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Holweg MMSF, Kaiser E, Kappers IF, Heuvelink E, Marcelis LFM. The role of red and white light in optimizing growth and accumulation of plant specialized metabolites at two light intensities in medical cannabis ( Cannabis sativa L.). FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1393803. [PMID: 38957608 PMCID: PMC11217568 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1393803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
The cultivation of medical cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) is expanding in controlled environments, driven by evolving governmental regulations for healthcare supply. Increasing inflorescence weight and plant specialized metabolite (PSM) concentrations is critical, alongside maintaining product consistency. Medical cannabis is grown under different spectra and photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD), the interaction between spectrum and PPFD on inflorescence weight and PSM attracts attention by both industrialists and scientists. Plants were grown in climate-controlled rooms without solar light, where four spectra were applied: two low-white spectra (7B-20G-73R/Narrow and 6B-19G-75R/2Peaks), and two high-white (15B-42G-43R/Narrow and 17B-40G-43R/Broad) spectra. The low-white spectra differed in red wavelength peaks (100% 660 nm, versus 50:50% of 640:660 nm), the high-white spectra differed in spectrum broadness. All four spectra were applied at 600 and 1200 μmol m-2 s-1. Irrespective of PPFD, white light with a dual red peak of 640 and 660 nm (6B-19G-75R/2Peaks) increased inflorescence weight, compared to white light with a single red peak of 660 nm (7B-20G-73R/Narrow) (tested at P = 0.1); this was associated with higher total plant dry matter production and a more open plant architecture, which likely enhanced light capture. At high PPFD, increasing white fraction and spectrum broadness (17B-40G-43R/Broad) produced similar inflorescence weights compared to white light with a dual red peak of 640 and 660 nm (6B-19G-75R/2Peaks). This was caused by an increase of both plant dry matter production and dry matter partitioning to the inflorescences. No spectrum or PPFD effects on cannabinoid concentrations were observed, although at high PPFD white light with a dual red peak of 640 and 660 nm (6B-19G-75R/2Peaks) increased terpenoid concentrations compared to the other spectra. At low PPFD, the combination of white light with 640 and 660 nm increased photosynthetic efficiency compared with white light with a single red peak of 660nm, indicating potential benefits in light use efficiency and promoting plant dry matter production. These results indicate that the interaction between spectrum and PPFD influences plant dry matter production. Dividing the light energy in the red waveband over both 640 and 660 nm equally shows potential in enhancing photosynthesis and plant dry matter production.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elias Kaiser
- Horticulture and Product Physiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Iris F. Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Ep Heuvelink
- Horticulture and Product Physiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Leo F. M. Marcelis
- Horticulture and Product Physiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
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Abedini M, Iranbakhsh A, Saadatmand S, Ebadi M, Oraghi Ardebili Z. Low UV radiation influenced DNA methylation, gene regulation, cell proliferation, viability, and biochemical differentiation in the cell suspension cultures of Cannabis indica. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 2024; 254:112902. [PMID: 38569457 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2024.112902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
The effect of low artificial Ultraviolet (UV) on the DNA methylation remains controversial. This study addresses how differential photoperiods of UV radiation affect the biochemical and molecular behaviors of Cannabis indica cell suspension cultures. The cell suspensions were illuminated with the compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), emitting a combination of 10% UVB, 30% UVA, and the rest visible wavelengths for 0, 4, 8, and 16 h. The applied photoperiods influenced cell morphological characteristics. The 4 h photoperiod was the most effective treatment for improving biomass, growth index and cell viability percentage while these indices remained non-significant in the 16 h treatment. The methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism (MASP) assay revealed that the UV radiation was epigenetically accompanied by DNA hypermethylation. The light-treated cells significantly displayed higher relative expression of the cannabidiolic acid synthase (CBDAS) and delta9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase (THCAS) genes about 4-fold. The expression of the olivetolic acid cyclase (OAC) and olivetol synthase (OLS) genes exhibited an upward trend in response to the UV radiation. The light treatments also enhanced the proline content and protein concentration. The 4 h illumination was significantly capable of improving the cannabidiol (CBD) and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentrations, in contrast with 16 h. By increasing the illumination exposure time, the activity of the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) enzyme linearly upregulated. The highest amounts of the phenylpropanoid derivatives were observed in the cells cultured under the radiation for 4 h. Taken collective, artificial UV radiation can induce DNA methylation modifications and impact biochemical and molecular differentiation in the cell suspensions in a photoperiod-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Abedini
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Iranbakhsh
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Sara Saadatmand
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mostafa Ebadi
- Department of Biology, Damghan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Damghan, Iran
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Bitežnik L, Štukelj R, Flajšman M. The Efficiency of CBD Production Using Grafted Cannabis sativa L. Plants Is Highly Dependent on the Type of Rootstock: A Study. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 13:1117. [PMID: 38674526 PMCID: PMC11054458 DOI: 10.3390/plants13081117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
The global cannabis market is continuously expanding and as a result, the cannabis industry demands new and improved agronomic cultivation practices to increase production efficiency of cannabidiol (CBD), which is valued for its therapeutic benefits. This study investigates the influence of three rootstock types on the survival rate, morphological parameters, and biochemical composition of cannabis: potentially dwarfing rootstocks (PDR), potentially vigorous rootstocks (PVR), and seedlings-as-rootstocks (SAR). Rootstocks were used for grafting two scion genotypes: 'ScionII' = chemotype II of industrial hemp, and 'ScionIII' = chemotype III of high CBD accumulating variety. Contrary to expectations, PVR and SAR did not outperform PDR on most of the measured variables. SAR showed the highest survival rate of the grafted cannabis plants (40-70%). The rootstock type had a statistically significant influence only on the bud compactness index in 'ScionII', with PDR being particularly noticeable. A comparative analysis of the 'rootstock/scion' combinations with their controls (non-grafted scions) revealed grafting's substantial improvement in most traits. Specifically, PDR increased CBD content by 27% in 'ScionIII', inflorescence yield and CBD yield per plant increased by 71% and 84%, respectively, when SAR was used in 'ScionII'. SAR showed to be the most effective rootstock type for CBD production. Our findings suggest grafting as a promising technique for optimizing cannabis's agronomic and medicinal potential, highlighting the necessity for further research on its underlying mechanisms to refine production efficiency and quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luka Bitežnik
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Roman Štukelj
- Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Zdravstvena pot 5, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Marko Flajšman
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
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Varga I, Kristić M, Lisjak M, Tkalec Kojić M, Iljkić D, Jović J, Kristek S, Markulj Kulundžić A, Antunović M. Antioxidative Response and Phenolic Content of Young Industrial Hemp Leaves at Different Light and Mycorrhiza. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 13:840. [PMID: 38592854 PMCID: PMC10976054 DOI: 10.3390/plants13060840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2024] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Due to the increasing presence of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) and its multiple possibilities of use, the influence of different light and several biopreparations based on beneficial fungi and bacteria on hemp's morphological and physiological properties were examined. Different biopreparations and their combinations were inoculated on hemp seed and/or substrate and grown under blue and white light. A completely randomized block design was conducted in four replications within 30 days. For biopreparation treatment, vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) in combination with Azotobacter chroococum and Trichoderma spp. were inoculated only on seed or both on seed and in the substrate. Generally, the highest morphological parameters (stem, root and plant length) were recorded on plants in white light and on treatment with applied Trichoderma spp., both on seed and substrate. Blue light negatively affected biopreparation treatments, resulting in lower values of all morphological parameters compared to control. Leaves pigments were higher under blue light, as compared to the white light. At the same time, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), flavonoids, total flavanol content and phenolic acids were not influenced by light type. Biopreparation treatments did not significantly influence the leaves' pigments content (Chl a, Chl b and Car), nor the phenolic and flavanol content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Varga
- Department of Plant Production and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (M.T.K.); (D.I.) (M.A.)
| | - Marija Kristić
- Department of Agroecology and Environment Protection, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (M.K.); (M.L.); (J.J.); (S.K.)
| | - Miroslav Lisjak
- Department of Agroecology and Environment Protection, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (M.K.); (M.L.); (J.J.); (S.K.)
| | - Monika Tkalec Kojić
- Department of Plant Production and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (M.T.K.); (D.I.) (M.A.)
| | - Dario Iljkić
- Department of Plant Production and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (M.T.K.); (D.I.) (M.A.)
| | - Jurica Jović
- Department of Agroecology and Environment Protection, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (M.K.); (M.L.); (J.J.); (S.K.)
| | - Suzana Kristek
- Department of Agroecology and Environment Protection, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (M.K.); (M.L.); (J.J.); (S.K.)
| | - Antonela Markulj Kulundžić
- Department of Industrial Plants Breeding and Genetics, Agricultural Institute Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
| | - Manda Antunović
- Department of Plant Production and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (M.T.K.); (D.I.) (M.A.)
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Brikenstein N, Birenboim M, Kenigsbuch D, Shimshoni JA. Optimization of Trimming Techniques for Enhancing Cannabinoid and Terpene Content in Medical Cannabis Inflorescences. Med Cannabis Cannabinoids 2024; 7:111-118. [PMID: 39015609 PMCID: PMC11249524 DOI: 10.1159/000539192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Cannabis sativa L. inflorescences are widely used in the medicinal field as treatments for a variety of symptoms and illnesses due to their unique phytochemicals such as cannabinoids and terpenes. Common postharvest procedures for cannabis inflorescence include trimming, followed by drying, curing, and subsequent storage. The postharvest trimming step, particularly its timing (pre- or post-drying) and the extent of trimming, is not optimally refined in terms of its impact on the cannabinoid and terpene content. In this study, our objective was to identify the optimal trimming conditions for a commercially available medicinal cannabis hybrid chemovar, with the goal of maximizing its cannabinoid and terpene content. Methods To achieve this, we investigated the effects of pre- versus post-drying trimming and evaluated the impact of mild versus aggressive trimming prior to drying on the cannabinoid and terpene profiles using liquid and gas chromatography. Results Our results indicated that pre-drying mild trimming yielded the highest cannabinoid concentration, possibly due to optimal balance between stress signals and precursor influx from the sugar leaves to the inflorescence. On the other, post-drying trimming yielded the highest terpene content. Conclusion Identifying the optimal trimming conditions that maximize both cannabinoid and terpene levels in cannabis is challenging. Therefore, growers face a decision in their trimming practices: to prioritize either enhanced cannabinoid content or increased aromatic terpene concentrations, as optimizing for both simultaneously appears to be difficult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nimrod Brikenstein
- Department of Food Science, Institute for Postharvest and Food Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
- Department of Plant Science, The Robert H Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Matan Birenboim
- Department of Food Science, Institute for Postharvest and Food Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
- Department of Plant Science, The Robert H Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot, Israel
| | - David Kenigsbuch
- Department of Postharvest Science, Institute for Postharvest and Food Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Jakob A. Shimshoni
- Department of Food Science, Institute for Postharvest and Food Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
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Wang Q, Zhao X, Jiang Y, Jin B, Wang L. Functions of Representative Terpenoids and Their Biosynthesis Mechanisms in Medicinal Plants. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1725. [PMID: 38136596 PMCID: PMC10741589 DOI: 10.3390/biom13121725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Terpenoids are the broadest and richest group of chemicals obtained from plants. These plant-derived terpenoids have been extensively utilized in various industries, including food and pharmaceuticals. Several specific terpenoids have been identified and isolated from medicinal plants, emphasizing the diversity of biosynthesis and specific functionality of terpenoids. With advances in the technology of sequencing, the genomes of certain important medicinal plants have been assembled. This has improved our knowledge of the biosynthesis and regulatory molecular functions of terpenoids with medicinal functions. In this review, we introduce several notable medicinal plants that produce distinct terpenoids (e.g., Cannabis sativa, Artemisia annua, Salvia miltiorrhiza, Ginkgo biloba, and Taxus media). We summarize the specialized roles of these terpenoids in plant-environment interactions as well as their significance in the pharmaceutical and food industries. Additionally, we highlight recent findings in the fields of molecular regulation mechanisms involved in these distinct terpenoids biosynthesis, and propose future opportunities in terpenoid research, including biology seeding, and genetic engineering in medicinal plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Li Wang
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; (Q.W.); (X.Z.); (Y.J.); (B.J.)
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Fernandes HP, Choi YH, Vrieling K, de Bresser M, Sewalt B, Tonolo F. Cultivar-dependent phenotypic and chemotypic responses of drug-type Cannabis sativa L. to polyploidization. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1233191. [PMID: 37636092 PMCID: PMC10455935 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1233191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. is a plant with a wide range of potential medicinal applications. In recent years, polyploidy has gained attention as a potential strategy for rapidly improving C. sativa, which, unlike other modern crops, has not yet benefitted from this established biotechnological application. Currently, no reports on high THCA and CBDA drug-type polyploid cultivars have been published. Moreover, it still needs to be clarified if different cultivars react similarly to polyploidization. For these reasons, we set out to evaluate and compare the phenotype and chemotype of three high Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) and one high cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) drug-type cultivars in their diploid, triploid and tetraploid state through agronomic and metabolomic approaches. Our observations on plant morphology revealed a significant increase in plant height and leaf size with increasing ploidy levels in a cultivar-dependent manner. In contrast, cannabinoids were negatively affected by polyploidization, with the concentration of total cannabinoids, THCA, CBDA and cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) decreasing significantly in higher ploidy levels across all four cultivars. Headspace analysis of volatiles revealed that total volatile content decreased in triploids. On the other hand, tetraploids reacted differently depending on the cultivars. Two THCA dominant cultivars showed an increase in concentrations, while in the other two cultivars, concentrations decreased. Additionally, several rare compounds not present in diploids appeared in higher ploidy levels. Moreover, in one high THCA cultivar, a couple of elite tetraploid genotypes for cannabinoid and volatile production were identified, highlighting the role of cultivar and genotypic variability as an important factor in Cannabis sativa L. polyploids. Overall, our observations on plant morphology align with the giga phenotype observed in polyploids of other plant species. The decrease in cannabinoids and volatiles production in triploids have relevant implications regarding their commercial use. On the other hand, this study found that tetraploidization is a suitable approach to improve Cannabis sativa L. medicinal potential, although the response is cultivar and genotype-dependent. This work lays the ground for further improving, evaluating and harnessing Cannabis sativa L. chemical diversity by the breeding, biotechnological and pharmaceutical sectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hocelayne Paulino Fernandes
- Aboveground-belowground Interaction Group, Plant Cluster, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
- Natural Products Laboratory, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Young Hae Choi
- Natural Products Laboratory, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Klaas Vrieling
- Aboveground-belowground Interaction Group, Plant Cluster, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | | | - Bobbie Sewalt
- Aboveground-belowground Interaction Group, Plant Cluster, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Francesco Tonolo
- Aboveground-belowground Interaction Group, Plant Cluster, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
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Tanney CAS, Lyu D, Schwinghamer T, Geitmann A, Ruan ED, Smith DL. Sub-optimal nutrient regime coupled with Bacillus and Pseudomonas sp. inoculation influences trichome density and cannabinoid profiles in drug-type Cannabis sativa. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1131346. [PMID: 37275248 PMCID: PMC10236210 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1131346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa remains under heavy legal restriction around the globe that prevents extensive investigations into agricultural applications for improving its development. This work investigates the potential of specific plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) to improve Cannabis cannabinoid yield through increased trichome densities on floral organs, and to determine if sub-optimal environmental conditions would affect the outcomes of PGPR presence by altering plant development and cannabinoid profiles. Here, Pseudomonas sp. or Bacillus sp. were applied to the root system either separately or in a consortium to determine the effect of this bacterial treatment on the density of stalked glandular trichomes. Further, a low nutrient regime was applied for the first half of plant development to determine if an environmental stressor interacts with the effects of the microbial treatments on stalked trichome densities. Following 8 weeks of flower development, trichome density on calyces and bracts of inflorescences were determined using microscopy. Our findings unexpectedly indicate that recommended nutrient levels were linked to a decreasing trend in trichome densities with PGPR inoculations, but a low nutrient regime coupled with PGPR treatment increased them. Cannabinoid content is partially consistent with these results, in that a low nutrient regime increased the abundance of key cannabinoids compared to recommended regimes, with Bacillus sp. inoculation linked to the greatest number of significant changes between the two nutrient regimes. Overall, this work provides insight into how PGPR presence affects Cannabis stalked trichome development and cannabinoid profiles, and how environmental stressors can affect, and even enhance, trichome densities and influence major cannabinoid production, thereby pointing towards avenues for reducing the reliance on synthetic fertilizers during plant production without compromising yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cailun A. S. Tanney
- Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Dongmei Lyu
- Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Timothy Schwinghamer
- Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-food Canada, Lethbridge, AB, Canada
| | - Anja Geitmann
- Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Eric D. Ruan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Sichuan Institute of Arts and Science, Dazhou, Sichuan, China
| | - Donald L. Smith
- Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
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De Prato L, Ansari O, Hardy GESJ, Howieson J, O'Hara G, Ruthrof KX. Physiological and cannabinoid responses of hemp ( Cannabis sativa) to rock phosphate dust under tropical conditions. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2023; 50:378-389. [PMID: 36973638 DOI: 10.1071/fp22264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Growing a high-value crop such as industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in post-mining environments is economically and environmentally attractive but faces a range of biotic and abiotic challenges. An opportunity to investigate the cultivation of C. sativa presented itself as part of post-mining activities on Christmas Island (Australia) to profitably utilise disused phosphate (PS) quarries. Challenges to plant growth and cadmium (Cd) uptake were addressed in this study using potted plants under fully controlled conditions in a growth chamber. A complete nutritional spectrum, slow-release fertiliser was applied to all plants as a control treatment, and two levels of rock PS dust, a waste product of PS mining that contains 35% phosphorus (P) and 40ppm of naturally occurring Cd, were applied at 54 and 162gL-1 . After 12weeks, control plants (no PS dust) significantly differed in phenological development, with no flower production, lower aboveground biomass and reduced photosynthesis efficiency than those with P applied as rock dust. Compared with the controls, the 54gL-1 level of P dust increased shoot biomass by 38%, while 162gL-1 increased shoot biomass by 85%. The concentration of Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol also increased with the higher P levels. Cd uptake from PS dust by C. sativa was substantial and warrants further investigation. However, there was no increase in Cd content between the 54 and 162gL-1 application rates in seed and leaf. Results indicate that hemp could become a high-value crop on Christmas Island, with the readily available rock PS dust providing a source of P.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca De Prato
- Murdoch University, Food Futures Institute, Murdoch, WA, Australia; and Medicann Health Aust Pty Ltd, Osborne Park, WA, Australia
| | - Omid Ansari
- HempGenTech Pty Ltd, Kenmore, Qld, Australia
| | - Giles E St J Hardy
- Murdoch University, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch, WA, Australia; and ArborCarbon, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia
| | - John Howieson
- Murdoch University, Food Futures Institute, Murdoch, WA, Australia
| | - Graham O'Hara
- Murdoch University, Food Futures Institute, Murdoch, WA, Australia
| | - Katinka X Ruthrof
- Murdoch University, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch, WA, Australia; and Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Kensington, WA 6151, Australia
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Punja ZK, Sutton DB, Kim T. Glandular trichome development, morphology, and maturation are influenced by plant age and genotype in high THC-containing cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) inflorescences. J Cannabis Res 2023; 5:12. [PMID: 37016398 PMCID: PMC10071647 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-023-00178-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glandular capitate trichomes which form on bract tissues of female inflorescences of high THC-containing Cannabis sativa L. plants are important sources of terpenes and cannabinoids. The influence of plant age and cannabis genotype on capitate trichome development, morphology, and maturation has not been extensively studied. Knowledge of the various developmental changes that occur in trichomes over time and the influence of genotype and plant age on distribution, numbers, and morphological features should lead to a better understanding of cannabis quality and consistency. METHODS Bract tissues of two genotypes-"Moby Dick" and "Space Queen"-were examined from 3 weeks to 8 weeks of flower development using light and scanning electron microscopy. Numbers of capitate trichomes on upper and lower bract surfaces were recorded at different positions within the inflorescence. Observations on distribution, extent of stalk formation, glandular head diameter, production of resin, and extent of dehiscence and senescence were made at various time points. The effects of post-harvesting handling and drying on trichome morphology were examined in an additional five genotypes. RESULTS Two glandular trichome types-bulbous and capitate (sessile or stalked)-were observed. Capitate trichome numbers and stalk length were significantly (P = 0.05) greater in "Space Queen" compared to "Moby Dick" at 3 and 6 weeks of flower development. Significantly more stalked-capitate trichomes were present on lower compared to upper bract surfaces at 6 weeks in both genotypes, while sessile-capitate trichomes predominated at 3 weeks. Epidermal and hypodermal cells elongated to different extents during stalk formation, producing significant variation in length (from 20 to 1100 μm). Glandular heads ranged from 40 to 110 μm in diameter. Maturation of stalked-capitate glandular heads was accompanied by a brown color development, reduced UV autofluorescence, and head senescence and dehiscence. Secreted resinous material from glandular heads appeared as droplets on the cuticular surface that caused many heads to stick together or collapse. Trichome morphology was affected by the drying process. CONCLUSION Capitate trichome numbers, development, and degree of maturation were influenced by cannabis genotype and plant age. The observations of trichome development indicate that asynchronous formation leads to different stages of trichome maturity on bracts. Trichome stalk lengths also varied between the two genotypes selected for study as well as over time. The variability in developmental stage and maturation between genotypes can potentially lead to variation in total cannabinoid levels in final product. Post-harvest handling and drying were shown to affect trichome morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zamir K Punja
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada.
| | - Darren B Sutton
- Department of Computing Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - Tommy Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada
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11
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Fleming H, Chamberlain Z, Zager JJ, Lange BM. Controlled environments for cannabis cultivation to support "omics" research studies and production. Methods Enzymol 2023; 680:353-380. [PMID: 36710019 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2022.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) genome is highly heterozygous and, to retain genetic identity, clonal propagation of cultivars is very common. Establishing controlled environments, often involving multiple locations throughout a single grow, is critical for reliably generating materials to be used in research and production. In this article, we break down different periods of the grow cycle, such as cloning, hardening (optional), vegetative growth, flowering growth, and harvest, into individual steps. We are including images and videos for an in-depth coverage of methodological details. We are providing a list of equipment, supplies, reagents, and other resources to help with planning a grow experiment. Finally, we are discussing considerations for different aspects of controlled environments, including lighting, fertilizer regimes, and integrated pest management. With this article, it is our goal to empower researchers to reliably generate disease-free cannabis material suitable for genetic and biochemical studies that require full control of environmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - B Markus Lange
- Dewey Scientific LLC, Pullman, WA, United States; Institute of Biological Chemistry and M.J. Murdock Metabolomics Laboratory, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States.
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12
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Naim-Feil E, Elkins AC, Malmberg MM, Ram D, Tran J, Spangenberg GC, Rochfort SJ, Cogan NOI. The Cannabis Plant as a Complex System: Interrelationships between Cannabinoid Compositions, Morphological, Physiological and Phenological Traits. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:493. [PMID: 36771577 PMCID: PMC9919051 DOI: 10.3390/plants12030493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Maintaining specific and reproducible cannabinoid compositions (type and quantity) is essential for the production of cannabis-based remedies that are therapeutically effective. The current study investigates factors that determine the plant's cannabinoid profile and examines interrelationships between plant features (growth rate, phenology and biomass), inflorescence morphology (size, shape and distribution) and cannabinoid content. An examination of differences in cannabinoid profile within genotypes revealed that across the cultivation facility, cannabinoids' qualitative traits (ratios between cannabinoid quantities) remain fairly stable, while quantitative traits (the absolute amount of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabichromene (CBC), cannabigerol (CBG), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV) and cannabidivarin (CBDV)) can significantly vary. The calculated broad-sense heritability values imply that cannabinoid composition will have a strong response to selection in comparison to the morphological and phenological traits of the plant and its inflorescences. Moreover, it is proposed that selection in favour of a vigorous growth rate, high-stature plants and wide inflorescences is expected to increase overall cannabinoid production. Finally, a range of physiological and phenological features was utilised for generating a successful model for the prediction of cannabinoid production. The holistic approach presented in the current study provides a better understanding of the interaction between the key features of the cannabis plant and facilitates the production of advanced plant-based medicinal substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erez Naim-Feil
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC 3083, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - Aaron C. Elkins
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC 3083, Australia
| | - M. Michelle Malmberg
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC 3083, Australia
| | - Doris Ram
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC 3083, Australia
| | - Jonathan Tran
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC 3083, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - German C. Spangenberg
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC 3083, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - Simone J. Rochfort
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC 3083, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - Noel O. I. Cogan
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC 3083, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia
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13
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Zandkarimi F, Decatur J, Casali J, Gordon T, Skibola C, Nuckolls C. Comparison of the Cannabinoid and Terpene Profiles in Commercial Cannabis from Natural and Artificial Cultivation. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28020833. [PMID: 36677891 PMCID: PMC9861703 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28020833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Interest in cultivating cannabis for medical and recreational purposes is increasing due to a dramatic shift in cannabis legislation worldwide. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the composition of secondary metabolites, cannabinoids, and terpenes grown in different environmental conditions is of primary importance for the medical and recreational use of cannabis. We compared the terpene and cannabinoid profiles using gas/liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry for commercial cannabis from genetically identical plants grown indoors using artificial light and artificially grown media or outdoors grown in living soil and natural sunlight. By analyzing the cannabinoids, we found significant variations in the metabolomic profile of cannabis for the different environments. Overall, for both cultivars, there were significantly greater oxidized and degraded cannabinoids in the indoor-grown samples. Moreover, the outdoor-grown samples had significantly more unusual cannabinoids, such as C4- and C6-THCA. There were also significant differences in the terpene profiles between indoor- and outdoor-grown cannabis. The outdoor samples had a greater preponderance of sesquiterpenes including β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, α-bergamotene, α-guaiene, and germacrene B relative to the indoor samples.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John Decatur
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - John Casali
- Huckleberry Hill Farms, 9415 Briceland Rd, Garberville, CA 95542, USA
| | - Tina Gordon
- Moonmade Farms, P.O. Box 5, Garberville, CA 95542, USA
| | | | - Colin Nuckolls
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
- Correspondence:
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14
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Theerasuwipakorn N, Prechawat S, Chokesuwattanaskul R, Siranart N, Marsukjai A, Thumtecho S, Rungpradubvong V. Cannabis and adverse cardiovascular events: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Toxicol Rep 2023; 10:537-543. [PMID: 37168078 PMCID: PMC10165401 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2023.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cannabis is the most used illicit drug in the world. Global trends of decriminalization and legalization of cannabis lead to various forms of cannabis use and bring great concerns over adverse events, particularly in the cardiovascular (CV) system. To date, the association between cannabis and adverse CV events is still controversial. Purpose We aim to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the adverse CV events from cannabis use. Patients and methods A systematic search for publications describing the adverse CV events of cannabis use, including acute myocardial infarction (MI) and stroke, was performed via PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane Library databases. Data on effect estimates in individual studies were extracted and combined via random-effects meta-analysis using the DerSimonian and Laird method, a generic inverse-variance strategy. Results Twenty studies with a total of 183,410,651 patients were included. The proportion of males was 23.7%. The median age and follow-up time were 42.4 years old (IQR: 37.4, 50.0) and 6.2 years (IQR: 1.7, 27.7), respectively. The prevalence of cannabis use was 1.9%. Cannabis use was not significantly associated with acute MI (pooled odds ratio (OR): 1.29; 95%CI: 0.80, 2.08), stroke (pooled OR 1.35; 95%CI: 0.74, 2.47), and adverse CV events (pooled OR: 1.47; 95%CI: 0.98, 2.20). Conclusion The risk of adverse CV events including acute MI and stroke does not exhibit a significant increase with cannabis exposure. However, caution should be exercised when interpreting the findings due to the heterogeneity of the studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nonthikorn Theerasuwipakorn
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Cardiac Center, King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Somchai Prechawat
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Cardiac Center, King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Ronpichai Chokesuwattanaskul
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Cardiac Center, King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Arrhythmia Research Chulalongkorn University, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Noppachai Siranart
- Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Apichai Marsukjai
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Cardiac Center, King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Suthimon Thumtecho
- Division of Toxicology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University and King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Voravut Rungpradubvong
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Cardiac Center, King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Arrhythmia Research Chulalongkorn University, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Correspondence to: King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
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15
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Arnabal Rocca LR. Legalizing Harmful Drugs: Government Participation and Optimal policies. THE B.E. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ANALYSIS & POLICY 2023; 23:113-164. [PMID: 36726404 PMCID: PMC9851772 DOI: 10.1515/bejeap-2021-0309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
We are currently witnessing a shift in the approach to combat traffic and consumption of illegal harmful drugs, being cannabis legalization a prominent example. In this paper, we study how to optimally regulate the market for cannabis, in a setting where consumers differ in their utility from consumption of the psychoactive component of cannabis, THC, and suffer from misperception of the health damage it causes. We analyze this problem through a vertical differentiation model, where a black market firm and a public firm compete in prices and qualities (THC content). A paternalistic government would like to correct for the misperceived health damage caused by cannabis consumption, as well as to reduce the size of the black market. It is the undesirability of black market profits what explains that the first-best allocation cannot be decentralized. We find two possible equilibria, depending on whether the public firm serves those consumers with the highest or lowest willingness to pay for quality. Paradoxically, when the public firm serves those consumers with higher taste for THC, a lower average health damage is achieved together with a better economic result for the public firm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Rodrigo Arnabal Rocca
- Banco Central del Uruguay, J.P. Fabini 777, 11100Montevideo, Uruguay
- Toulouse School of Economics (TSE), Toulouse, France
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16
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Zarei A, Feyissa BA, Davis B, Tavakouli Dinani E. Cannabis Synthetic Seeds: An Alternative Approach for Commercial Scale of Clonal Propagation and Germplasm Conservation. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:3186. [PMID: 36501226 PMCID: PMC9738115 DOI: 10.3390/plants11233186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Indoor cannabis (Cannabis sativa) cultivation has been rapidly increasing in many countries after legalization. Besides conventional propagation through cuttings, synthetic seed production provides a competent system for mass propagation, germplasm conservation and international exchange of genetic materials. The present study developed a reliable protocol for cannabis synthetic seed production using encapsulation of nodal segments derived from in vitro or in vivo sources. Synthetic seeds were produced in 3% sodium alginate and 75 mM calcium chloride in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium and stored under various environmental conditions for up to 150 days. The plantlets regrowth efficiency was monitored on culture media up to 30 days after the storage period. Regrowth rates of 70% and 90% were observed in synthetic seeds from in vitro and in vivo-derived sources, respectively, when stored in 6 °C under 50 μmol s-1 m-2 light for 150 days. Furthermore, addition of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) to the encapsulation matrix not only postponed precocious germination of synthetic seeds at 22 °C, but also improved the regrowth rate of in vivo-derived synthetic seeds to 100% when they were stored in 6 °C under light. Exposure to light during storage significantly increased shoot length of regrown synseeds when compared to those stored in darkness. This difference in shoot growth disappeared when synseeds were treated with 25 µM ASA. All regenerated plantlets were rooted and acclimatized in sterile rockwool plugs without morphological changes.
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17
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Morello V, Brousseau VD, Wu N, Wu BS, MacPherson S, Lefsrud M. Light Quality Impacts Vertical Growth Rate, Phytochemical Yield and Cannabinoid Production Efficiency in Cannabis sativa. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:2982. [PMID: 36365435 PMCID: PMC9659141 DOI: 10.3390/plants11212982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Light is one of the most crucial parameters for enclosed cannabis (Cannabis sativa) production, as it highly influences growth, secondary metabolite production, and operational costs. The objective of this study was to investigate and evaluate the impact of six light spectra on C. sativa ('Babbas Erkle Cookies' accession) growth traits and secondary metabolite (cannabinoid and terpene) profiles. The light spectra evaluated included blue (430 nm), red (630 nm), rose (430 + 630 nm, ratio 1:10), purple (430 + 630 nm, ratio 2:1), and amber (595 nm) LED treatments, in addition to a high-pressure sodium (HPS, amber-rich light) treatment as a control. All the LED light treatments had lower fresh mean inflorescence mass than the control (HPS, 133.59 g plant-1), and monochromatic blue light yielded the least fresh inflorescence mass (76.39 g plant-1). Measurement of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentration (%) and total yield (g plant-1) showed how inflorescence mass and THC concentration need to be analyzed conjointly. Blue treatment resulted in the highest THC concentration (10.17% m/m), yet the lowest THC concentration per plant (1.44 g plant-1). The highest THC concentration per plant was achieved with HPS (2.54 g plant-1). As with THC, blue light increased cannabigerol (CBG) and terpene concentration. Conversely, blue light had a lesser impact on cannabidiol (CBD) biosynthesis in this C. sativa chemotype. As the combined effects of the light spectrum on both growth traits and secondary metabolites have important ramifications for the industry, the inappropriate spectral design could cause a reduction in cannabinoid production (20-40%). These findings show promise in helping producers choose spectral designs that meet specific C. sativa production goals.
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18
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Reichel P, Munz S, Hartung J, Kotiranta S, Graeff-Hönninger S. Impacts of Different Light Spectra on CBD, CBDA and Terpene Concentrations in Relation to the Flower Positions of Different Cannabis Sativa L. Strains. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:2695. [PMID: 36297719 PMCID: PMC9612076 DOI: 10.3390/plants11202695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis is one of the oldest cultivated plants, but plant breeding and cultivation are restricted by country-specific regulations. The plant has gained interest due to its medically important secondary metabolites, cannabinoids and terpenes. Besides biotic and abiotic stress factors, secondary metabolism can be manipulated by changing light quality and intensity. In this study, three morphologically different cannabis strains were grown in a greenhouse experiment under three different light spectra with three real light repetitions. The chosen light sources were as follows: a CHD Agro 400 ceramic metal-halide lamp with a sun-like broad spectrum and an R:FR ratio of 2.8, and two LED lamps, a Solray (SOL) and an AP67, with R:FR ratios of 13.49 and 4, respectively. The results of the study indicated that the considered light spectra significantly influenced CBDA and terpene concentrations in the plants. In addition to the different light spectra, the distributions of secondary metabolites were influenced by flower positions. The distributions varied between strains and indicated interactions between morphology and the chosen light spectra. Thus, the results demonstrate that secondary metabolism can be artificially manipulated by the choice of light spectrum, illuminant and intensity. Furthermore, the data imply that, besides the cannabis strain selected, flower position can have an impact on the medicinal potencies and concentrations of secondary metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Reichel
- Agronomy, Institute of Crop Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Sebastian Munz
- Agronomy, Institute of Crop Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Jens Hartung
- Biostatistics, Institute of Crop Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Stiina Kotiranta
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
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19
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Islam MJ, Ryu BR, Rahman MH, Rana MS, Cheong EJ, Wang MH, Lim JD, Hossain MA, Lim YS. Cannabinoid accumulation in hemp depends on ROS generation and interlinked with morpho-physiological acclimation and plasticity under indoor LED environment. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:984410. [PMID: 36340385 PMCID: PMC9634648 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.984410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Manipulation of growth and development of cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) has received considerable interest by the scientific community due to its high value in medicinal and recreational use worldwide. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of LED spectral changes on reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cannabinoid accumulation by provoking growth, pigmentation, photosynthesis, and secondary metabolites production of cannabis grown in an indoor environment. After three weeks of vegetative growth under greenhouse condition, plants were further grown for 90 days in a plant factory treated with 4 LED light compositions with a canopy-level photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 300 µmol m-2 s-1 for 16 h. Photosynthetic pigments and photosynthetic rate were linearly increased up to 60 days and then sharply decreased which was found most prominent in L3: MB 240 (Red 85% + Blue 15%) and L4: PF 240 (Red 70% + Blue 30%) LED light compositions. A high concentration of H2O2 was also observed in L3 and L4 treatments which provoked lipid peroxidation in later growth stage. In addition, higher accumulation of cannabinoid was observed under L4 treatment in most cases. It is also evident that higher ROS created a cellular stress in plant as indicated by higher osmolyte synthesis and enzyme activity which initiate quick maturation along with higher cannabinoids accumulation in cannabis plant. Therefore, it can be concluded that ROS metabolism has a crucial role in morpho-physiological acclimation and cannabinoid accumulation in hemp plants. The findings of this study provide further insight on the use of LED light to maximize the production of cannabinoid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Jahirul Islam
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
- Physiology and Sugar Chemistry Division, Bangladesh Sugarcrop Research Institute, Pabna, Bangladesh
| | - Byeong Ryeol Ryu
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Md Hafizur Rahman
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Md Soyel Rana
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Eun Ju Cheong
- Division of Forest Science, College of Forest and Environmental Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Myeong-Hyeon Wang
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Jung-Dae Lim
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
- Department of Herbal Medicine Resource, Kangwon National University, Samcheok, South Korea
| | - Mohammad Anwar Hossain
- Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
| | - Young-Seok Lim
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
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20
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Danziger N, Bernstein N. Too Dense or Not Too Dense: Higher Planting Density Reduces Cannabinoid Uniformity but Increases Yield/Area in Drug-Type Medical Cannabis. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:713481. [PMID: 36247643 PMCID: PMC9559401 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.713481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
A major challenge for utilizing cannabis for modern medicine is the spatial variability of cannabinoids in the plant, which entail differences in medical potency. Since secondary metabolism is affected by environmental conditions, a key trigger for the variability in secondary metabolites throughout the plant is variation in local micro-climates. We have, therefore, hypothesized that plant density, which is well-known to alter micro-climate in the canopy, affects spatial standardization, and concentrations of cannabinoids in cannabis plants. Canopy density is affected by shoot architecture and by plant spacing, and we have therefore evaluated the interplay between plant architecture and plant density on the standardization of the cannabinoid profile in the plant. Four plant architecture modulation treatments were employed on a drug-type medicinal cannabis cultivar, under a density of 1 or 2 plants/m2. The plants were cultivated in a naturally lit greenhouse with photoperiodic light supplementation. Analysis of cannabinoid concentrations at five locations throughout the plant was used to evaluate treatment effects on chemical uniformity. The results revealed an effect of plant density on cannabinoid standardization, as well as an interaction between plant density and plant architecture on the standardization of cannabinoids, thus supporting the hypothesis. Increasing planting density from 1 to 2 plants/m2 reduced inflorescence yield/plant, but increased yield quantity per area by 28-44% in most plant architecture treatments. The chemical response to plant density and architecture modulation was cannabinoid-specific. Concentrations of cannabinoids in axillary inflorescences from the bottom of the plants were up to 90% lower than in the apical inflorescence at the top of the plant, considerably reducing plant uniformity. Concentrations of all detected cannabinoids in these inflorescences were lower at the higher density plants; however, cannabinoid yield per cultivation area was not affected by neither architecture nor density treatments. Cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) was the cannabinoid least affected by spatial location in the plant. The morpho-physiological response of the plants to high density involved enhanced leaf drying at the bottom of the plants, increased plant elongation, and reduced cannabinoid concentrations, suggesting an involvement of chronic light deprivation at the bottom of the plants. Therefore, most importantly, under high density growth, architectural modulating treatments that facilitate increased light penetration to the bottom of the plant such as "Defoliation", or that eliminated inflorescences development at the bottom of the plant such as removal of branches from the lower parts of the plant, increased chemical standardization. This study revealed the importance of plant density and architecture for chemical quality and standardization in drug-type medical cannabis.
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21
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Llewellyn D, Golem S, Foley E, Dinka S, Jones AMP, Zheng Y. Indoor grown cannabis yield increased proportionally with light intensity, but ultraviolet radiation did not affect yield or cannabinoid content. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:974018. [PMID: 36237501 PMCID: PMC9551646 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.974018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) flourishes under high light intensities (LI); making it an expensive commodity to grow in controlled environments, despite its high market value. It is commonly believed that cannabis secondary metabolite levels may be enhanced both by increasing LI and exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV). However, the sparse scientific evidence is insufficient to guide cultivators for optimizing their lighting protocols. We explored the effects of LI and UV exposure on yield and secondary metabolite composition of a high Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) cannabis cultivar 'Meridian'. Plants were grown under short day conditions for 45 days under average canopy photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD, 400-700 nm) of 600, 800, and 1,000 μmol m-2 s-1, provided by light emitting diodes (LEDs). Plants exposed to UV had PPFD of 600 μmol m-2 s-1 plus either (1) UVA; 50 μmol m-2 s-1 of UVA (315-400 nm) from 385 nm peak LEDs from 06:30 to 18:30 HR for 45 days or (2) UVA + UVB; a photon flux ratio of ≈1:1 of UVA and UVB (280-315 nm) from a fluorescent source at a photon flux density of 3.0 μmol m-2 s-1, provided daily from 13:30 to 18:30 HR during the last 20 days of the trial. All aboveground biomass metrics were 1.3-1.5 times higher in the highest vs. lowest PPFD treatments, except inflorescence dry weight - the most economically relevant parameter - which was 1.6 times higher. Plants in the highest vs. lowest PPFD treatment also allocated relatively more biomass to inflorescence tissues with a 7% higher harvest index. There were no UV treatment effects on aboveground biomass metrics. There were also no intensity or UV treatment effects on inflorescence cannabinoid concentrations. Sugar leaves (i.e., small leaves associated with inflorescences) of plants in the UVA + UVB treatment had ≈30% higher THC concentrations; however, UV did not have any effect on the total THC in thesefoliar tissues. Overall, high PPFD levels can substantially increase cannabis yield, but we found no commercially relevant benefits of adding UV to indoor cannabis production.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Llewellyn
- School of Environmental Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | - Youbin Zheng
- School of Environmental Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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22
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Sirangelo TM, Ludlow RA, Spadafora ND. Multi-Omics Approaches to Study Molecular Mechanisms in Cannabis sativa. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:2182. [PMID: 36015485 PMCID: PMC9416457 DOI: 10.3390/plants11162182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.), also known as hemp, is one of the oldest cultivated crops, grown for both its use in textile and cordage production, and its unique chemical properties. However, due to the legislation regulating cannabis cultivation, it is not a well characterized crop, especially regarding molecular and genetic pathways. Only recently have regulations begun to ease enough to allow more widespread cannabis research, which, coupled with the availability of cannabis genome sequences, is fuelling the interest of the scientific community. In this review, we provide a summary of cannabis molecular resources focusing on the most recent and relevant genomics, transcriptomics and metabolomics approaches and investigations. Multi-omics methods are discussed, with this combined approach being a powerful tool to identify correlations between biological processes and metabolic pathways across diverse omics layers, and to better elucidate the relationships between cannabis sub-species. The correlations between genotypes and phenotypes, as well as novel metabolites with therapeutic potential are also explored in the context of cannabis breeding programs. However, further studies are needed to fully elucidate the complex metabolomic matrix of this crop. For this reason, some key points for future research activities are discussed, relying on multi-omics approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana M. Sirangelo
- CREA—Council for Agricultural Research and Agricultural Economy Analysis, Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, 26836 Montanaso Lombardo, Italy
| | - Richard A. Ludlow
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Natasha D. Spadafora
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
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Licitra R, Marchese M, Naef V, Ogi A, Martinelli M, Kiferle C, Fronte B, Santorelli FM. A Review on the Bioactivity of Cannabinoids on Zebrafish Models: Emphasis on Neurodevelopment. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10081820. [PMID: 36009367 PMCID: PMC9404760 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10081820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
For centuries, the cannabis plant has been used as a source of food, fiber, and medicine. Recently, scientific interest in cannabis has increased considerably, as its bioactive compounds have shown promising potential in the treatment of numerous musculoskeletal and neurological diseases in humans. However, the mechanisms that underlie its possible effects on neurodevelopment and nervous-system functioning remain poorly understood and need to be further investigated. Although the bulk of research on cannabis and cannabinoids is based on in vitro or rodent models, the zebrafish has now emerged as a powerful in vivo model for drug-screening studies and translational research. We here review the available literature on the use of cannabis/cannabinoids in zebrafish, and particularly in zebrafish models of neurological disorders. A critical analysis suggests that zebrafish could serve as an experimental tool for testing the bioactivity of cannabinoids, and they could thus provide important insights into the safety and efficacy of different cannabis-extract-based products. The review showed that zebrafish exhibit similar behaviors to rodents following cannabinoid exposure. The authors stress the importance of analyzing the full spectrum of naturally occurring cannabinoids, rather than just the main ones, THC and CBD, and they offer some pointers on performing behavioral analysis in zebrafish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosario Licitra
- Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology—ZebraLab, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, 56128 Pisa, Italy; (R.L.); (V.N.); (A.O.)
| | - Maria Marchese
- Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology—ZebraLab, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, 56128 Pisa, Italy; (R.L.); (V.N.); (A.O.)
- Correspondence: (M.M.); (F.M.S.)
| | - Valentina Naef
- Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology—ZebraLab, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, 56128 Pisa, Italy; (R.L.); (V.N.); (A.O.)
| | - Asahi Ogi
- Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology—ZebraLab, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, 56128 Pisa, Italy; (R.L.); (V.N.); (A.O.)
| | - Marco Martinelli
- PlantLab, Institute of Life Sciences, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (M.M.); (C.K.)
| | - Claudia Kiferle
- PlantLab, Institute of Life Sciences, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (M.M.); (C.K.)
| | - Baldassare Fronte
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, 56124 Pisa, Italy;
| | - Filippo Maria Santorelli
- Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology—ZebraLab, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, 56128 Pisa, Italy; (R.L.); (V.N.); (A.O.)
- Correspondence: (M.M.); (F.M.S.)
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Cheng X, Wang R, Liu X, Zhou L, Dong M, Rehman M, Fahad S, Liu L, Deng G. Effects of Light Spectra on Morphology, Gaseous Exchange, and Antioxidant Capacity of Industrial Hemp. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:937436. [PMID: 35720586 PMCID: PMC9201404 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.937436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
One of the most important growth factors in cannabis cultivation is light which plays a big role in its successful growth. However, understanding that how light controls the industrial hemp growth and development is poor and needs advanced research. Therefore, a pot study was conducted to investigate the effects of different colors of light, that is, white light (WL), blue light (BL), red light (RL), and 50% red with 50% blue mix light (RBL) on morphology, gaseous exchange and antioxidant capacity of industrial hemp. Compared with WL, BL significantly increase hemp growth in terms of shoot fresh biomass (15.1%), shoot dry biomass (27.0%), number of leaves per plant (13.7%), stem diameter (10.2%), root length (6.8%) and chlorophyll content (7.4%). In addition, BL promoted net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and transpiration, while reduces the lipid peroxidation and superoxide dismutase and peroxidase activities. However, RL and RBL significantly reduced the plant biomass, gas exchange parameters with enhanced antioxidant enzymes activities. Thus, blue light is useful for large-scale sustainable production of industrial hemp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Cheng
- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kunming University, Kunming, China
| | - Rong Wang
- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kunming University, Kunming, China
| | - Xingzhu Liu
- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kunming University, Kunming, China
| | - Lijuan Zhou
- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kunming University, Kunming, China
| | - Minghua Dong
- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kunming University, Kunming, China
| | - Muzammal Rehman
- School of Agriculture, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Shah Fahad
- Hainan Key Laboratory for Sustainable Utilization of Tropical Bioresource, College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, China
- Department of Agronomy, The University of Haripur, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - Lijun Liu
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Gang Deng
- School of Agriculture, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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Melzer R, McCabe PF, Schilling S. Evolution, genetics and biochemistry of plant cannabinoid synthesis: a challenge for biotechnology in the years ahead. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2022; 75:102684. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2022.102684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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The phytochemical diversity of commercial Cannabis in the United States. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0267498. [PMID: 35588111 PMCID: PMC9119530 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0267498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The legal status of Cannabis is changing, fueling an increasing diversity of Cannabis-derived products. Because Cannabis contains dozens of chemical compounds with potential psychoactive or medicinal effects, understanding this phytochemical diversity is crucial. The legal Cannabis industry heavily markets products to consumers based on widely used labeling systems purported to predict the effects of different "strains." We analyzed the cannabinoid and terpene content of commercial Cannabis samples across six US states, finding distinct chemical phenotypes (chemotypes) which are reliably present. By comparing the observed phytochemical diversity to the commercial labels commonly attached to Cannabis-derived product samples, we show that commercial labels do not consistently align with the observed chemical diversity. However, certain labels do show a biased association with specific chemotypes. These results have implications for the classification of commercial Cannabis, design of animal and human research, and regulation of consumer marketing-areas which today are often divorced from the chemical reality of the Cannabis-derived material they wish to represent.
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Naim-Feil E, Breen EJ, Pembleton LW, Spooner LE, Spangenberg GC, Cogan NOI. Empirical Evaluation of Inflorescences' Morphological Attributes for Yield Optimization of Medicinal Cannabis Cultivars. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:858519. [PMID: 35519806 PMCID: PMC9063709 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.858519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In recent decades with the reacknowledgment of the medicinal properties of Cannabis sativa L. (cannabis) plants, there is an increased demand for high performing cultivars that can deliver quality products for various applications. However, scientific knowledge that can facilitate the generation of advanced cannabis cultivars is scarce. In order to improve cannabis breeding and optimize cultivation techniques, the current study aimed to examine the morphological attributes of cannabis inflorescences using novel image analysis practices. The investigated plant population comprises 478 plants ascribed to 119 genotypes of high-THC or blended THC-CBD ratio that was cultivated under a controlled environment facility. Following harvest, all plants were manually processed and an image of the trimmed and refined inflorescences extracted from each plant was captured. Image analysis was then performed using in-house custom-made software which extracted 8 morphological features (such as size, shape and perimeter) for each of the 127,000 extracted inflorescences. Our findings suggest that environmental factors play an important role in the determination of inflorescences' morphology. Therefore, further studies that focus on genotype X environment interactions are required in order to generate inflorescences with desired characteristics. An examination of the intra-plant inflorescences weight distribution revealed that processing 75% of the plant's largest inflorescences will gain 90% of its overall yield weight. Therefore, for the optimization of post-harvest tasks, it is suggested to evaluate if the benefits from extracting and processing the plant's smaller inflorescences outweigh its operational costs. To advance selection efficacy for breeding purposes, a prediction equation for forecasting the plant's production biomass through width measurements of specific inflorescences, formed under the current experimental methodology, was generated. Thus, it is anticipated that findings from the current study will contribute to the field of medicinal cannabis by improving targeted breeding programs, advancing crop productivity and enhancing the efficacy of post-harvest procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erez Naim-Feil
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Edmond J. Breen
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Luke W. Pembleton
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Laura E. Spooner
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - German C. Spangenberg
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Noel O. I. Cogan
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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28
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Sionov RV, Steinberg D. Anti-Microbial Activity of Phytocannabinoids and Endocannabinoids in the Light of Their Physiological and Pathophysiological Roles. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10030631. [PMID: 35327432 PMCID: PMC8945038 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10030631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance has become an increasing challenge in the treatment of various infectious diseases, especially those associated with biofilm formation on biotic and abiotic materials. There is an urgent need for new treatment protocols that can also target biofilm-embedded bacteria. Many secondary metabolites of plants possess anti-bacterial activities, and especially the phytocannabinoids of the Cannabis sativa L. varieties have reached a renaissance and attracted much attention for their anti-microbial and anti-biofilm activities at concentrations below the cytotoxic threshold on normal mammalian cells. Accordingly, many synthetic cannabinoids have been designed with the intention to increase the specificity and selectivity of the compounds. The structurally unrelated endocannabinoids have also been found to have anti-microbial and anti-biofilm activities. Recent data suggest for a mutual communication between the endocannabinoid system and the gut microbiota. The present review focuses on the anti-microbial activities of phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoids integrated with some selected issues of their many physiological and pharmacological activities.
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29
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Dang M, Arachchige NM, Campbell LG. Optimizing Photoperiod Switch to Maximize Floral Biomass and Cannabinoid Yield in Cannabis sativa L.: A Meta-Analytic Quantile Regression Approach. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 12:797425. [PMID: 35082815 PMCID: PMC8786113 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.797425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. is an annual, short-day plant, such that long-day lighting promotes vegetative growth while short-day lighting induces flowering. To date, there has been no substantial investigation on how the switch between these photoperiods influences yield of C. sativa despite the tight correlation that plant size and floral biomass have with the timing of photoperiod switches in indoor growing facilities worldwide. Moreover, there are only casual predictions around how the timing of the photoperiodic switch may affect the production of secondary metabolites, like cannabinoids. Here we use a meta-analytic approach to determine when growers should switch photoperiods to optimize C. sativa floral biomass and cannabinoid content. To this end, we searched through ISI Web of Science for peer-reviewed publications of C. sativa that reported experimental photoperiod durations and results containing cannabinoid concentrations and/or floral biomass, then from 26 studies, we estimated the relationship between photoperiod and yield using quantile regression. Floral biomass was maximized when the long daylength photoperiod was minimized (i.e., 14 days), while THC and CBD potency was maximized under long day length photoperiod for ~42 and 49-50 days, respectively. Our work reveals a yield trade-off in C. sativa between cannabinoid concentration and floral biomass where more time spent under long-day lighting maximizes cannabinoid content and less time spent under long-day lighting maximizes floral biomass. Growers should carefully consider the length of long-day lighting exposure as it can be used as a tool to maximize desired yield outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Dang
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nishara Muthu Arachchige
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
- College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Lesley G. Campbell
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
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30
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Park SH, Pauli CS, Gostin EL, Staples SK, Seifried D, Kinney C, Vanden Heuvel BD. Effects of short-term environmental stresses on the onset of cannabinoid production in young immature flowers of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.). J Cannabis Res 2022; 4:1. [PMID: 34980266 PMCID: PMC8725245 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-021-00111-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUNDS Cannabis sativa L. produces at least 120 cannabinoids. Although genetic variation is the main factor in cannabinoid production, the effects of short-term environmental stresses in the early flowering stage remains largely unknown. METHODS To investigate the effects of short-term environmental stresses on the onset of cannabinoid production in young immature flowers, a hemp variety, Green-Thunder (5-8% CBD/mg of dry weight), was treated with mechanical damage, insect herbivory, extreme heat, or drought stress for 5-7 days during the first 2 weeks of flowering. Three hemp tissues, including flowers, leaves, and stems, were collected from hemp grown under these stress conditions at multiple time points during the first 2 weeks after transition to the short photoperiod and analyzed using high pressure liquid chromatography to quantify phytocannabinoids including cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), cannabidiol (CBD), Δ-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and cannabinol (CBN). RESULTS The 5 days of mechanical wounding did not affect the production of any of the cannabinoids during the initial stage of flowering. However, after 5 days of herbivore treatment, there was a significant difference in concentration between day 1 and day 6 of CBGA (control: 308 μg/g; treatment - 24 μg/g), CBG (control: 69 μg/g; treatment: 52 μg/g), and CBD (control: 755 μg/g; treatment: 194 μg/g) between the control and treatment plants. The 7 days of heat treatment at 45-50 oC significantly reduced the production of CBGA during this observed window (control: 206 μg/g; treatment: 182 μg/g) and CBG (control: 21 μg/g; treatment: - 112 μg/g). Notably, the largest change was observed after 7 days of drought stress, when plants showed a 40% greater accumulation of CBG (control: 336 μg/g; treatment: 622 μg/g), and a significant decrease (70-80%) in CBD (control: 1182 μg/g; treatment: 297 μg/g) and THC amounts (control: 3927 μg/g; treatment: 580 μg/g). CONCLUSIONS Although this observation is limited in the early flowering stage, the common field stresses are adequate to induce changes in the cannabinoid profiles, particularly drought stress being the most impactful stress for hemp flower initiation with the altering the cannabinoid production by decreasing CBD and THC accumulation while increasing CBG by 40%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Hyuck Park
- Institute of Cannabis Research, Colorado State University-Pueblo, 2200 Bonforte Blvd., Pueblo, CO, 81001, USA.
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University-Pueblo, 2200 Bonforte Blvd., Pueblo, CO, 81001, USA.
| | - Christopher S Pauli
- Institute of Cannabis Research, Colorado State University-Pueblo, 2200 Bonforte Blvd., Pueblo, CO, 81001, USA
| | - Eric L Gostin
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University-Pueblo, 2200 Bonforte Blvd., Pueblo, CO, 81001, USA
| | - S Kyle Staples
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University-Pueblo, 2200 Bonforte Blvd., Pueblo, CO, 81001, USA
| | - Dustin Seifried
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University-Pueblo, 2200 Bonforte Blvd., Pueblo, CO, 81001, USA
| | - Chad Kinney
- Institute of Cannabis Research, Colorado State University-Pueblo, 2200 Bonforte Blvd., Pueblo, CO, 81001, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University-Pueblo, 2200 Bonforte Blvd., Pueblo, CO, 81001, USA
| | - Brian D Vanden Heuvel
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University-Pueblo, 2200 Bonforte Blvd., Pueblo, CO, 81001, USA
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Olejar KJ, Park SH. Industry-Based Misconceptions Regarding Cross-Pollination of Cannabis spp. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:793264. [PMID: 35154220 PMCID: PMC8826057 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.793264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Cross-pollination of commercial crops has been an ongoing issue in many species. Cannabis spp. encompasses the classifications of marijuana [high in Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)] and hemp (below 0.3% THC). As such, cannabis is the most recent crop facing the dilemma of cross-pollination and is leading to litigation. These litigations are driven by the large misunderstanding of the impacts of cross-pollination within the cannabis industry. The misconception is that if hemp is cross-pollinated by high THC cannabis, the hemp will become "hot" (high in THC) thereby rendering the crop illegal under the 2018 Farm Bill. However, there are many factors that contribute to the amount of THC a plant may produce. This article examines and refutes the misconception of cross-pollination increasing THC levels by highlighting several methods of how THC may become high in a given hemp crop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth J. Olejar
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University Pueblo, Pueblo, CO, United States
| | - Sang-Hyuck Park
- Institute of Cannabis Research, Colorado State University Pueblo, Pueblo, CO, United States
- *Correspondence: Sang-Hyuck Park,
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32
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Saloner A, Bernstein N. Nitrogen Source Matters: High NH 4/NO 3 Ratio Reduces Cannabinoids, Terpenoids, and Yield in Medical Cannabis. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:830224. [PMID: 35720524 PMCID: PMC9198551 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.830224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The N form supplied to the plant, ammonium (NH4 +) or nitrate (NO3 -), is a major factor determining the impact of N nutrition on plant function and metabolic responses. We have hypothesized that the ratio of NH4/NO3 supplied to cannabis plants affects the physiological function and the biosynthesis of cannabinoids and terpenoids, which are major factors in the cannabis industry. To evaluate the hypothesis we examined the impact of five supply ratios of NH4/NO3 (0, 10, 30, 50, and 100% N-NH4 +, under a uniform level of 200 mg L-1 N) on plant response. The plants were grown in pots, under controlled environment conditions. The results revealed high sensitivity of cannabinoid and terpenoid concentrations and plant function to NH4/NO3 ratio, thus supporting the hypothesis. The increase in NH4 supply generally caused an adverse response: Secondary metabolite production, inflorescence yield, plant height, inflorescence length, transpiration and photosynthesis rates, stomatal conductance, and chlorophyll content, were highest under NO3 nutrition when no NH4 was supplied. Ratios of 10-30% NH4 did not substantially impair secondary metabolism and plant function, but produced smaller inflorescences and lower inflorescence yield compared with only NO3 nutrition. Under a level of 50% NH4, the plants demonstrated toxicity symptoms, which appeared only at late stages of plant maturation, and 100% NH4 induced substantial plant damage, resulting in plant death. This study demonstrates a dramatic impact of N form on cannabis plant function and production, with a 46% decrease in inflorescence yield with the increase in NH4 supply from 0 to 50%. Yet, moderate levels of 10-30% NH4 are suitable for medical cannabis cultivation, as they do not damage plant function and show only little adverse influence on yield and cannabinoid production. Higher NH4/NO3 ratios, containing above 30% NH4, are not recommended since they increase the potential for a severe and fatal NH4 toxicity damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avia Saloner
- Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Volcani Center, Rishon LeTsiyon, Israel
- The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Nirit Bernstein
- Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Volcani Center, Rishon LeTsiyon, Israel
- *Correspondence: Nirit Bernstein,
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33
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Matchett-Oates L, Spangenberg GC, Cogan NOI. Manipulation of Cannabinoid Biosynthesis via Transient RNAi Expression. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:773474. [PMID: 35035388 PMCID: PMC8757041 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.773474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. produces unique phytocannabinoids, which are used for their pharmaceutical benefits. To date, there are no reports of in vivo engineering targeting the cannabinoid biosynthesis genes to greater elucidate the role each of these genes play in synthesis of these medically important compounds. Reported here is the first modulation of cannabinoid biosynthesis genes using RNAi via agroinfiltration. Vacuum infiltrated leaf segments of the Cannbio-2 C. sativa strain, transfected with different RNAi constructs corresponding to THCAS, CBDAS, and CBCAS gene sequences, showed significant downregulation of all cannabinoid biosynthesis genes using real-time quantitative PCR. Using RNAi, significant off-targeting occurs resulting in the downregulation of highly homologous transcripts. Significant (p < 0.05) downregulation was observed for THCAS (92%), CBDAS (97%), and CBCAS (70%) using pRNAi-GG-CBDAS-UNIVERSAL. Significant (p < 0.05) upregulation of CBCAS (76%) and non-significant upregulation of THCAS (13%) were observed when transfected with pRNAi-GG-CBCAS, suggesting the related gene's ability to synthesize multiple cannabinoids. Using this approach, increased understanding of the relationship between cannabinoid biosynthesis genes can be further elucidated. This RNAi approach enables functional genomics screens for further reverse genetic studies as well as the development of designer cannabis strains with over-expression and/or downregulation of targeted cannabinoid biosynthesis genes. Functional genomics screens, such as these, will further provide insights into gene regulation of cannabinoid biosynthesis in Cannabis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lennon Matchett-Oates
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, The Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
| | - German C. Spangenberg
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, The Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
| | - Noel O. I. Cogan
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, The Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
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Lipson Feder C, Cohen O, Shapira A, Katzir I, Peer R, Guberman O, Procaccia S, Berman P, Flaishman M, Meiri D. Fertilization Following Pollination Predominantly Decreases Phytocannabinoids Accumulation and Alters the Accumulation of Terpenoids in Cannabis Inflorescences. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:753847. [PMID: 34804093 PMCID: PMC8602813 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.753847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In the last decades, growing evidence showed the therapeutic capabilities of Cannabis plants. These capabilities were attributed to the specialized secondary metabolites stored in the glandular trichomes of female inflorescences, mainly phytocannabinoids and terpenoids. The accumulation of the metabolites in the flower is versatile and influenced by a largely unknown regulation system, attributed to genetic, developmental and environmental factors. As Cannabis is a dioecious plant, one main factor is fertilization after successful pollination. Fertilized flowers are considerably less potent, likely due to changes in the contents of phytocannabinoids and terpenoids; therefore, this study examined the effect of fertilization on metabolite composition by crossbreeding (-)-Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)- or cannabidiol (CBD)-rich female plants with different male plants: THC-rich, CBD-rich, or the original female plant induced to develop male pollen sacs. We used advanced analytical methods to assess the phytocannabinoids and terpenoids content, including a newly developed semi-quantitative analysis for terpenoids without analytical standards. We found that fertilization significantly decreased phytocannabinoids content. For terpenoids, the subgroup of monoterpenoids had similar trends to the phytocannabinoids, proposing both are commonly regulated in the plant. The sesquiterpenoids remained unchanged in the THC-rich female and had a trend of decrease in the CBD-rich female. Additionally, specific phytocannabinoids and terpenoids showed an uncommon increase in concentration followed by fertilization with particular male plants. Our results demonstrate that although the profile of phytocannabinoids and their relative ratios were kept, fertilization substantially decreased the concentration of nearly all phytocannabinoids in the plant regardless of the type of fertilizing male. Our findings may point to the functional roles of secondary metabolites in Cannabis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carni Lipson Feder
- The Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Cannabinoid Research, Faculty of Biology, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Oded Cohen
- Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Volcani Center, Institute of Plant Sciences, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Anna Shapira
- The Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Cannabinoid Research, Faculty of Biology, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Itay Katzir
- Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Volcani Center, Institute of Plant Sciences, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Reut Peer
- Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Volcani Center, Institute of Plant Sciences, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Ohad Guberman
- The Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Cannabinoid Research, Faculty of Biology, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Shiri Procaccia
- The Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Cannabinoid Research, Faculty of Biology, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Paula Berman
- The Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Cannabinoid Research, Faculty of Biology, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Moshe Flaishman
- Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Volcani Center, Institute of Plant Sciences, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - David Meiri
- The Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Cannabinoid Research, Faculty of Biology, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
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Rodriguez-Morrison V, Llewellyn D, Zheng Y. Cannabis Inflorescence Yield and Cannabinoid Concentration Are Not Increased With Exposure to Short-Wavelength Ultraviolet-B Radiation. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:725078. [PMID: 34795683 PMCID: PMC8593374 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.725078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Before ultraviolet (UV) radiation can be used as a horticultural management tool in commercial Cannabis sativa (cannabis) production, the effects of UV on cannabis should be vetted scientifically. In this study we investigated the effects of UV exposure level on photosynthesis, growth, inflorescence yield, and secondary metabolite composition of two indoor-grown cannabis cultivars: 'Low Tide' (LT) and 'Breaking Wave' (BW). After growing vegetatively for 2 weeks under a canopy-level photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of ≈225 μmol⋅m-2⋅s-1 in an 18-h light/6-h dark photoperiod, plants were grown for 9 weeks in a 12-h light/12-h dark "flowering" photoperiod under a canopy-level PPFD of ≈400 μmol⋅m-2⋅s-1. Supplemental UV radiation was provided daily for 3.5 h at UV photon flux densities ranging from 0.01 to 0.8 μmol⋅m-2⋅s-1 provided by light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with a peak wavelength of 287 nm (i.e., biologically-effective UV doses of 0.16 to 13 kJ⋅m-2⋅d-1). The severity of UV-induced morphology (e.g., whole-plant size and leaf size reductions, leaf malformations, and stigma browning) and physiology (e.g., reduced leaf photosynthetic rate and reduced Fv/Fm) symptoms intensified as UV exposure level increased. While the proportion of the total dry inflorescence yield that was derived from apical tissues decreased in both cultivars with increasing UV exposure level, total dry inflorescence yield only decreased in LT. The total equivalent Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) concentrations also decreased in LT inflorescences with increasing UV exposure level. While the total terpene content in inflorescences decreased with increasing UV exposure level in both cultivars, the relative concentrations of individual terpenes varied by cultivar. The present study suggests that using UV radiation as a production tool did not lead to any commercially relevant benefits to cannabis yield or inflorescence secondary metabolite composition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Youbin Zheng
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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Pepe M, Hesami M, Small F, Jones AMP. Comparative Analysis of Machine Learning and Evolutionary Optimization Algorithms for Precision Micropropagation of Cannabis sativa: Prediction and Validation of in vitro Shoot Growth and Development Based on the Optimization of Light and Carbohydrate Sources. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:757869. [PMID: 34745189 PMCID: PMC8566924 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.757869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Micropropagation techniques offer opportunity to proliferate, maintain, and study dynamic plant responses in highly controlled environments without confounding external influences, forming the basis for many biotechnological applications. With medicinal and recreational interests for Cannabis sativa L. growing, research related to the optimization of in vitro practices is needed to improve current methods while boosting our understanding of the underlying physiological processes. Unfortunately, due to the exorbitantly large array of factors influencing tissue culture, existing approaches to optimize in vitro methods are tedious and time-consuming. Therefore, there is great potential to use new computational methodologies for analyzing data to develop improved protocols more efficiently. Here, we first tested the effects of light qualities using assorted combinations of Red, Blue, Far Red, and White spanning 0-100 μmol/m2/s in combination with sucrose concentrations ranging from 1 to 6% (w/v), totaling 66 treatments, on in vitro shoot growth, root development, number of nodes, shoot emergence, and canopy surface area. Collected data were then assessed using multilayer perceptron (MLP), generalized regression neural network (GRNN), and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) to model and predict in vitro Cannabis growth and development. Based on the results, GRNN had better performance than MLP or ANFIS and was consequently selected to link different optimization algorithms [genetic algorithm (GA), biogeography-based optimization (BBO), interior search algorithm (ISA), and symbiotic organisms search (SOS)] for prediction of optimal light levels (quality/intensity) and sucrose concentration for various applications. Predictions of in vitro conditions to refine growth responses were subsequently tested in a validation experiment and data showed no significant differences between predicted optimized values and observed data. Thus, this study demonstrates the potential of machine learning and optimization algorithms to predict the most favorable light combinations and sucrose levels to elicit specific developmental responses. Based on these, recommendations of light and carbohydrate levels to promote specific developmental outcomes for in vitro Cannabis are suggested. Ultimately, this work showcases the importance of light quality and carbohydrate supply in directing plant development as well as the power of machine learning approaches to investigate complex interactions in plant tissue culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Pepe
- Department of Plant Agriculture, Gosling Research Institute for Plant Preservation, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Mohsen Hesami
- Department of Plant Agriculture, Gosling Research Institute for Plant Preservation, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Finlay Small
- Department of Research and Development, Entourage Health Corp., Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Andrew Maxwell Phineas Jones
- Department of Plant Agriculture, Gosling Research Institute for Plant Preservation, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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Abdollahi M, Sefidkon F, Peirovi A, Calagari M, Mousavi A. Assessment of the Cannabinoid Content from Different Varieties of Cannabis sativa L. during the Growth Stages in Three Regions. Chem Biodivers 2021; 18:e2100247. [PMID: 34597470 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202100247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) belongs to the Cannabaceae family. It is very rich in chemical constituents, especially the cannabinoids which has not been reported in any other plant, and has broad pharmacological properties. Hemp as a multi-purpose crop is a good source of fibers, seed, fixed and volatile oil. It is known that the cannabinoid content of hemp is related to genetic factors, as well as plant's growth stages and environmental factors such as latitude, altitude, weather, particularly moisture availability and nutrient supply during the growing season. The present study was designed to produce hemp that contains allowable concentration of THC (<3 %) by comparing different varieties of hemp, different stages of plant growth, and different geographical locations where it was planted. To achieve this, seeds of two native populations from Iran (Fars and Yazd Provinces) and one foreign variety from France (Fedora17, as an industrial hemp cultivar) with its progenies (Fedora17-2) were cultivated in 3 research fields (Gilan, Golestan and Alborz provinces) in Iran. The following plant materials were extracted with methanol/chloroform and analyzed by HPLC: foliage in the vegetative stage, inflorescent in the flowering stage, inflorescent of seeds in the seeding stage and the mature seed. The THC concentration of Fedora17 (Fed17) in all three geographical locations was found to be under 0.03 % or even non-detectable. Same result was also observed in its progenies (Fed17-2), indicating stability of the trait in this cultivar. The THC concentration of the Yazd variety that was planted in Alborz and Gilan regions was less than 0.080 % in all growth stages. The female flowers planted in Golestan, showed a THC concentration of 1.029 % which was more than the allowed THC concentration of <3 %. The THC concentration in all growth stages of all of the different varieties planted varied from 0 to 1.392 %. The above results indicates that the type of cannabinoid produced depends on the difference in genetic prosperities of the different seed types as well as the growth stage in which the plant material was extracted. On the other hand, the climate and the region in which the seeds were planted had little influence on the THC concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahnaz Abdollahi
- Department of Horticultural Science and Agronomy, Faculty of Agricultural Science and Food Industries, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Sefidkon
- Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), P.O. Box, 13185-116, Tehran, Iran
| | - Afshin Peirovi
- CIAN Diagnostics, 5330 Spectrum Drive, Suite I, Frederick, MD 21703
| | - Mohsen Calagari
- Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), P.O. Box, 13185-116, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Mousavi
- National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Tehran, Iran
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Abstract
Introduction: Cannabis is a valuable plant, cultivated by humans for millennia. However, it has only been in the past several decades that biologists have begun to clarify the interesting Cannabis biosynthesis details, especially the production of its fascinating natural products termed acidic cannabinoids. Discussion: Acidic cannabinoids can experience a common organic chemistry reaction known as decarboxylation, transforming them into structural analogues referred to as neutral cannabinoids with far different pharmacology. This review addresses acidic and neutral cannabinoid structural pairs, when and where acidic cannabinoid decarboxylation occurs, the kinetics and mechanism of the decarboxylation reaction as well as possible future directions for this topic. Conclusions: Acidic cannabinoid decarboxylation is a unique transformation that has been increasingly investigated over the past several decades. Understanding how acidic cannabinoid decarboxylation occurs naturally as well as how it can be promoted or prevented during harvesting or storage is important for the various stakeholders in Cannabis cultivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crist N Filer
- PerkinElmer Health Sciences Inc., Waltham, Massachusetts, USA
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39
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Tanney CAS, Backer R, Geitmann A, Smith DL. Cannabis Glandular Trichomes: A Cellular Metabolite Factory. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:721986. [PMID: 34616415 PMCID: PMC8488169 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.721986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis has been legalized for recreational use in several countries and medical use is authorized in an expanding list of countries; markets are growing internationally, causing an increase in demand for high quality products with well-defined properties. The key compounds of Cannabis plants are cannabinoids, which are produced by stalked glandular trichomes located on female flowers. These trichomes produce resin that contains cannabinoids, such as tetrahydrocannabinolic acid and cannabidiolic acid, and an array of other secondary metabolites of varying degrees of commercial interest. While growers tend to focus on improving whole flower yields, our understanding of the "goldmines" of the plant - the trichomes - is limited despite their being the true source of revenue for a multi-billion-dollar industry. This review aims to provide an overview of our current understanding of cannabis glandular trichomes and their metabolite products in order to identify current gaps in knowledge and to outline future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Donald L. Smith
- Department of Plant Science, Macdonald Campus, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Reichel P, Munz S, Hartung J, Präger A, Kotiranta S, Burgel L, Schober T, Graeff-Hönninger S. Impact of Three Different Light Spectra on the Yield, Morphology and Growth Trajectory of Three Different Cannabis sativa L. Strains. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:1866. [PMID: 34579399 PMCID: PMC8472666 DOI: 10.3390/plants10091866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis is one of the oldest cultivated plants, but plant breeding and cultivation are restricted by country specific regulations. Plant growth, morphology and metabolism can be manipulated by changing light quality and intensity. Three morphologically different strains were grown under three different light spectra with three real light repetitions. Light dispersion was included into the statistical evaluation. The light spectra considered had an influence on the morphology of the plant, especially the height. Here, the shade avoidance induced by the lower R:FR ratio under the ceramic metal halide lamp (CHD) was of particular interest. The sugar leaves seemed to be of elementary importance in the last growth phase for yield composition. Furthermore, the last four weeks of flowering were crucial to influence the yield composition of Cannabis sativa L. through light spectra. The dry flower yield was significantly higher under both LED treatments compared to the conventional CHD light source. Our results indicate that the plant morphology can be artificially manipulated by the choice of light treatment to create shorter plants with more lateral branches which seem to be beneficial for yield development. Furthermore, the choice of cultivar has to be taken into account when interpreting results of light studies, as Cannabis sativa L. subspecies and thus bred strains highly differ in their phenotypic characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Reichel
- Cropping Systems and Modelling, Institute of Crop Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany; (S.M.); (A.P.); (L.B.); (T.S.); (S.G.-H.)
| | - Sebastian Munz
- Cropping Systems and Modelling, Institute of Crop Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany; (S.M.); (A.P.); (L.B.); (T.S.); (S.G.-H.)
| | - Jens Hartung
- Biostatistics, Institute of Crop Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany;
| | - Achim Präger
- Cropping Systems and Modelling, Institute of Crop Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany; (S.M.); (A.P.); (L.B.); (T.S.); (S.G.-H.)
| | - Stiina Kotiranta
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland;
| | - Lisa Burgel
- Cropping Systems and Modelling, Institute of Crop Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany; (S.M.); (A.P.); (L.B.); (T.S.); (S.G.-H.)
| | - Torsten Schober
- Cropping Systems and Modelling, Institute of Crop Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany; (S.M.); (A.P.); (L.B.); (T.S.); (S.G.-H.)
| | - Simone Graeff-Hönninger
- Cropping Systems and Modelling, Institute of Crop Science, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany; (S.M.); (A.P.); (L.B.); (T.S.); (S.G.-H.)
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Danziger N, Bernstein N. Shape Matters: Plant Architecture Affects Chemical Uniformity in Large-Size Medical Cannabis Plants. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:1834. [PMID: 34579367 PMCID: PMC8468686 DOI: 10.3390/plants10091834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Since plant organs sense their environment locally, gradients of micro-climates in the plant shoot may induce spatial variability in the physiological state of the plant tissue and hence secondary metabolism. Therefore, plant architecture, which affects micro-climate in the shoot, may considerably affect the uniformity of cannabinoids in the Cannabis sativa plant, which has significant pharmaceutical and economic importance. Variability of micro-climates in plant shoots intensifies with the increase in plant size, largely due to an increase in inter-shoot shading. In this study, we therefore focused on the interplay between shoot architecture and the cannabinoid profile in large cannabis plants, ~2.5 m in height, with the goal to harness architecture modulation for the standardization of cannabinoid concentrations in large plants. We hypothesized that (i) a gradient of light intensity along the plants is accompanied by changes to the cannabinoid profile, and (ii) manipulations of plant architecture that increase light penetration to the plant increase cannabinoid uniformity and yield biomass. To test these hypotheses, we investigated effects of eight plant architecture manipulation treatments involving branch removals, defoliation, and pruning on plant morpho-physiology, inflorescence yield, cannabinoid profile, and uniformity. The results revealed that low cannabinoid concentrations in inflorescences at the bottom of the plants correlate with low light penetration, and that increasing light penetration by defoliation or removal of bottom branches and leaves increases cannabinoid concentrations locally and thereby through spatial uniformity, thus supporting the hypotheses. Taken together, the results reveal that shoot architectural modulation can be utilized to increase cannabinoid standardization in large cannabis plants, and that the cannabinoid profile in an inflorescence is an outcome of exogenous and endogenous factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nirit Bernstein
- Institute of Soil Water and Environmental Sciences, Volcani Center, 68 HaMaccabim Road, P.O. Box 15159, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel;
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Malík M, Velechovský J, Tlustoš P. The overview of existing knowledge on medical cannabis plants growing. PLANT, SOIL AND ENVIRONMENT 2021. [PMID: 0 DOI: 10.17221/96/2021-pse] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
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Islam MJ, Ryu BR, Azad MOK, Rahman MH, Cheong EJ, Lim JD, Lim YS. Cannabinoids Accumulation in Hemp ( Cannabis sativa L.) Plants under LED Light Spectra and Their Discrete Role as a Stress Marker. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:710. [PMID: 34439943 PMCID: PMC8389281 DOI: 10.3390/biology10080710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Hemp adaptability through physiological and biochemical changes was studied under 10 LED light spectra and natural light in a controlled aeroponic system. Light treatments were imposed on 25 days aged seedlings for 16 h daily (300 µmol m-2 s-1) for 20 days. Plant accumulated highest Cannabidiol (CBD) in R7:B2:G1 light treatment, with relatively higher photosynthetic rate and lower reactive oxygen species, total phenol content, total flavonoid content, DPPH radical scavenging capacity, and antioxidant enzymatic activities. Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) also accumulated at a higher level in white, R8:B2, and R7:B2:G1 light with less evidence of stress-modulated substances. These results indicated that CBD and THC have no or little relation with light-mediated abiotic stress in hemp plants. On the contrary, Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) was accumulated higher in R6:B2:G1:FR1 and R5:B2:W2:FR1 light treatment along with lower photosynthetic rate and higher reactive oxygen species, total phenol content, total flavonoid content, DPPH radical scavenging capacity, and antioxidant enzymatic activities. However, Cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) was accumulated higher in R6:B2:G1:FR1 light treatment with higher stress-modulated substances and lower physiological traits. CBDA was also accumulated higher in R8:B2 and R7:B2:G1 light treatments with less evidence of stress-modulated substances. Besides, Greenlight influenced CBD and CBDA synthesis where FR and UV-A (along with green) play a positive and negative role in this process. Overall, the results indicated that the treatment R7:B2:G1 enhanced the medicinal cannabinoids most, and the role of THCA as a stress marker is more decisive in the hemp plant than in other cannabinoids under attributed light-mediated stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md. Jahirul Islam
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (M.J.I.); (B.R.R.); (M.O.K.A.); (M.H.R.)
- Physiology and Sugar Chemistry Division, Bangladesh Sugarcrop Research Institute, Ishurdi, Pabna 6620, Bangladesh
| | - Byeong Ryeol Ryu
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (M.J.I.); (B.R.R.); (M.O.K.A.); (M.H.R.)
| | - Md. Obyedul Kalam Azad
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (M.J.I.); (B.R.R.); (M.O.K.A.); (M.H.R.)
| | - Md. Hafizur Rahman
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (M.J.I.); (B.R.R.); (M.O.K.A.); (M.H.R.)
| | - Eun Ju Cheong
- Division of Forest Science, College of Forest and Environmental Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea;
| | - Jung-Dae Lim
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (M.J.I.); (B.R.R.); (M.O.K.A.); (M.H.R.)
- Department of Herbal Medicine Resource, Kangwon National University, Samcheok 25949, Korea
| | - Young-Seok Lim
- Department of Bio-Health Convergence, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea; (M.J.I.); (B.R.R.); (M.O.K.A.); (M.H.R.)
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Shiponi S, Bernstein N. The Highs and Lows of P Supply in Medical Cannabis: Effects on Cannabinoids, the Ionome, and Morpho-Physiology. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:657323. [PMID: 34335641 PMCID: PMC8320666 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.657323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Environmental conditions, including the availability of mineral nutrients, affect secondary metabolism in plants. Therefore, growing conditions have significant pharmaceutical and economic importance for Cannabis sativa. Phosphorous is an essential macronutrient that affects central biosynthesis pathways. In this study, we evaluated the hypothesis that P uptake, distribution and availability in the plant affect the biosynthesis of cannabinoids. Two genotypes of medical "drug-type" cannabis plants were grown under five P concentrations of 5, 15, 30, 60, and 90 mg L-1 (ppm) in controlled environmental conditions. The results reveal several dose-dependent effects of P nutrition on the cannabinoid profile of both genotypes, as well as on the ionome and plant functional physiology, thus supporting the hypothesis: (i) P concentrations ≤15 mg L-1 were insufficient to support optimal plant function and reduced photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance and growth; (ii) 30-90 mg L-1 P was within the optimal range for plant development and function, and 30 mg L-1 P was sufficient for producing 80% of the maximum yield; (iii) Ionome: about 80% of the plant P accumulated in the unfertilized inflorescences; (iv) Cannabinoids: P supply higher than 5 mg L-1 reduced Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) concentrations in the inflorescences by up to 25%. Cannabinoid concentrations decreased linearly with increasing yield, consistent with a yield dilution effect, but the total cannabinoid content per plant increased with increasing P supply. These results reveal contrasting trends for effects of P supply on cannabinoid concentrations that were highest under <30 mg L-1 P, vs. inflorescence biomass that was highest under 30-90 mg L-1 P. Thus, the P regime should be adjusted to reflect production goals. The results demonstrate the potential of mineral nutrition to regulate cannabinoid metabolism and optimize pharmacological quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sivan Shiponi
- Institute of Soil Water and Environmental Sciences, Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
- The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Nirit Bernstein
- Institute of Soil Water and Environmental Sciences, Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
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Ueda T, Murata M, Yokawa K. Single Wavelengths of LED Light Supplement Promote the Biosynthesis of Major Cyclic Monoterpenes in Japanese Mint. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:1420. [PMID: 34371623 PMCID: PMC8309444 DOI: 10.3390/plants10071420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 07/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Environmental light conditions influence the biosynthesis of monoterpenes in the mint plant. Cyclic terpenes, such as menthol, menthone, pulegone, and menthofuran, are major odor components synthesized in mint leaves. However, it is unclear how light for cultivation affects the contents of these compounds. Artificial lighting using light-emitting diodes (LEDs) for plant cultivation has the advantage of preferential wavelength control. Here, we monitored monoterpene contents in hydroponically cultivated Japanese mint leaves under blue, red, or far-red wavelengths of LED light supplements. Volatile cyclic monoterpenes, pulegone, menthone, menthol, and menthofuran were quantified using the head-space solid phase microextraction method. As a result, all light wavelengths promoted the biosynthesis of the compounds. Remarkably, two weeks of blue-light supplement increased all compounds: pulegone (362% increase compared to the control), menthofuran (285%), menthone (223%), and menthol (389%). Red light slightly promoted pulegone (256%), menthofuran (178%), and menthol (197%). Interestingly, the accumulation of menthone (229%) or menthofuran (339%) was observed with far-red light treatment. The quantification of glandular trichomes density revealed that no increase under light supplement was confirmed. Blue light treatment even suppressed the glandular trichome formation. No promotion of photosynthesis was observed by pulse-amplitude-modulation (PAM) fluorometry. The present result indicates that light supplements directly promoted the biosynthetic pathways of cyclic monoterpenes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ken Yokawa
- Faculty of Engineering, Kitami Institute of Technology, Hokkaido 090-8507, Japan; (T.U.); (M.M.)
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Ahmed B, Hijri M. Potential impacts of soil microbiota manipulation on secondary metabolites production in cannabis. J Cannabis Res 2021; 3:25. [PMID: 34217364 PMCID: PMC8254954 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-021-00082-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cannabis growing practices and particularly indoor cultivation conditions have a great influence on the production of cannabinoids. Plant-associated microbes may affect nutrient acquisition by the plant. However, beneficial microbes influencing cannabinoid biosynthesis remain largely unexplored and unexploited in cannabis production. OBJECTIVE To summarize study outcomes on bacterial and fungal communities associated with cannabis using high-throughput sequencing technologies and to uncover microbial interactions, species diversity, and microbial network connections that potentially influence secondary metabolite production in cannabis. MATERIALS AND METHOD A mini review was conducted including recent publications on cannabis and their associated microbiota and secondary metabolite production. RESULTS In this review, we provide an overview of the potential role of the soil microbiome in production of cannabinoids, and discussed that manipulation of cannabis-associated microbiome obtained through soil amendment interventions of diversified microbial communities sourced from natural forest soil could potentially help producers of cannabis to improve yields of cannabinoids and enhance the balance of cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) proportions. CONCLUSION Cannabis is one of the oldest cultivated crops in history, grown for food, fiber, and drugs for thousands of years. Extension of genetic variation in cannabis has developed into wide-ranging varieties with various complementary phenotypes and secondary metabolites. For medical or pharmaceutical purposes, the ratio of CBD to THC is key. Therefore, studying soil microbiota associated with cannabis and its potential impact on secondary metabolites production could be useful when selecting microorganisms as bioinoculant agents for enhanced organic cannabinoid production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bulbul Ahmed
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Université de Montréal, 4101 Sherbrooke Est, Montréal, Québec, H1X 2B2, Canada
| | - Mohamed Hijri
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Université de Montréal, 4101 Sherbrooke Est, Montréal, Québec, H1X 2B2, Canada.
- African Genome Center, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, 43150, Ben Guerir, Morocco.
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Naim-Feil E, Pembleton LW, Spooner LE, Malthouse AL, Miner A, Quinn M, Polotnianka RM, Baillie RC, Spangenberg GC, Cogan NOI. The characterization of key physiological traits of medicinal cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) as a tool for precision breeding. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 21:294. [PMID: 34174826 PMCID: PMC8235858 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-021-03079-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND For millennia, drug-type cannabis strains were extensively used for various medicinal, ritual, and inebriant applications. However, cannabis prohibition during the last century led to cultivation and breeding activities being conducted under clandestine conditions, while scientific development of the crop ceased. Recently, the potential of medicinal cannabis has been reacknowledged and the now expanding industry requires optimal and scientifically characterized varieties. However, scientific knowledge that can propel this advancement is sorely lacking. To address this issue, the current study aims to provide a better understanding of key physiological and phenological traits that can facilitate the breeding of advanced cultivars. RESULTS A diverse population of 121 genotypes of high-THC or balanced THC-CBD ratio was cultivated under a controlled environment facility and 13 plant parameters were measured. No physiological association across genotypes attributed to the same vernacular classification was observed. Floral bud dry weight was found to be positively associated with plant height and stem diameter but not with days to maturation. Furthermore, the heritability of both plant height and days to maturation was relatively high, but for plant height it decreased during the vegetative growth phase. To advance breeding efficacy, a prediction equation for forecasting floral bud dry weight was generated, driven by parameters that can be detected during the vegetative growth phase solely. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that selection for taller and fast-growing genotypes is likely to lead to an increase in floral bud productivity. It was also found that the final plant height and stem diameter are determined by 5 independent factors that can be used to maximize productivity through cultivation adjustments. The proposed prediction equation can facilitate the selection of prolific genotypes without the completion of a full cultivation cycle. Future studies that will associate genome-wide variation with plants morphological traits and cannabinoid profile will enable precise and accelerated breeding through genomic selection approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erez Naim-Feil
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia.
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, 3086, Australia.
| | - Luke W Pembleton
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
| | - Laura E Spooner
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
| | - Alix L Malthouse
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
| | - Amy Miner
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
| | - Melinda Quinn
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
| | - Renata M Polotnianka
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
| | - Rebecca C Baillie
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
| | - German C Spangenberg
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, 3086, Australia
| | - Noel O I Cogan
- Agriculture Victoria, AgriBio, Centre for AgriBioscience, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, 3086, Australia
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Feldzensztajn M, Wierzba P, Mazikowski A. Examination of Spectral Properties of Medicinal Plant Leaves Grown in Different Lighting Conditions Based on Mint Cultivation. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:4122. [PMID: 34203955 PMCID: PMC8232698 DOI: 10.3390/s21124122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cultivation in controlled environmental conditions can provide good quality medicinal herbs with consistent properties. A sensing system that can determine the contents of medicinal substances in plants using spectral characteristics of leaves would be a valuable tool. Viability of such sensing approach for mint had to be confirmed experimentally, as no data correlating contents of medicinal substances with spectral characteristics of leaves are available, to the best of authors' knowledge. In the first stage, presented in this paper, the influence of lighting on mint (Mentha rotundifolia) grown on a small hydroponic plantation was studied. Spectral characteristics of leaves were recorded by a spectrophotometer and colorimetric analysis was used to investigate the relationship between these characteristics and the spectrum of lighting. Dry mass yield was measured to test its dependence on the lighting. Dependence of chromaticity of leaves on the spectrum of light used in the cultivation was confirmed. Averaged spectra of leaves are distinguishable using a spectrophotometer and-in most cases-by a human observer. A partial correlation is observed between dry mass yield and the spectrum of lighting. Obtained results justify further research into the correlation between lighting and the contents of biological substances in medicinal plants using spectral characteristics of leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateusz Feldzensztajn
- Department of Metrology and Optoelectronics, Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12 Narutowicza Street, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland;
- NIVISS Sp. z o. o. Sp. k., Rdestowa Street 53D, 81-577 Gdynia, Poland
| | - Paweł Wierzba
- Department of Metrology and Optoelectronics, Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12 Narutowicza Street, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland;
| | - Adam Mazikowski
- Department of Metrology and Optoelectronics, Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12 Narutowicza Street, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland;
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Desaulniers Brousseau V, Wu BS, MacPherson S, Morello V, Lefsrud M. Cannabinoids and Terpenes: How Production of Photo-Protectants Can Be Manipulated to Enhance Cannabis sativa L. Phytochemistry. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:620021. [PMID: 34135916 PMCID: PMC8200639 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.620021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis sativa L. is cultivated for its secondary metabolites, of which the cannabinoids have documented health benefits and growing pharmaceutical potential. Recent legal cannabis production in North America and Europe has been accompanied by an increase in reported findings for optimization of naturally occurring and synthetic cannabinoid production. Of the many environmental cues that can be manipulated during plant growth in controlled environments, cannabis cultivation with different lighting spectra indicates differential production and accumulation of medically important cannabinoids, including Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabigerol (CBG), as well as terpenes and flavonoids. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation shows potential in stimulating cannabinoid biosynthesis in cannabis trichomes and pre-harvest or post-harvest UV treatment merits further exploration to determine if plant secondary metabolite accumulation could be enhanced in this manner. Visible LED light can augment THC and terpene accumulation, but not CBD. Well-designed experiments with light wavelengths other than blue and red light will provide more insight into light-dependent regulatory and molecular pathways in cannabis. Lighting strategies such as subcanopy lighting and varied light spectra at different developmental stages can lower energy consumption and optimize cannabis PSM production. Although evidence demonstrates that secondary metabolites in cannabis may be modulated by the light spectrum like other plant species, several questions remain for cannabinoid production pathways in this fast-paced and growing industry. In summarizing recent research progress on light spectra and secondary metabolites in cannabis, along with pertinent light responses in model plant species, future research directions are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Mark Lefsrud
- Department of Bioresource Engineering, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
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Westmoreland FM, Kusuma P, Bugbee B. Cannabis lighting: Decreasing blue photon fraction increases yield but efficacy is more important for cost effective production of cannabinoids. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0248988. [PMID: 33755709 PMCID: PMC7987162 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
LED technology facilitates a range of spectral quality, which can be used to optimize photosynthesis, plant shape and secondary metabolism. We conducted three studies to investigate the effect of blue photon fraction on yield and quality of medical hemp. Conditions were varied among studies to evaluate potential interactions with environment, but all environmental conditions other than the blue photon fraction were maintained constant among the five-chambers in each study. The photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD, 400 to 700 nm) was rigorously maintained at the set point among treatments in each study by raising the fixtures. The lowest fraction of blue photons was 4% from HPS, and increased to 9.8, 10.4, 16, and 20% from LEDs. There was a consistent, linear, 12% decrease in yield in each study as the fraction of blue photons increased from 4 to 20%. Dry flower yield ranged from 500 to 750 g m-2. This resulted in a photon conversion efficacy of 0.22 to 0.36 grams dry flower mass yield per mole of photons. Yield was higher at a PPFD of 900 than at 750 μmol m-2 s-1. There was no effect of spectral quality on CBD or THC concentration. CBD and THC were 8% and 0.3% at harvest in trials one and two, and 12% and 0.5% in trial three. The CBD/THC ratio was about 25 to 1 in all treatments and studies. The efficacy of the fixtures ranged from 1.7 (HPS) to 2.5 μmol per joule (white+red LED). Yield under the white+red LED fixture (10.4% blue) was 4.6% lower than the HPS on a per unit area basis, but was 27% higher on a per dollar of electricity basis. These findings suggest that fixture efficacy and initial cost of the fixture are more important for return on investment than spectral distribution at high photon flux.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paul Kusuma
- Crop Physiology Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Bruce Bugbee
- Crop Physiology Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
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