HR]=3.0729; 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.5103–6.2522; p=0.0118). An immunoscore (IS) signature consisting of 5 immune cell types infiltrating in tumor core (CD8T, activated NK cells, neutrophils, activated mast cells, macrophages) was constructed using LASSO Cox regression analysis. Receiver operating characteristic curves confirmed that the area under the curve of IS was significantly higher to that of International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics staging alone (0.637 vs. 0.55). Survival analysis revealed patients in high IS group exhibited a poorer OS (HR=3.0113; 95% CI=1.8746–4.8373; p<0.0001). The multivariate analysis indicated the IS was an independent prognostic factor. In addition, the lower IS related to higher expression of ICPs and neoantigen load.

Conclusions

The identification of IS in cervical cancer tissues could facilitate patient risk stratification and selection of immunotherapeutic responses, but more prospective studies are needed to assess its reliability.

Genomic landscape analyses in cervical carcinoma and consequences for treatment

Where we are on the road to 'tailor-made' precision medicine for drug-resistant cervical carcinoma? We explored studies about analyses of viral and human genomes, epigenomes and transcriptomes, DNA mutation analyses, their importance in detecting HPV sequences, mechanisms of drug resistance to established and targeted therapies with small molecule or therapeutic antibodies, to radiosensitivity and to chemoradiotherapy. The value of repurposing of old drugs initially approved for other disease indications and now considered for cervix cancer therapy is also discussed. The microbiome influences drug response and survival too. HPV genomic integration sites were less significant. Nomograms (Lee et al., 2013) even outperformed FIGO staging regarding prediction of five-year overall survival times. We conclude that there are still many loose threads to be followed up, before coherent conclusions for individualized therapy of drug-resistant cervical carcinoma can be drawn.

The D2 and D3 Sublineages of Human Papilloma Virus 16-Positive Cervical Cancer in Guatemala Differ in Integration Rate and Age of Diagnosis

Human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 displays substantial sequence variation; four HPV16 lineages (A, B, C, and D) have been described as well as multiple sublineages. To identify molecular events associated with HPV16 carcinogenesis, we evaluated viral variation, the integration of HPV16, and somatic mutation in 96 cervical cancer samples from Guatemala. A total of 65% (62/96) of the samples had integrated HPV16 sequences and integration was associated with an earlier age of diagnosis and premenopausal disease. HPV16 integration sites were broadly distributed in the genome, but in one tumor, HPV16 integrated into the promoter of the IFN regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) gene, which plays an important role in the regulation of the IFN response to viral infection. The HPV16 D2 and D3 sublineages were found in 23% and 30% of the tumors, respectively, and were significantly associated with adenocarcinoma. D2-positive tumors had a higher rate of integration, earlier age of diagnosis, and a lower rate of somatic mutation, whereas D3-positive tumors were less likely to integrate, had later age of diagnosis, and exhibited a higher rate of somatic mutation. In conclusion, Guatemalan cervical tumors have a high frequency of very high-risk HPV16 D2 and D3 sublineages harboring distinct histology, which may help guide future therapeutic strategies to target the tumor and reduce recurrence. SIGNIFICANCE: This study details the biological and molecular properties of the most pathogenic forms of HPV16, the cause of the majority of cervical cancers.

Cervical adenocarcinoma: integration of HPV status, pattern of invasion, morphology and molecular markers into classification

Cervical adenocarcinoma is a heterogenous group of tumours with various aetiologies, molecular drivers, morphologies, response to treatment and prognosis. It has become evident that human papillomavirus (HPV) infection does not drive all adenocarcinomas, and appropriate classification is critical for patient management, especially in the era of the HPV vaccine and HPV-only screening. Identified as one of the most important developments in gynaecological pathology during the past 50 years, the separation of cervical adenocarcinomas into HPV-associated (HPVA) and HPV-independent has resulted in a transformation of the classification system for cervical adenocarcinomas. HPVA has been traditionally subclassified by morphology, such as usual type (UEA), mucinous and villoglandular, etc. However, it has become evident that cell type-based histomorphological classification is not clinically meaningful, and the newly proposed International Endocervical Adenocarcinoma Criteria and Classification (IECC) is a necessary and relevant break from this prior system. Non-HPV-associated adenocarcinomas can be divided by their distinct morphology and molecular genomics with very different responses to standard therapies and potential for future targeted therapies. These include gastric-type, clear-cell, mesonephric and endometrioid adenocarcinomas. So-called 'serous' carcinomas of the cervix probably represent morphological variants of UEA or drop metastases from uterine or adnexal serous carcinomas, and the existence of true cervical serous carcinomas is in question. This review will discuss the advances since WHO 2014, and how HPV status, pattern of invasion as described by Silva and colleagues, histological features and molecular markers can be used to refine diagnosis and prognostication for patients with cervical adenocarcinoma.

Identification of driver genes regulating immune cell infiltration in cervical cancer by multiple omics integration

Cervical cancer (CC) is one of the most common cancers in women. However, copy number alteration (CNA)-driven dysregulated genes and their functions in CC are still rarely investigated. In the present study, we conducted integrative analysis of CNA and gene expression data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) cervical cancer to identify dysregulated genes triggered by CNAs. The integration of copy number status and RNA expression revealed 763 amplified and 1,391 deleted genes significantly dysregulated by the CNAs (P-value < 1e-8). Among these CNA genes, five driver genes, including PI3KCA, PI3KCB, DVL3, WWTR1, and ERBB2, exhibited a strong association with immune cell infiltration, suggesting that the pathways that they participate in may be involved in regulating immune cell infiltration. Moreover, we also observed that the genes of immunotherapeutic targets were abundantly expressed in the wild-type samples, suggesting that immunotherapy based on these immunotherapeutic targets may be applied to wild-type samples. In addition, the two CNA driver genes, DVL3 and ERBB2, might be sensitive and resistant biomarkers for examining the tumor's response to chemoradiotherapy, respectively. Particularly, the expression of ERBB2 was also observed to be higher in responders of chemotherapy than non-responders. Furthermore, a subset of CNA genes was identified to predict the prognosis of cervical cancer. In summary, our systematic data analysis of these CNA genes not only improved our understanding of the veiled mechanism behind immune cell infiltration, but also provided the potential clinical application of these CNA genes in cervical cancer.

Clinicopathological and biological analysis of PIK3CA mutation and amplification in cervical carcinomas

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the mutation and amplification status of the phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit α (PIK3CA) gene, as well as the association with clinicopathological characteristics and prognosis, in Japanese patients with cervical cancer. Fluorescence in situ hybridization and polymerase chain reaction were performed to assess PIK3CA gene amplification and mutation. The inhibitors temsirolimus and NVP-BEZ235 were used to inactivate the phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT serine/threonine kinase (AKT)/mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase (mTOR) pathway to clarify the roles of PI3K/AKT activation in cervical carcinoma cells harboring associated mutations. Four somatic point mutations (4/71, 5.6%) were found in exon 20 in cervical squamous cell carcinoma samples, whereas three (3/53, 5.7%) were found in exon 9 in cervical adeno/adenosquamous cell carcinoma samples. Amplification of PIK3CA was also observed in this study and amplification was more commonly found in adeno/adenosquamous carcinomas than in cervical squamous cell carcinomas (20.7 vs. 1.4%, respectively, P=0.0003). No significant correlation was obesrved between PIK3CA amplification and progression free survival (P=0.7576) or overall survival (P=0.8859). Moreover, no association between PIK3CA mutation and sensitivity to PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibitors was observed in cervical carcinoma cells. These results suggest that in Japanese patients with cervical cancer, PIK3CA mutation and amplification cannot act as biomarkers for individualized molecular targeted therapy.

Association of PIK3CA and MDM2 SNP309 with Cervical Squamous Cell Carcinoma in a Philippine Population

Background: PIK3CA and MDM2 SNP309 have been studied to be associated with cervical cancer. PIK3CA mutation is associated with poor treatment response and low survival rate while MDM2 is associated with tumorigenesis and poor prognosis in cervical cancer. Thus, we determined the prevalence of PIK3CA and MDM2 mutations in Filipino cervical cancer patients. Methods: Twenty-eight formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded cervical squamous cell carcinoma and 16 non-malignant cervix tissue biopsies of Filipino patients were subjected to PIK3CA gene and MDM2 SNP309 (rs2279744) analysis. Results: PIK3CA gene was found mutated in three (10.71 %) out of 28 cervical cancer patients included in this study. Among the HPV-negative cervical cancer patients, two (28.57 %) were positive for PIK3CA mutation and only one (4.76 %) tested positive among the HPV-positive cervical cancer patients. MDM2 SNP309 analysis revealed that T allele (71.43%) was more common in cervical cancer patients compared to the control group. TG genotype (p = 0.03; OR = 0.18, 95% CI 0.04-0.76) was associated with lower rates of cervical cancer when TT genotype was used as a reference point. Conclusion: PIK3CA gene mutation was present among Filipino cervical cancer patients and not in control patients. MDM2 SNP309 analysis revealed that TG genotype has lower association to cervical cancer when compared with the TT and GG genotypes.

Cervical Glandular Neoplasia: Classification and Staging

Endocervical adenocarcinomas (EAs) account for 25% of all primary cervical carcinomas. Approximately 85% of EAs are driven by high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, the most common of which is the so-called usual type endocervical adenocarcinomas. Non-HPV-driven subtypes harbor distinct clinicopathologic features and prognosis and have been increasingly recognized in recent years, which has led to efforts to improve classification of EA based on clinically relevant and reproducible criteria. This review discusses a recently proposed classification system, the International Endocervical Adenocarcinoma Criteria and Classification, which uniquely integrates morphology, cause/pathogenesis, and biological behavior of HPV and non-HPV-driven subtypes of EA.

HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer in the HIV/AIDS Patient

Since their discovery as the etiologic agents of cervical cancer in the mid-1970s, human papillomaviruses (HPVs) have been linked with a growing number of epithelial-derived tumors, including head and neck squamous cell carcinomas. HPV demonstrates a particular predilection for causing tumors of the oropharynx, with the majority of cases involving infection with high-oncogenic risk HPV-16. People living with HIV are at increased risk of infection with HPV- and HPV-related oral complications even with adequate control of their HIV infection with antiretroviral therapy. In this chapter, we discuss the molecular mechanisms that underlie HPV-mediated oncogenesis in the oropharynx. We also describe the progress that has been made in understanding the epidemiology of oral HPV infection and the determinants of oral HPV-related pathology. Finally, we examine what can be done to treat and prevent oral HPV infection, benign lesions, and cancer, particularly in the context of the HIV-positive patient.

Comprehensive genomic variation profiling of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and cervical cancer identifies potential targets for cervical cancer early warning

Background

To better understand the pathogenesis of cervical cancer (CC), we systematically analysed the genomic variation and human papillomavirus (HPV) integration profiles of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and CC.

Methods

We performed whole-genome sequencing or whole-exome sequencing of 102 tumour-normal pairs and human papillomavirus probe capture sequencing of 45 CCs, 44 CIN samples and 25 normal cervical samples, and constructed strict integrated workflow of genomic analysis.

Results

Mutational analysis identified eight significantly mutated genes in CC including four genes (FAT1, MLL3, MLL2 and FADD), which have not previously been reported in CC. Targetable alterations were identified in 55.9% of patients. In addition, HPV integration breakpoints occurred in 97.8% of the CC samples, 70.5% of the CIN samples and 42.8% of the normal cervical samples with HPV infection. Integrations of high-risk HPV strains in CCs, including HPV16, 18, 33 and 58, also occurred in the CIN samples. Moreover, gene mutations were detected in 52% of the CIN specimens, and 54.8% of these mutations occurred in genes that also mutated in CCs.

Conclusion

Our results lay the foundation for a deep understanding of the molecular mechanisms and finding new diagnostic and therapeutic targets of CC.

Low-cost HPV testing and the prevalence of cervical infection in asymptomatic populations in Guatemala

BACKGROUND

A low cost and accurate method for detecting high-risk (HR) human papillomavirus (HPV) is important to permit HPV testing for cervical cancer prevention. We used a commercially available HPV method (H13, Hybribio) which was documented to function accurately in a reduced volume of cervical specimen to determine the most prevalent HPV types and the distribution of HPV infections in over 1795 cancer-free women in Guatemala undergoing primary screening for cervical cancer by cytology.

METHODS

HR-HPV detection was attempted in cervical samples from 1795 cancer-free women receiving Pap smears using the Hybribio™ real-time PCR assay of 13 HR types. The test includes a globin gene internal control. HPV positive samples were sequenced to determine viral type. Age-specific prevalence of HPV was also assessed in the study population.

RESULTS

A total of 13% (226/1717) of women tested HPV+, with 78 samples (4.3%) failing to amplify the internal control. The highest prevalence was found in younger women (< 30 years, 22%) and older ones (≥60 years, 15%). The six most common HR-HPV types among the 148 HPV+ typed were HPV16 (22%), HPV18 (11%), HPV39 (11%), HPV58 (10%), HPV52 (8%), and HPV45 (8%).

CONCLUSIONS

In this sample of cancer free women in Guatemala, HPV16 was the most prevalent HR type in Guatemala and the age-specific prevalence curve peaked in younger ages. Women in the 30-59-year age groups had a prevalence of HR-HPV of 8%, however, larger studies to better describe the epidemiology of HPV in Guatemala are needed.

Phosphatidyl inositol-3 kinase (PIK3CA) E545K mutation confers cisplatin resistance and a migratory phenotype in cervical cancer cells

The phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway is activated in many human cancers. Previously, we reported that patients with early stage cervical cancer whose tumours harbour PIK3CA exon 9 or 20 mutations have worse overall survival in response to treatment with radiation and cisplatin than patients with wild-type PIK3CA. The purpose of this study was to determine whether PIK3CA-E545K mutation renders cervical cancer cells more resistant to cisplatin and/or radiation, and whether PI3K inhibition reverses the phenotype. We found that CaSki cells that are heterozygous for the PIK3CA-E545K mutation are more resistant to cisplatin or cisplatin plus radiation than either HeLa or SiHa cells that express only wild-type PIK3CA. Similarly, HeLa cells engineered to stably express PIK3CA-E545K were more resistant to cisplatin or cisplatin plus radiation than cells expressing only wild-type PIK3CA or with PIK3CA depleted. Cells expressing the PIK3CA-E545K mutation also had constitutive PI3K pathway activation and increased cellular migration and each of these phenotypes was reversed by treatment with the PI3K inhibitor GDC-0941/Pictilisib. Our results suggests that cervical cancer patients whose tumours are positive for the PIK3CA-E545K mutation may benefit from PI3K inhibitor therapy in concert with standard cisplatin and radiation therapy.

Next generation sequencing and its applications in HPV-associated cancers

Approximately 18% of all human cancers have a viral etiology, and human papillomavirus (HPV) has been identified as one of the most prevalent viruses that plays causative role in nearly all cervical cancers and, in addition, in subset of head and neck, anal, penile and vulvar cancers. The recent introduction of next generation sequencing (NGS) and other omics approaches have resulted in comprehensive knowledge on the pathogenesis of HPV-driven tumors. Specifically, these approaches have provided detailed information on genomic HPV integration sites, disrupted genes and pathways, and common and distinct genetic and epigenetic alterations in different human HPV-associated cancers. This review focuses on HPV integration sites, its concomitantly disrupted genes and pathways and its functional consequences in both cervical and head and neck cancers. Integration of NGS data with other omics and clinical data is crucial to better understand the pathophysiology of each individual malignancy and, based on this, to select targets and to design effective personalized treatment options.

Phase I trial evaluating the antiviral agent Cidofovir in combination with chemoradiation in cervical cancer patients

Purpose

This phase I trial aimed to assess the safety and determine the recommended Phase II dose (RP2D) of Cidofovir combined with chemoradiotherapy in patients with stage IB2-IVA cervical cancer.

Experimental design

Incremental doses (1, 2.5, 5 and 6.5 mg/kg) of IV Cidofovir were administered weekly for two weeks, and then every 2 weeks from the start of chemoradiotherapy to the initiation of utero-vaginal brachytherapy. Biological expression of HPV was analyzed during treatment and tumor response was assessed according to RECIST v1.0 criteria.

Results

A total of 15 patients were treated with Cidofovir. Dose-limiting toxicities occurred in 2/6 patients at the 6.5 mg/kg dose level (G3 proteinuria, and G3 acute pyelonephritis with G3 febrile neutropenia). No toxicity occurred at the 5 mg/kg dose level, but only 3 patients received this dose due to trial interruption because of low accrual. The most frequent G3-4 adverse effects observed during the trial were: abdominal pain (n=3), infection (n=2), leuckoneutropenia (n=2), and others (n=6). No toxic death or major renal side effect occurred. The best response was that 8/9 evaluable patients achieved a complete response (89%). In the intention to treat population, the 2-year overall and progression-free survival rates were 93% and 76%, respectively. Biological monitoring of HPV-related markers (decreased p16 expression, and increased p53 and pRb levels) was possible on sequential tumor biopsy samples. The genomic alterations identified were PIK3CA (n=5; one also had a KRAS mutation), and HRAS (n=1) mutations.

Conclusion

Cidofovir at a dose of 5mg/kg combined with chemoradiotherapy appeared tolerable and yielded tumor regressions. Due to early trial interruption, the RP2D was not confirmed.

Genetic alterations and PIK3CA gene mutations and amplifications analysis in cervical cancer by racial groups in the United States

INTRODUCTION

A number of studies indicated racial differences in cervical cancer outcomes and several factors are associated with it such as stage, comorbidities, treatment pattern, and socioeconomic status. However, the associations of tumor genomic patterns such as phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA) gene mutations and amplifications with cervical cancer racial disparities are largely unexplored.

OBJECTIVES

Therefore, the present investigation aimed to identify genetic alterations (mutations and copy number variations) in cervical cancer and determine whether the PIK3CA gene mutations and amplifications in cervical cancer differ across racial/ethnic groups in the United States.

METHODS

This study made use of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. TCGA database is a publicly available database that was created by a joint effort between the National Cancer Institute and the National Human Genome Research Institute. The two-tailed Fisher's exact test was used to test for associations between the categorical variables, race, and PIK3CA gene mutation as well as PIK3CA gene amplification using the "Fisher test" function in R.

RESULTS

There were 309 cervical cancer samples, and of these, 194 samples had gene mutations and 295 samples had copy number alteration data. The top five mutated genes in TCGA dataset were PIK3CA, MUC4, KMT2C, SYNE1, and KMT2D. The top five amplified genes in TCGA dataset were MECOM, TP63, PRKCI, PIK3CA, and TRFC. The PIK3CA gene had the highest number of mutations with 53 mutation counts. The mutation rates were 62.5%, 31.3%, 25.4%, and 21.1% for American Indian, African American, White, and Asian, respectively. The amplification rates were 28.6%, 21.1%, 18.9%, and 12.5% for African American, Asian, White, and American Indian.

CONCLUSIONS

There are many significantly mutated or amplified genes implicated in cervical cancer. Some of them are not grouped with the already known genes in relation to cervical cancer. For example, the KMT2C, SYNE1, KMT2D, EP300, RYR2, FLG, DMD, FBXW, MECOM, TRFC, RPL35A, LPP, TBL, FGF12, and SOX2 genes. They can be explored as therapeutic targets to improve cervical cancer treatment.

Detection of circulating tumor cells in cervical cancer using a conditionally replicative adenovirus targeting telomerase-positive cells

Circulating tumor cells (CTC) are newly discovered biomarkers of cancers. Although many systems detect CTC, a gold standard has not yet been established. We analyzed CTC in uterine cervical cancer patients using an advanced version of conditionally replicative adenovirus targeting telomerase-positive cells, which was enabled to infect coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptor-negative cells and to reduce false-positive signals in myeloid cells. Blood samples from cervical cancer patients were hemolyzed and infected with the virus and then labeled with fluorescent anti-CD45 and anti-pan cytokeratin antibodies. GFP (+)/CD45 (-) cells were isolated and subjected to whole-genome amplification followed by polymerase chain reaction analysis of human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA. CTC were detected in 6 of 23 patients with cervical cancers (26.0%). Expression of CTC did not correlate with the stage of cancer or other clinicopathological factors. In 5 of the 6 CTC-positive cases, the same subtype of HPV DNA as that of the corresponding primary lesion was detected, indicating that the CTC originated from HPV-infected cancer cells. These CTC were all negative for cytokeratins. The CTC detected by our system were genetically confirmed. CTC derived from uterine cervical cancers had lost epithelial characteristics, indicating that epithelial marker-dependent systems do not have the capacity to detect these cells in cervical cancer patients.

The landscape of somatic mutations in Indonesian cervical cancer is predominated by the PI3K pathway

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the prevalence of somatic mutations in Indonesian cervical carcinoma patients in the context of histology and human papillomavirus (HPV) type.

METHODS

In total 174 somatic hot-spot mutations in 13 genes were analyzed by mass spectrometry in 137 Indonesian cervical carcinomas.

RESULTS

In 66/137 tumors (48%) 95 mutations were identified. PIK3CA was most frequently mutated (24%), followed by FBXW7 (7%), CTNNB1 (6%), and PTEN (6%). In squamous cell carcinomas more often multiple mutations per sample (p=0.040), and more PIK3CA (p=0.039) and CTNNB1 (p=0.038) mutations were detected compared to adenocarcinomas. PIK3CA mutations were associated with HPV 16 positivity, CDKN2A mutations with HPV 52 positivity, and, interestingly, PTEN mutations with HPV negativity. Balinese tumor samples more often carried multiple mutations (p=0.019), and more CTNNB1, CDKN2A, and NRAS mutations compared to Javanese tumor samples.

CONCLUSIONS

Potentially targetable somatic mutations occurred in 48% of Indonesian cervical carcinomas. The landscape of mutations is predominated by mutations concerning the PI3K pathway, and we prompt for more research on developing therapies targeting this pathway, explicitly for the more advanced stage cervical carcinoma patients.

Genomic abnormalities in invasive endocervical adenocarcinoma correlate with pattern of invasion: biologic and clinical implications

The pattern-based classification system for HPV-related endocervical adenocarcinoma, which classifies tumors based on the destructiveness of stromal invasion, is predictive of the risk of nodal metastases and adverse outcome. Previous studies have demonstrated clinically important molecular alterations in endocervical adenocarcinoma, including KRAS and PIK3CA mutations; however, correlation between the molecular landscape and pathological variables including pattern of invasion has not been thoroughly explored. In this study, 20 endocervical adenocarcinomas were classified using the pattern-based classification system and were subjected to targeted sequencing using the Ion AmpliSeq Cancer Hotspot Panel v2 (ThermoFisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) that surveys hotspot regions of 50 oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms were correlated with clinical and pathologic variables including pattern of invasion. Five (25%), six (30%), and nine (45%) cases were classified as patterns A, B, and C respectively. Lymph node metastases, advanced stage at presentation and mortality from disease were exclusively seen in destructively invasive tumors (patterns B or C). Prevalent mutations in the cohort involved PIK3CA (30%), KRAS (30%), MET (15%), and RB1 (10%). Most (94%) relevant genomic alterations were present in destructively invasive tumors with PIK3CA, KRAS, and RB1 mutations seen exclusively in pattern B or C subgroups. KRAS mutations correlated with advanced stage at presentation (FIGO stage II or higher). Our findings indicate that the pattern of stromal invasion correlates with genomic abnormalities detected by next-generation sequencing, suggesting that tumors without destructive growth (pattern A) are biologically distinct from those with destructive invasion (patterns B and C), and that pattern B endocervical adenocarcinoma is more closely related to its pattern C counterpart. The pattern-based classification may be used as a triage tool when considering molecular testing for prognostic or therapeutic purposes.

Somatic Host Cell Alterations in HPV Carcinogenesis

High-risk human papilloma virus (HPV) infections cause cancers in different organ sites, most commonly cervical and head and neck cancers. While carcinogenesis is initiated by two viral oncoproteins, E6 and E7, increasing evidence shows the importance of specific somatic events in host cells for malignant transformation. HPV-driven cancers share characteristic somatic changes, including apolipoprotein B mRNA editing catalytic polypeptide-like (APOBEC)-driven mutations and genomic instability leading to copy number variations and large chromosomal rearrangements. HPV-associated cancers have recurrent somatic mutations in phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA) and phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), human leukocyte antigen A and B (HLA-A and HLA-B)-A/B, and the transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) pathway, and rarely have mutations in the tumor protein p53 (TP53) and RB transcriptional corepressor 1 (RB1) tumor suppressor genes. There are some variations by tumor site, such as NOTCH1 mutations which are primarily found in head and neck cancers. Understanding the somatic events following HPV infection and persistence can aid the development of early detection biomarkers, particularly when mutations in precancers are characterized. Somatic mutations may also influence prognosis and treatment decisions.

Association of Aflatoxin and Gallbladder Cancer

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Aflatoxin, which causes hepatocellular carcinoma, may also cause gallbladder cancer. We investigated whether patients with gallbladder cancer have higher exposure to aflatoxin than patients with gallstones.

METHODS

We measured aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-lysine adducts in plasma samples from the Shanghai Biliary Tract Cancer case-control study, conducted from 1997 through 2001. We calculated age- and sex-adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) and the population-attributable fraction for 209 patients with gallbladder cancer and gallstones vs 250 patients with gallstones without cancer (controls). In 54 patients with gallbladder cancer, tumor tissue was examined for the R249S mutation in TP53, associated with aflatoxin exposure, through targeted sequencing.

RESULTS

The AFB1-lysine adduct was detected in 67 (32%) of 209 patients with gallbladder cancer and 37 (15%) of the 250 controls (χ2 P < .0001), almost threefold more patients with gallbladder cancer than controls (OR, 2.71; 95% CI, 1.70-4.33). Among participants with detectable levels of AFB1-lysine, the median level of AFB1-lysine was 5.4 pg/mg in those with gallbladder cancer, compared with 1.2 pg/mg in controls. For patients in the fourth quartile of AFB1-lysine level vs the first quartile, the OR for gallbladder cancer was 7.61 (95% CI, 2.01-28.84). None of the 54 gallbladder tumors sequenced were found to have the R249S mutation in TP53. The population-attributable fraction for cancer related to aflatoxin was 20% (95% CI, 15%-25%).

CONCLUSIONS

In a case-control study of patients with gallbladder cancer and gallstones vs patients with gallstones without cancer, we associated exposure to aflatoxin (based on plasma level of AFB1-lysine) with gallbladder cancer. Gallbladder cancer does not appear associate with the R249S mutation in TP53. If aflatoxin is a cause of gallbladder cancer, it may have accounted for up to 20% of the gallbladder cancers in Shanghai, China, during the study period, and could account for an even higher proportion in high-risk areas. If our findings are verified, reducing aflatoxin exposure might reduce the incidence of gallbladder cancer.

The Potential Value of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signaling Pathway for Assessing Prognosis in Cervical Cancer and as a Target for Therapy

Cervical cancer is a common gynecological cancer and a leading cause of cancer-related death in women globally. There is a need for the identification of prognostic and predictive biomarker for risk stratification. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR) pathway is often dysregulated in cervical cancer, indicating that it may be a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of this malignancy, and could perhaps be used as a novel biomarker in the assessment of risk of developing cervical cancer. We aimed to provide an overview of the potential applications of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway as biomarker for risk stratification, in predicting the prognosis of cervical cancer, and for developing new therapeutic approaches in patients with cervical cancer. J. Cell. Biochem. 118: 4163-4169, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Analysis of PIK3CA mutations and PI3K pathway proteins in advanced gastric cancer

BACKGROUND

Although surgery and chemotherapy have extended advanced gastric cancer patient survival, some patients still experience relapse and metastasis. We postulated that PI3K pathway proteins could be prognostic biomarkers for the advanced gastric cancer patients.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort of 160 advanced gastric cancer patients receiving potentially curative surgery with/without chemotherapy was investigated for PIK3CA mutation and PI3K pathway protein level in the context of overall survival and relapse-free survival.

RESULTS

Thirteen patients (13 of 111, 11.7%) had PIK3CA mutations in codon 545, whereas one patient (1 of 94, 1.1%) had a mutation in PIK3CA codon 1047. PI3K pathway protein immunohistochemistry demonstrated that phosphorylated AKT positive [p-AKT (+)] patients in the surgery-only group had a good prognosis in terms of overall survival and relapse-free survival. No significant association between PIK3CA mutations and PI3K pathway protein level was seen.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed that (1) PIK3CA hotspot mutations occurred with low frequency in gastric cancer; (2) PIK3CA hotspot mutations were not directly associated with PI3K pathway activation; and (3) p-AKT (+) may be a biomarker for better outcomes for gastric cancer patients undergoing gastrectomy regardless of the PIK3CA mutation status.

Adverse effect of excess body weight on survival in cervical cancer patients after surgery and radiotherapy

PURPOSE

This study aimed to assess the effects of body mass index (BMI) on survival in cervical cancer patients who had undergone surgery and radiotherapy (RT).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 70 cervical cancer patients who underwent surgery and RT from 2007 to 2012. Among them, 40 patients (57.1%) had pelvic lymph node metastases at the time of diagnosis. Sixty-seven patients (95.7%) had received chemotherapy. All patients had undergone surgery and postoperative RT. Median BMI of patients was 22.8 kg/m² (range, 17.7 to 35.9 kg/m²).

RESULTS

The median duration of follow-up was 52.3 months (range, 16 to 107 months). Twenty-four patients (34.3%) showed recurrence. Local failure, regional lymph nodal failure, and distant failure occurred in 4 (5.7%), 6 (8.6%), and 17 (24.3%) patients, respectively. The 5-year actuarial pelvic control rate was 83.4%. The 5-year cancer-specific survival (CSS) and disease-free survival (DFS) rates were 85.1% and 65.0%, respectively. The presence of pelvic lymph node metastases (n = 30) and being overweight or obese (n = 34, BMI ≥ 23 kg/m²) were poor prognostic factors for CSS (p = 0.003 and p = 0.045, respectively). Of these, pelvic lymph node metastasis was an independent prognostic factor (p = 0.030) for CSS.

CONCLUSION

Overweight or obese cervical cancer patients showed poorer survival outcomes than normal weight or underweight patients. Weight control seems to be important in cervical cancer patients to improve clinical outcomes.