Antibodies to platelet factor 4-heparin after cardiopulmonary bypass in patients anticoagulated with unfractionated heparin or a low-molecular-weight heparin : clinical implications for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia

Increasing the Diagnostic Utility of Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT) Testing: An Academic Medical Center's Utilization Analysis and Intervention

BACKGROUND

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is a potentially life-threatening adverse drug reaction with numerous diagnostic challenges. Diagnosis of HIT begins with 4T score clinical assessment, followed by laboratory testing for those not deemed low risk. Laboratory testing for HIT includes screening [enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)] and confirmatory [serotonin release assay (SRA)] assays, wherein SRA testing can be pursued following a positive ELISA result. These tests aid diagnosis of HIT, but also introduce interpretive challenges, additional costs, and delays in clinical intervention.

METHODS

A retrospective review of 1011 HIT ELISA and 169 SRA tests performed over 5 years was conducted. ELISA percent inhibition and ELISA low-heparin optical density (OD) were evaluated for positive predictive value (PPV). Based on these findings, HIT ELISA reporting and management algorithm changes were implemented and metrics compared for 5 months pre- and post-intervention to assess intervention success.

RESULTS

Equivocal and positive HIT ELISA interpretation showed poor PPV based on percent inhibition (0.20 and 0.32, respectively). However, rising low-heparin OD correlated with increasing PPV (PPV of 0.00 for OD values 0.40-1.00, 0.29 for values 1.00-1.99, and 0.91 for values >2.00). Data-driven intervention decreased ELISA positivity rates (13% to 5%), decreased rates of SRA confirmatory testing overall (13% to 9%), decreased SRA testing rates for patients with non-negative ELISAs (78% to 43%), and increased heparin resumption (20% to 57%). Hematology consults remained relatively stable (78% and 86%).

CONCLUSIONS

Low-heparin OD-based HIT ELISA interpretation yielded enhanced PPV compared with percent inhibition-based interpretation. Implementation of data-driven changes improved testing stewardship and clinical management for patients with non-negative ELISAs.

Examining the controversies in venous thromboembolism prophylaxis for vascular surgery patients: A critical review

BACKGROUND

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a significant concern in vascular surgery due to its potentially severe consequences. Effective prophylactic measures are essential to minimize the risks associated with VTE. However, considerable controversy remains regarding the optimal strategies for VTE prevention in patients undergoing vascular procedures.

METHODS

This review critically analyzes key clinical research, guidelines, and expert opinions to explore the advantages and limitations of various VTE prophylaxis approaches. The pharmacological and mechanical methods are explored, with a focus on balancing the risk of VTE against the potential for bleeding complications, particularly in high-risk patients.

RESULTS

The review addresses controversial issues such as the choice of anticoagulants, dosage, timing, and duration of prophylaxis. The lack of consensus in existing guidelines and the variability in clinical practice regarding VTE prevention in vascular surgery patients is highlighted. The role of patient-specific risk factors, including the use of intraoperative anticoagulation and bleeding risks, is also examined.

CONCLUSION

This review provides a comprehensive evaluation of VTE prophylaxis strategies in vascular surgery, emphasizing the need for individualized, evidence-based approaches. Clarifying these controversies is crucial for optimizing patient outcomes and minimizing both thrombotic and hemorrhagic complications.

Diagnostic value of antibody-induced procoagulant platelets in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: communication from the ISTH SSC Subcommittee on Platelet Immunology

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is an immune-mediated prothrombotic disorder characterized by a drop in platelet count and an increased risk of thromboembolic events. The accurate diagnosis of HIT involves clinical assessment and laboratory testing with well-characterized functional tests. Recent research has shown the potential of investigating procoagulant platelet formation induced by HIT antibodies. To successfully implement these assays in clinical laboratories, careful consideration of technical and preanalytical factors is crucial. In this communication from the SSC Platelet Immunology, we provide a consensus from experts on the use of flow cytometry in HIT diagnosis, highlighting the importance of standardized protocols.

Laboratory and demographic predictors of functional assay positive status in suspected heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: A multicenter retrospective cohort study

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is an antibody-mediated immune response against platelet factor 4 (PF4) bound to heparin anticoagulants. A priori identification of patients at-risk for HIT remains elusive and a number of risk factors have been identified, but these associations and their effect sizes have limited validation in large cohorts of suspected HIT patients. The aim of this study was to investigate existing anti-PF4/heparin antibody thresholds and model the relationship of demographic variables and anti-PF4/heparin antibody levels with functional assay positivity across multiple institutions in the absence of detailed clinical data. In a large collection of suspected HIT patients (n = 8904), we tested for associations between laboratory and demographic variables and functional assay positive status as well as anti-PF4/heparin antibody levels. We also tested for correlation between IgG-specific and polyspecific (IgG/IgA/IgM) anti-PF4/heparin antibody values and their ability to predict functional assay positive status using area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUROC). Logistic regression identified increasing anti-PF4/heparin antibody OD levels (OR = 51.84 [37.27-74.34], p < 2.0 × 10-16) and female sex (OR = 1.47 [1.19-1.82], p = 3.5 × 10-4) as risk factors for positive functional assay in the largest cohort with consistent effect sizes in two other cohorts. In a subset of 1175 patients, polyspecific and IgG-specific anti-PF4/heparin antibody values were heterogeneous (mean coefficient of variation = 31.9 %), but strongly correlated (rho = 0.878; p < 2 × 10-16) with similar prediction of functional assay positivity (polyspecific AUROC = 0.976 and IgG-specific AUROC = 0.980). Thus, we recapitulate previously identified risk factors of functional assay positivity, providing precise effect sizes in a large observational population of suspected HIT patients. Our data reinforce the necessity of functional assay confirmation and suggest that, despite heterogeneity, polyspecific and IgG-specific anti-PF4/heparin antibody assays predict functional assay positive status similarly, even in the absence of 4Ts scores and detailed clinical data.

Novel Knowledge about Molecular Mechanisms of Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia Type II and Treatment Targets

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia type II (HIT II), as stated in the literature, occurs in about 3% of all patients and in 0.1-5% of surgical patients. Thrombosis develops in 20-64% of patients with HIT. The mortality rate in HIT II has not decreased using non-heparin treatment with anticoagulants such as argatroban and lepirudin. An improved understanding of the pathophysiology of HIT may help identify targeted therapies to prevent thrombosis without subjecting patients to the risk of intense anticoagulation. The review will summarize the current knowledge about the pathogenesis of HIT II, potential new therapeutic targets related to it, and new treatments being developed. HIT II pathogenesis involves multi-step immune-mediated pathways dependent on the ratio of PF4/heparin and platelet, monocyte, neutrophil, and endothelium activation. For years, only platelets were known to take part in HIT II development. A few years ago, specific receptors and signal-induced pathways in monocytes, neutrophils and endothelium were revealed. It had been shown that the cells that had become active realised different newly formed compounds (platelet-released TF, TNFα, NAP2, CXCL-7, ENA-78, platelet-derived microparticles; monocytes-TF-MPs; neutrophils-NETs), leading to additional cell activation and consequently thrombin generation, resulting in thrombosis. Knowledge about FcγIIa receptors on platelets, monocytes, neutrophils and FcγIIIa on endothelium, chemokine (CXCR-2), and PSGL-1 receptors on neutrophils could allow for the development of a new non-anticoagulant treatment for HIT II. IgG degradation, Syk kinase and NETosis inhibition are in the field of developing new treatment possibilities too. Accordingly, IdeS and DNases-related pathways should be investigated for better understanding of HIT pathogenesis and the possibilities of being the HIT II treatment targets.

Variable serotonin release assay pattern and specificity of PF4-specific antibodies in HIT, and clinical relevance

BACKGROUND

The diagnosis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) requires functional assays to demonstrate that platelet factor 4 (PF4)-specific antibodies activate platelets, typically when therapeutic heparin (H) concentrations are tested ("classical" pattern). Some HIT samples also activate platelets without heparin ("atypical" pattern), but with unclear clinical significance.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to assess whether platelet activation pattern and some characteristics of PF4-specific antibodies were associated with the severity of HIT.

PATIENTS/METHODS

Serotonin release assay (SRA) pattern of 81 HIT patients were analyzed and compared with their clinical and biological data, including levels of anti-PF4/H immunoglobulin G (IgG) and anti-PF4 IgG in 47 of them.

RESULTS

Higher anti-PF4/H IgG titers were measured in patients with an "atypical" SRA (optical density 2.52 vs. 1.94 in those with a "classical" pattern, p < .001). Patients of both groups had similar platelet count (PC) nadir and time to recovery, but those with an "atypical" SRA more frequently developed thrombotic events (69% vs. 34%, p = .037). Significant levels of anti-PF4 IgG were detected in both groups (38% and 61%, respectively). Whatever the SRA pattern, a lower PC nadir (35 vs. 53 G/L, p = .006) and a longer PC recovery time (6 vs. 3 days, p = .015) were evidenced in patients with anti-PF4 antibodies, compared with those with anti-PF4/H IgG only.

CONCLUSIONS

An atypical SRA pattern with elevated anti-PF4/H IgG titers seems associated with an increased risk of thrombosis in HIT. IgG antibodies to native PF4 may contribute to more severe and persistent thrombocytopenia, and their detection could be useful in clinical practice.

Temporal presentations of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia following cardiac surgery: A single-center, retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is an important adverse drug reaction that can occur postcardiac surgery. Preoperative exposure to unfractionated heparin (UFH) is common, raising the issue of how frequently cardiac surgery-associated HIT occurs after immunizing preoperative exposure to heparin.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the frequency and clinical picture of HIT occurring within 4 days of cardiac surgery (early presentation) versus later presentations (typical, delayed).

METHODS

We identified patients with laboratory-confirmed HIT following cardiac surgery over 30 years in a single cardiac surgery center. Three different clinical presentations of HIT were identified: typical (HIT-related platelet count fall beginning between postoperative days [PODs] 5-10), delayed (patients with falls after POD10 or who presented following hospital discharge), and early (established before POD5, including during cardiac surgery [acute intraoperative HIT]).

RESULTS

Of 129 patients identified with HIT complicating cardiac surgery, 100 had typical and 16 had delayed presentation of HIT; only 13 patients (10.1%) presented with early HIT, all of whom had received exposure to UFH during the 10 days before cardiac surgery. No patient was identified in whom remote preoperative UFH exposure was implicated in explaining early HIT. Notably, five patients appeared to have had acute intraoperative HIT, without immediate adverse consequences.

CONCLUSIONS

Approximately 90% of patients with HIT after cardiac surgery appear to develop this complication due to immunization triggered by cardiac surgery; however, in approximately 10% of patients, early presentation during the first four PODs (or intraoperatively) can be explained by recent immunizing exposure to heparin.

Venous Thromboembolism in Sepsis: From Bench to Bedside

Septic patients were commonly affected by coagulation disorders; thus, they are at high risk of thrombotic complications. In the last decades, novel knowledge has emerged about the interconnected and reciprocal influence of immune and coagulation systems. This phenomenon is called immunothrombosis, and it indicates an effective response whereby immune cells and the coagulation cascade cooperate to limit pathogen invasion and endothelial damage. When this network becomes dysregulated due to a systemic inflammatory activation, as occurs during sepsis, it can result in pathological thrombosis. Endothelium, platelets and neutrophils are the main characters involved in this process, together with the TF and coagulation cascade, playing a critical role in both the host defense and in thrombogenesis. A deeper understanding of this relationship may allow us to answer the growing need for clinical instruments to establish the thrombotic risk and treatments that consider more the connection between coagulation and inflammation. Heparin remains the principal therapeutical response to this phenomenon, although not sufficiently effective. To date, no other significant alternatives have been found yet. In this review, we discuss the role of sepsis-related inflammation in the development and resolution of venous thromboembolism and its clinical implications, from bench to bedside.

Low ADAMTS-13 predicts adverse outcomes in hospitalized patients with suspected heparin-induced thrombocytopenia

BACKGROUND

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is a life-threatening thrombotic complication after heparin exposure. However, the role of ADAMTS-13 and von Willebrand factor (VWF) in the disease process and outcomes of HIT is not known.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the potential role of ADAMTS-13 and VWF in hospitalized patients suspected with HIT.

METHODS

Associations of the HIT tests, ADAMTS-13 activity, and VWF antigen or activity with other clinical parameters and outcomes in the patients suspected with HIT were determined.

RESULTS

Of 261 patients, 87 (33.3%) were positive and 174 (66.7%) were negative for a HIT antibody determined by an enzyme immunoassay (EIA). Of these 87 EIA+ patients, 31 (35.6%) were also positive but 56 (64.4%) were negative for serotonin-releasing assay (SRA). There was no statistically significant difference among all three groups (i.e., EIA-, EIA+/SRA+, and EIA+/SRA-) as to their demographic features, reasons for admission to the hospital, type of procedures performed, and in-hospital mortality. Compared to those in the healthy controls, plasma ADAMTS-13 activity in patients suspected with HIT was significantly lower but plasma VWF antigen (VWFAg) and activity (VWFAc) in these patients were significantly higher. While there was no statistically significant difference among all three groups regarding plasma levels of ADAMTS-13 activity, VWFAg, and VWFAc, plasma levels of ADAMTS-13 activity <50% or the low ratios of ADAMTS-13 activity to VWFAg (or VWFAc) are highly predictive for a 90-day mortality rate, particularly in the EIA+SRA+ group.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that relative deficiency of plasma ADAMTS-13 activity in hospitalized patients suspected with HIT is common, which may contribute at least in part to the adverse outcomes in this patient population, particularly in those with true HIT.

Hypotheses behind the very rare cases of thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination

As of 4 April 2021, a total of 169 cases of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) and 53 cases of splanchnic vein thrombosis were reported to EudraVigilance among around 34 million people vaccinated in the European Economic Area and United Kingdom with COVID-19 Vaccine AstraZeneca, a chimpanzee adenoviral vector (ChAdOx1) encoding the spike protein antigen of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The first report of the European Medicines Agency gathering data on 20 million people vaccinated with Vaxzevria® in the UK and the EEA concluded that the number of post-vaccination cases with thromboembolic events as a whole reported to EudraVigilance in relation to the number of people vaccinated was lower than the estimated rate of such events in the general population. However, the EMA's Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee concluded that unusual thromboses with low blood platelets should be listed as very rare side effects of Vaxzevria®, pointing to a possible link. The same issue was identified with the COVID-19 Vaccine Janssen (Ad26.COV2.S). Currently, there is still a sharp contrast between the clinical or experimental data reported in the literature on COVID-19 and the scarcity of data on the unusual thrombotic events observed after the vaccination with these vaccines. Different hypotheses might support these observations and should trigger further in vitro and ex vivo investigations. Specialized studies were needed to fully understand the potential relationship between vaccination and possible risk factors in order to implement risk minimization strategies.

Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia After Mitral Valve Replacement

Background: Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is a rare autoimmune reaction that involves a decrease in platelet count following heparin exposure and can be associated with life-threatening thrombosis. Because of their prolonged heparin exposure, patients undergoing cardiac surgery are at risk of HIT, with an incidence of 0.1% to 3%. Case Report: A 65-year-old male with severe mitral regurgitation and preoperative ejection fraction of 20% to 25% underwent mitral valve bioprosthetic replacement with coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Heparin anticoagulation was started on postoperative day (POD) 1. Respiratory failure resulted in prolonged mechanical ventilation and heparinization without the ability to initiate warfarin. While the patient was on heparin, his platelet count declined on POD 2 and then steadily increased to above the preoperative level on POD 7. On POD 10, the patient's platelet count dramatically decreased, and on POD 13 he developed acute common femoral artery occlusion necessitating embolectomy. Intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography revealed heavy thrombus burden across the mitral bioprosthesis. HIT was confirmed with a positive heparin-induced platelet antibody and serotonin release assay. Heparin was stopped and argatroban initiated. The patient underwent reoperative bioprosthetic mitral valve replacement on POD 18 using bivalirudin intraoperatively. Despite resolution of HIT, the patient developed sepsis and died on POD 59. Conclusion: The diagnosis of HIT is challenging in patients who undergo cardiopulmonary bypass. Platelet counts often decrease 40% to 60% during the first 72 hours postoperatively, and the frequency of nonspecific anti-platelet factor 4/heparin antibody formation is high. These findings can mask early signs of HIT and delay diagnosis.

Spontaneous HIT syndrome: Knee replacement, infection, and parallels with vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is characterized clinically by thrombocytopenia, hypercoagulability, and increased thrombosis risk, and serologically by platelet-activating anti-platelet factor 4 (PF4)/heparin antibodies. Heparin-"induced" acknowledges that HIT is usually triggered by a proximate immunizing exposure to heparin. However, certain non-heparin medications (pentosan polysulfate, hypersulfated chondroitin sulfate, fondaparinux) can trigger "HIT". Further, naturally-occurring polyanions (bacterial lipopolysaccharide, DNA/RNA) can interact with PF4 to recapitulate HIT antigens. Indeed, immunologic presensitization to naturally-occurring polyanions could explain why HIT more closely resembles a secondary, rather than a primary, immune response. In 2008 it was first reported that a HIT-mimicking disorder can occur without any preceding exposure to heparin or polyanionic medications. Termed "spontaneous HIT syndrome", two subtypes are recognized: (a) surgical (post-orthopedic, especially post-total knee arthroplasty, and (b) medical (usually post-infectious). Recently, COVID-19 adenoviral vector vaccination has been associated with a thrombotic thrombocytopenic disorder associated with positive PF4-dependent enzyme-immunoassays and serum-induced platelet activation that is maximal when PF4 is added. Vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT) features unusual thromboses (cerebral venous thrombosis, splanchnic vein thrombosis) similar to those seen in spontaneous HIT syndrome. The emerging concept is that classic HIT reflects platelet-activating anti-PF4/heparin antibodies whereas spontaneous HIT syndrome and other atypical "autoimmune HIT" presentations (delayed-onset HIT, persisting HIT, heparin "flush" HIT) reflect heparin-independent platelet-activating anti-PF4 antibodies-although the precise relationships between PF4 epitope targets and the clinical syndromes remain to be determined. Treatment of spontaneous HIT syndrome includes non-heparin anticoagulation (direct oral Xa inhibitors favored over direct thrombin inhibitors) and high-dose immunoglobulin.

Comparison of Clinical Scoring Tools to Predict Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia in Cardiac Surgery

The 4Ts and HIT-Expert Probability (HEP) scoring tools for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) have not been validated in cardiac surgery patients, and the reported sensitivity and specificity of the Post-Cardiopulmonary Bypass (CPB) scoring tool vary widely in the 2 available analyses. It remains unclear which of the available scoring tools most accurately predicts HIT in this population. Forty-nine HIT-positive patients who underwent on-pump cardiac surgery within a 6-year period were loosely matched to 98 HIT-negative patients in a 1:2 case-control design. The 4Ts, HEP, and CPB scores were calculated for each patient. Sensitivity and specificity of each tool were calculated using standard cut-offs. The Youden method was utilized to determine optimal cut-offs within receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves of each score, after which sensitivities and specificities were recalculated. Using standard cut-offs, the sensitivities for the CPB, HEP, and 4Ts scores were 100%, 93.9%, and 69.4%, respectively. Specificities were 51%, 49%, and 71.4%, respectively. The AUC of the scoring tool ROC curves were 0.961 for the CPB score, 0.773 for the HEP score, and 0.805 for the 4Ts score. Using the Youden method-derived optimal cut-off of  ≥3 points on the CPB score, sensitivity remained 100% with improved specificity to 88.9%. The CPB score is the preferred HIT clinical scoring tool in adult cardiac surgery patients, whereas the 4Ts score performed less effectively. A cut-off of ≥ 3 points on the CPB score could increase specificity while preserving high sensitivity, which should be validated in a prospective evaluation.

Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia after COVID-19 Vaccination: In Search of the Underlying Mechanism

The rollout of COVID-19 vaccines brings hope for successful pandemic mitigation and getting the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 under control. The vaccines authorized in Europe displayed a good safety profile in the clinical trials. However, during their post-authorization use, unusual thrombotic events associated with thrombocytopenia have rarely been reported for vector vaccines. This led to the temporary suspension of the AZD1222 vaccine (Oxford/AstraZeneca) in various European countries and the Ad26.COV2 vaccine (Janssen/Johnson&Johnson) in the United States, with regulatory bodies launching investigations into potential causal associations. The thromboembolic reactions were also rarely reported after mRNA vaccines. The exact cause of these adverse effects remains to be elucidated. The present paper outlines the hypotheses on the mechanisms behind the very rare thrombotic thrombocytopenia reported after the COVID-19 vaccination, along with currently existing evidence and future research prospects. The following are discussed: (i) the role of antibodies against platelet factor 4 (PF4), (ii) the direct interaction between adenoviral vector and platelets, (iii) the cross-reactivity of antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 spike protein with PF4, (iv) cross-reactivity of anti-adenovirus antibodies and PF4, (v) interaction between spike protein and platelets, (vi) the platelet expression of spike protein and subsequent immune response, and (vii) the platelet expression of other adenoviral proteins and subsequent reactions. It is also plausible that thrombotic thrombocytopenia after the COVID-19 vaccine is multifactorial. The elucidation of the causes of these adverse events is pivotal in taking precautionary measures and managing vaccine hesitancy. It needs to be stressed, however, that the reported cases are currently sporadic and that the benefits of COVID-19 vaccines vastly outweigh their potential risks.

A practical approach to evaluating postoperative thrombocytopenia

Identifying the cause(s) of postoperative thrombocytopenia is challenging. The postoperative period includes numerous interventions, including fluid administration and transfusion of blood products, medication use (including heparin), and increased risk of organ dysfunction and infection. Understanding normal thrombopoietin physiology and the associated expected postoperative platelet count changes is the crucial first step in evaluation. Timing of thrombocytopenia is the most important feature when differentiating causes of postoperative thrombocytopenia. Thrombocytopenia within 4 days of surgery is commonly caused by hemodilution and increased perioperative platelet consumption prior to thrombopoietin-induced platelet count recovery and transient platelet count overshoot. A much broader list of possible conditions that can cause late-onset thrombocytopenia (postoperative day 5 [POD5] or later) is generally divided into consumptive and destructive causes. The former includes common (eg, infection-associated disseminated intravascular coagulation) and rare (eg, postoperative thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura) conditions, whereas the latter includes such entities as drug-induced immune thrombocytopenia or posttransfusion purpura. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia is a unique entity associated with thrombosis that is typically related to intraoperative/perioperative heparin exposure, although it can develop following knee replacement surgery even in the absence of heparin exposure. Very late onset (POD10 or later) of thrombocytopenia can indicate bacterial or fungal infection. Lastly, thrombocytopenia after mechanical device implantation requires unique considerations. Understanding the timing and severity of postoperative thrombocytopenia provides a practical approach to a common and challenging consultation.

Review: The Emerging Role of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Sepsis and Sepsis-Associated Thrombosis

Patients with sepsis commonly suffer from coagulation dysfunction and lead to the formation of thrombus. During the development of sepsis, neutrophils migrate from the circulating blood to infected tissues and mediate the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) that kill pathogens. However, the overactivation of neutrophils can promote the formation of immunothrombosis and even cause disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), which damages microcirculation. The outcome of sepsis depends on early recognition and intervention, so clinical evaluation of NETs function may be a valuable biomarker for early diagnosis of sepsis. The interaction of NETs with platelets, complement, and endothelium mediates the formation of immunothrombosis in sepsis. Inhibiting the formation of NETs is also considered to be one of the potential treatments for sepsis. In this review, we will discuss the key role of neutrophils and NETs in sepsis and septic thrombosis, in order to reveal new mechanisms for thrombosis treatment of sepsis.

Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia: A Review of New Concepts in Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Management

Knowledge on heparin-induced thrombocytopenia keeps increasing. Recent progress on diagnosis and management as well as several discoveries concerning its pathogenesis have been made. However, many aspects of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia remain partly unknown, and exact application of these new insights still need to be addressed. This article reviews the main new concepts in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia.

Quantitative and Qualitative Platelet Derangements in Cardiac Surgery and Extracorporeal Life Support

Thrombocytopenia and impaired platelet function are known as intrinsic drawbacks of cardiac surgery and extracorporeal life supports (ECLS). A number of different factors influence platelet count and function including the inflammatory response to a cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) or to ECLS, hemodilution, hypothermia, mechanical damage and preoperative treatment with platelet-inhibiting agents. Moreover, although underestimated, heparin-induced thrombocytopenia is still a hiccup in the perioperative management of cardiac surgical and, above all, ECLS patients. Moreover, recent investigations have highlighted how platelet disorders also affect patients undergoing biological prosthesis implantation. Though many hypotheses have been suggested, the mechanism underlying thrombocytopenia and platelet disorders is still to be cleared. This narrative review aims to offer clinicians a summary of their major causes in the cardiac surgery setting.

The clinical correlates of vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia after immunisation with adenovirus vector-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines

We are at a critical stage in the COVID-19 pandemic where vaccinations are being rolled out globally, in a race against time to get ahead of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus and the emergence of more highly transmissible variants. A range of vaccines have been created and received either emergency approval or full licensure. To attain the upper hand, maximum vaccine synthesis, deployment, and uptake as rapidly as possible is essential. However, vaccine uptake, particularly in younger adults is dropping, at least in part fuelled by reports of rare complications associated with specific vaccines. This review considers how vaccination with adenovirus vector-based vaccines against the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus might cause rare cases of thrombosis and thrombocytopenia in some recipients. A thorough understanding of the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms that mediate this syndrome may help to identify methods to prevent these very rare, but serious side effects. This will also help facilitate the identification of those at highest risk from these outcomes, so that we can work towards a stratified approach to vaccine deployment to mitigate these risks.

Clinical validation of immunoassay HemosIL® AcuStar HIT-IgG (PF4-H) in the diagnosis of Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia

Heparin induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is a life and limb-threatening complication of heparin exposure. The misdiagnosis of this disease can have major consequences on the patients. The objective of this study was to evaluate a diagnostic strategy that combines the 4Ts score with the result of HemosIL® AcuStar HIT-IgG (PF4-H) to confirm the diagnosis of HIT. Citrated plasmas from 1300 patients with suspicion of HIT were analyzed with a fully automated quantitative chemiluminescent immunoassay (HemosIL® AcuStar HIT-IgG (PF4/H)). If the IgG anti-PF4/H antibodies were positive (cut-off, 1 U/mL), HIT diagnosis was confirmed using functional tests. In total, 1300 samples of consecutive patients were enrolled, 94 (7.2%) of which gave positive results in HemosIL® AcuStar-IgG. HIT was diagnosed in 65 out of these patients, corresponding to a prevalence of 5%. Using ROC curve analysis, patients were divided into three groups according to their titer of antibodies. Higher values of the IgG (PF4-H) were associated with increased probability of HIT, and the diagnostic specificity was greatly increased using the combination of a 4Ts score > 3 and a positive titer ≥ 3.25 U/mL. Importantly, the diagnostic specificity is 100% when the titer is > 12.40 U/mL. We demonstrated that higher values of Anti PF4/H Antibodies were associated with a high probability of having HIT. A titer of HemosIL® IgG (PF4-H) > 12.40 U/mL has a specificity of 100% which should no require a functional test to confirm the diagnosis of HIT.

Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia: A Focus on Thrombosis

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia is an immune-mediated disorder caused by antibodies that recognize complexes of platelet factor 4 and heparin. Thrombosis is a central and unpredictable feature of this syndrome. Despite optimal management, disease morbidity and mortality from thrombosis remain high. The hypercoagulable state in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia is biologically distinct from other thrombophilic disorders in that clinical complications are directly attributable to circulating ultra-large immune complexes. In some individuals, ultra-large immune complexes elicit unchecked cellular procoagulant responses that culminate in thrombosis. To date, the clinical and biologic risk factors associated with thrombotic risk in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia remain elusive. This review will summarize our current understanding of thrombosis in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia with attention to its clinical features, cellular mechanisms, and its management.

Heparin induces neutrophil elastase-dependent vital and lytic NET formation

Heparin is used extensively as an anticoagulant in a broad range of diseases and procedures; however, its biological effects are not limited to coagulation and remain incompletely understood. Heparin usage can lead to the life-threatening complication known as heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), caused by the development of antibodies against heparin/PF4 complexes. Here, we demonstrate the ability of heparin to induce neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). NETs occurred with cell lysis and death, but live neutrophils releasing extracellular DNA strands, known as vital NETs, also occurred abundantly. Formation of NETs was time and dose dependent, and required reactive oxygen species and neutrophil elastase. Other compounds related to heparin such as low molecular weight heparin, fondaparinux and heparan sulfate either failed to induce NETs, or did so to a much lesser extent. Our findings suggest the ability of heparin to directly induce NET formation should be considered in the context of heparin treatment and HIT pathogenesis.

Prospective evaluation of two specific IgG immunoassays (HemosIL® AcuStar HIT-IgG and HAT45G® ) for the diagnosis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: A Bayesian approach

INTRODUCTION

The accurate diagnosis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is essential to ensure adequate treatment and prevent complications. First step diagnosis test are immunoassays including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and rapid immunoassays.

METHODS

Using a Bayesian approach, we prospectively evaluated the performance of the IgG PF4/polyvinylsulfonate ELISA and a chemiluminescent immunoassay (CLIA), which are specific for IgG and use the same antigenic target to detect HIT antibodies.

RESULTS

One hundred and eighty-four 184 consecutive patients with an intermediate (n = 159) or high (n = 25) clinical pretest probability of HIT based on the 4Ts score or platelet pattern were included. Both immunoassays (IAs) were performed on all 184 samples, and definite HIT was confirmed with a positive serotonin release assay in 29 patients (12.7%). The sensitivity (Ss) and negative predictive value (NPV) of ELISA were excellent (100%) allowing HIT to be excluded with good confidence when the test was negative. In addition, the Ss and NPV of the CLIA equalled 93.1% and 98.6%, respectively, as it was negative in two definite HIT. When the CLIA was negative, the post-test probability of HIT was 0.7% in case of intermediate risk. Although there was excellent agreement between CLIA and ELISA results, the quantitative values provided by the two IAs were not correlated.

CONCLUSION

AcuStar HIT^® detects more than 90% of HIT, as do all rapid IAs, and appears to be a good tool for excluding HIT when the pretest probability is intermediate. A chemiluminescent signal higher than 10 IU/mL is highly predictive of definite HIT with a PPV of 100%.

Pathogenesis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia

There are currently no effective substitutes for high intensity therapy with unfractionated heparin (UFH) for cardiovascular procedures based on its rapid onset of action, ease of monitoring and reversibility. The continued use of UFH in these and other settings requires vigilance for its most serious nonhemorrhagic complication, heparin induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). HIT is an immune prothrombotic disorder caused by antibodies that recognize complexes between platelet factor 4 (PF4) and polyanions such as heparin (H).The pathogenicity of anti-PF4/H antibodies is likely due to the formation of immune complexes that initiate intense procoagulant responses by vascular and hematopoietic cells that lead to the generation of platelet microparticles, monocyte and endothelial cell procoagulant activity, and neutrophil extracellular traps, among other outcomes. The development of anti-PF4/H antibodies after exposure to UFH greatly exceeds the incidence of clinical disease, but the biochemical features that distinguish pathogenic from nonpathogenic antibodies have not been identified. Diagnosis relies on pretest clinical probability, screening for anti-PF4/H antibodies and documentation of their platelet activating capacity. However, both clinical algorithms and test modalities have limited predictive values making diagnosis and management challenging. Given the unacceptable rates of recurrent thromboembolism and bleeding associated with current therapies, there is an unmet need for novel rational nonanticoagulant therapeutics based on the pathogenesis of HIT. We will review recent developments in our understanding of the pathogenesis of HIT and its implications for future approaches to diagnosis and management.

Prevention of Pulmonary and Venous Thromboembolism Post Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery - Literature Review

Objective

The current review evaluates recent literature on the different aspects of prophylaxis in postoperative pulmonary and venous thromboembolism and their main risk factors.

Methods

The literature survey was carried out based on the PubMed data using the keywords “coronary artery bypass graft” and “venous thromboembolism” as components of the search field title.

Results

Studies reported several risk factors for postoperative thromboembolism including advanced age, postoperative immobilization, type of thromboprophylaxis, obesity, and location of the surgery.

Conclusion

According to the studies, tailored prophylaxis could be easily adapted to decrease the intensity and duration of postoperative thromboembolism in a patient with several disorders and comorbidities, especially in cardiovascular disease.

Detection of Platelet-Activating Antibodies Associated with Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is a prothrombotic immune drug reaction caused by platelet-activating antibodies that in most instances recognize platelet factor 4 (PF4)/polyanion complexes. Platelet activation assays (i.e., functional assays) are more specific than immunoassays, since they are able to discern clinically relevant heparin-induced antibodies. All functional assays used for HIT diagnosis share the same principle, as they assess the ability of serum/plasma from suspected HIT patients to activate fresh platelets from healthy donors in the presence of several concentrations of heparin. Depending on the assay, donors’ platelets are stimulated either in whole blood (WB), platelet-rich plasma (PRP), or in a buffer medium (washed platelets, WP). In addition, the activation endpoint studied varies from one assay to another: platelet aggregation, membrane expression of markers of platelet activation, release of platelet granules. Tests with WP are more sensitive and serotonin release assay (SRA) is considered to be the current gold standard, but functional assays suffer from certain limitations regarding their sensitivity, specificity, complexity, and/or accessibility. However, the strict adherence to adequate preanalytical conditions, the use of selected platelet donors and the inclusion of positive and negative controls in each run are key points that ensure their performances.

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT): Review of incidence, diagnosis, and management

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is a life and limb-threatening complication of heparin exposure. Here, we review the pathogenesis, incidence, diagnosis, and management of HIT. The first step in thwarting devastating complications from this entity is to maintain a high index of clinical suspicion, followed by an accurate clinical scoring assessment using the 4Ts. Next, appropriate stepwise laboratory testing must be undertaken in order to rule out HIT or establish the diagnosis. In the interim, all heparin must be stopped immediately, and the patient administered alternative anticoagulation. Here we review alternative anticoagulation choice, therapy alternatives in the difficult-to-manage patient with HIT, and the problem of overdiagnosis.

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia treated with fondaparinux: single center experience

BACKGROUND

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is the most frequent drug-induced, immune-mediated thrombocytopenia. It is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Anticoagulation with heparin must be stopped immediately and replaced by some suggested alternative - lepirudin, danaparoid or argatroban. Fondaparinux has been also successfully used in HIT.

METHODS

We present a cohort of 10 patients diagnosed with HIT and treated in a university hospital in a period of four years. Diagnosis was based on Keeling´s scoring system, screening immunologic test for HIT (STic EXPERT® HIT) and sandwich ELISA (detection of IgG/heparin-PF4 antibodies). While other alternative anticoagulants are not readily available in our hospital, we used fondaparinux in all cases.

RESULTS

From 2014 to 2018, eight males and two females (mean age 67 years, range 46-86 years) were diagnosed with HIT in our hospital. This complication developed in 9 cases after low-molecular-weight heparin and in one after heparin flushes in hemodialysis. A drop-in platelet count developed in all patients, thrombotic complications in 7 and skin necrosis in 2 cases. Fondaparinux was used in all patients, including two cases with severe renal impairment, the dose was chosen individually. We observed complete platelet recovery in all cases. One patient died because of advanced malignancy, others did not have any complication. In 6 cases we switched to oral anticoagulation after platelet recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

In our group of 10 HIT patients fondaparinux was shown to be both safe and effective, even in those with severe renal impairment. Additional studies are warranted to confirm this observation.

Improved prediction of HIT in the SICU using an improved model of the Warkentin 4-T system: 3-T

BACKGROUND

The Warkentin 4-T scoring system for determining the pretest probability of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) has been shown to be inaccurate in the ICU and does not take into account body mass index (BMI).

METHODS

Prospectively collected data on patients in the surgical and cardiac ICU between January 2007 and February 2016 who were presumed to have HIT by clinical suspicion were reviewed. Patients were categorized into 3 BMI groups and assigned scores: Normal weight, overweight, and obese. Multivariate analyses were used to identify independent predictors of HIT.

RESULTS

A total of 523 patients met inclusion criteria. Multivariate analysis showed that only BMI, Timing, and oTher variables were independently associated with HIT. This new 3-T model was better than a five-component model consisting of the entire 4-T scoring system plus BMI (AUC = 0.791).

CONCLUSIONS

Incorporating patient 'T'hickness into a pretest probability model along with platelet 'T'iming and the exclusion of o'T'her causes of thrombocytopenia yields a simplified "3-T" scoring system that has increased predictive accuracy in the ICU.

[Diagnostic value of two immunoassays for detecting heparin/PF4 complex antibodies in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia]

Objectives: To assess the diagnostic values of latex immunoturbidimetric assay (LIA) and particle immunofiltration assay (PIFA) for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) . Methods: Samples from 94 patients with suspected HIT from May 2016 to July 2018 in our hospital were prospectively analyzed by the two immunoassays. Their medical records and further follow-up data were also collected and analyzed by our hematologists to make the 4Ts scores and confirm the diagnosis of HIT, respectively. Performance characteristics of the two immunoassays were assessed, including sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) . Their post-test probabilities (PTP) were also calculated based on the 4Ts score. Results: Among 94 cases, 15 (16.0%) had a positive HIT, including 6 of 37 (16.2%) with an intermediate, and 9 of 15 (60.0%) with a high 4Ts score. PIFA operating characteristics were: sensitivity 100.0% (15/15) , specificity 51.9% (41/80) , PPV 28.3% (15/53) , NPV 100.0% (41/41) . The positive PTP in intermediate and high 4Ts score group were 28.7% and 75.7%, respectively, while negative PTP were all 0. At manufacturers' cutoffs, LIA operating characteristics were: sensitivity 66.7% (10/15) , specificity 94.9% (75/79) , PPV 71.4% (10/14) and NPV 93.8% (75/80) . The positive and negative PTP in intermediate 4Ts score group were 71.8% and 6.3%, while 95.2% and 34.4% in high 4Ts score group, respectively. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis manifested that LIA was preferable than PIFA, and combining the 2 assays together was significantly better than single test. Conclusions: 4Ts score is still an important tool for the diagnosis of HIT. Combining clinical score with heparin/PF4 antibody assay can increase the accuracy of confirming or excluding HIT. Although PIFA is inferior to LIA in the diagnostic value, its user friendliness and 100% NPV have major advantages. Combining the 2 assays together can achieve a higher diagnostic value.

Routine monitoring for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia following lower limb arthroplasty: Is it necessary? A prospective study in a UK district general hospital

INTRODUCTION

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is a potentially life-threatening condition associated with heparin administration. Many orthopaedic units routinely prescribe low-molecular-weight heparins as thromboprophylaxis after hip and knee arthroplasty.

HYPOTHESIS

We postulated that routine platelet monitoring following heparin administration is of no clinical benefit. We therefore asked: firstly, what was the rate of thrombocytopenia in a large population of patients undergoing lower limb arthroplasty? Secondly, did this rate justify routine platelet monitoring?

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Unless contraindicated, all patients (n=1999, 53.05% female, mean age 69.23 years) at a UK district general hospital undergoing hip and knee arthroplasty were given daily prophylactic enoxaparin. Platelet counts were obtained between the 8th and 10th postoperative days and compared to preoperative baseline. A > 50% fall in platelet count was classified as "possible HIT". The minimal acceptable risk of thrombocytopenia was defined using The American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) 2012 guidelines, which recommend monitoring platelet counts in patients receiving heparin where the expected risk of HIT is>1% and by descriptive cost-benefit analysis based on the cost of routine platelet monitoring in the clinical setting.

RESULTS

Complete results were available for 1361 (68.1%) patients, comprising: 653 primary hips, 22 revision hips, 1 hip resurfacing, 665 primary knees, 19 revision knees and 1 unicompartmental knee replacement. Mean platelet level was 281.9×109/L preoperatively and 527.83×109/L postoperatively. Forty-four patients (3.2%) experienced a postoperative fall in platelet levels. However, no patient experienced a drop in platelets to less than 50% of the preoperative value.

DISCUSSION

The incidence of HIT in the elective arthroplasty population is low. Therefore, routine postoperative monitoring of platelets is not necessary in this population of patients.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

II, prospective study.

Acute Pulmonary Embolectomy Three Days following a Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Procedure

Pulmonary embolism is very rarely reported early after cardiac surgery, most probably due to full heparinisation during cardiopulmonary bypass. We report a 66-year-old man without thromboembolic history who presented three days after a coronary artery bypass grafting procedure with acute dyspnoea and haemodynamic instability. A CT scan confirmed paracentral bilateral pulmonary embolism requiring an urgent and successful embolectomy. Review of the literature confirms that pulmonary embolism may occur in up to 3% of post-cardiopulmonary bypass patients.

The possibility of pulmonary embolism must be taken into consideration in post-cardiopulmonary bypass patients with acute onset of chest pain and respiratory insufficiency.

Fibronectin modulates formation of PF4/heparin complexes and is a potential factor for reducing risk of developing HIT

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is caused by platelet-activating anti-platelet factor 4 (PF4)/heparin antibodies. Platelet activation assays that use "washed" platelets are more sensitive for detecting HIT antibodies than platelet-rich plasma (PRP)-based assays. Moreover, heparin-exposed patients vary considerably with respect to the risk of PF4/heparin immunization and, among antibody-positive patients, the risk of subsequent "breakthrough" of clinical HIT with manifestation of thrombocytopenia. We used washed platelets and PRP, standard laboratory HIT tests, and physicochemical methods to identify a plasma factor interfering with PF4/heparin complexes and anti-PF4/heparin antibody-platelet interaction, thus explaining differences in functional assays. To investigate a modulating risk for PF4/heparin immunization and breakthrough of HIT, we also tested 89 plasmas from 2 serosurveillance trials. Fibronectin levels were measured in 4 patient groups exhibiting different degrees of heparin-dependent immunization and expression of HIT. The heat-labile plasma protein, fibronectin, inhibited PF4 binding to platelets in a dose-dependent fashion, particularly in washed (vs PRP) systems. Fibronectin also inhibited PF4/heparin binding to platelets, anti-PF4/heparin antibody binding to PF4/heparin complexes, and anti-PF4/heparin antibody-induced platelet activation as a result of PF4/heparin complex disruption. In addition, plasma fibronectin levels increased progressively among the following 4 patient groups: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)+/serotonin-release assay (SRA)+/HIT+ < ELISA+/SRA+/HIT- ∼ ELISA+/SRA-/HIT- < ELISA-/SRA-/HIT-. Altogether, these findings suggest that fibronectin interferes with PF4/heparin complex formation and anti-PF4/heparin antibody-induced platelet activation. Reduced fibronectin levels in washed platelet assays help to explain the greater sensitivity of washed platelet (vs PRP) assays for HIT. More importantly, lower plasma fibronectin levels could represent a risk factor for PF4/heparin immunization and clinical breakthrough of HIT.

Polyreactive IgM initiates complement activation by PF4/heparin complexes through the classical pathway

The mechanisms by which exposure to heparin initiates antibody responses in many, if not most, recipients are poorly understood. We recently demonstrated that antigenic platelet factor 4 (PF4)/heparin complexes activate complement in plasma and bind to B cells. Here, we describe how this process is initiated. We observed wide stable variation in complement activation when PF4/heparin was added to plasma of healthy donors, indicating a responder "phenotype" (high, intermediate, or low). Proteomic analysis of plasma from these healthy donors showed a strong correlation between complement activation and plasma immunoglobulin M (IgM) levels (r = 0.898; P < .005), but not other Ig isotypes. Complement activation response to PF4/heparin in plasma displaying the low donor phenotype was enhanced by adding pooled IgM from healthy donors, but not monoclonal IgM. Depletion of IgM from plasma abrogated C3c generation by PF4/heparin. The complement-activating features of IgM are likely mediated by nonimmune, or natural, IgM, as cord blood and a monoclonal polyreactive IgM generate C3c in the presence of PF4/heparin. IgM facilitates complement and antigen deposition on B cells in vitro and in patients receiving heparin. Anti-C1q antibody prevents IgM-mediated complement activation by PF4/heparin complexes, indicating classical pathway involvement. These studies demonstrate that variability in plasma IgM levels correlates with functional complement responses to PF4/heparin. Polyreactive IgM binds PF4/heparin, triggers activation of the classical complement pathway, and promotes antigen and complement deposition on B cells. These studies provide new insights into the evolution of the heparin-induced thrombocytopenia immune response and may provide a biomarker of risk.

Pharmacogenetics to prevent heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: what do we know?

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is a life-threatening, immune-mediated adverse reaction to heparin anticoagulants. The inability to predict HIT represents a considerable liability associated with heparin administration. Genetic studies of HIT are challenging due to the scarcity of true HIT cases, potential for misclassification, and many environmental risk factors. Genetic studies have not consistently identified risk alleles for HIT, the production of platelet factor 4/heparin antibodies or the thromboembolic complications of HIT. Genes implicated in HIT and platelet factor 4/heparin antibody levels include FCGR2A, TDAG8, HLA-DR and others. Compelling evidence also suggests that the FCGR2A H131R polymorphism is associated with HIT-related thrombosis. There is a need for well-powered, multiethnic studies with laboratory confirmation of HIT, detailed patient- and drug-specific data, and inclusion of both serologic and thromboembolic outcomes. Genomic biomarkers identified from such studies offer the possibility of shifting current clinical practice paradigms from early detection and treatment to prevention.

Disease burden, complication rates, and health-care costs of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in the USA: a population-based study

BACKGROUND

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia can be a life-threatening and limb-threatening complication of heparin therapy. Incidence and complication rates of this condition have been extrapolated from studies with modest sample sizes, and despite the availability of therapeutic interventions the outcomes of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia are not well understood. We aimed to estimate disease burden, complication rates, and costs of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in the USA.

METHODS

In this population-based study we analysed data from 2009 to 2013 from the Nationwide (National) Inpatient Sample (NIS), a large, all-payer inpatient health-care database in the USA. To validate the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) code for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (289.84), we defined the sensitivity and specificity of this code using patient data from 2013 from a local hospital (Froedtert Memorial Lutheran Hospital, Milwaukee, WI, USA). The primary outcomes assessed were the incidence of hospital discharges with codes for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and of discharges for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia associated with cardiopulmonary bypass, haemodialysis, hip or knee arthroplasty, trauma or injury (or both), and gingival or periodontal disease (or both). We also assessed the incidence of thrombosis, bleeding, limb or digit amputation, mortality, length of hospital stay, and associated hospital charges.

FINDINGS

Between 2009 and 2013, 97 566 discharges from the NIS assigned the ICD-9-CM code for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia, and 149 911 247 discharges coded for non-heparin-induced thrombocytopenia, were analysed. Overall, heparin-induced thrombocytopenia was identified in 97 566 (0·065%; SE 0·0012) of 150 008 813 discharges, corresponding to approximately one in 1500 hospital admissions. Patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass had the highest rates of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (7702 [0·63%; SE 0·03] of 1 230 362), followed by those undergoing haemodialysis (23 012 [0·47%; 0·01] of 4 908 100), those with gingival or periodontal disease, or both (106 [0·12%; 0·03] of 88 621), and those with trauma or injury, or both (541 [0·09%; 0·01] of 602 944); patients with hip (845 [0·04%; 0·004] of 1 943 353) and knee (676 [0·02%; 0·002] of 3 022 602) arthroplasty had the lowest rates of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Thrombosis (29 079 [29·8%; SE 0·4] of 97 566) and bleeding (6044 [6·2%; 0·2] of 97 566) were common complications in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia, and 1446 (23·9%; 1·2) of 6044 patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia who had haemorrhage died. 742 (0·76%; SE 0·06) of 97 566 patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia discharges underwent amputations compared with 173 043 (0·12%; 0·001) of 149 911 247 with non-heparin-induced thrombocytopenia discharges (adjusted odds ratio 5·095 [95% CI 4·309-6·023]; p<0·0001). Overall, in-hospital mortality was 9842 (10·1%; SE 0·2) of 97 508 in discharge summaries coded for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia compared with 3 206 700 (2·1%; 0·01) of 149 811 891 in discharges for non-heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (adjusted odds ratio 4·075 [95% CI 3·846-4·317]; p<0·0001). The median length of stay among live discharges was 8·9 days (IQR 4·6-17·1) and total hospital charges were US$83 072 (IQR 37 240-188 419) for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia discharges compared with 2·6 days (1·4-4·8) and $21 360 (11 426-41 917) for non-heparin-induced thrombocytopenia discharges (p<0·0001 for both). 333 discharges from a local hospital were analysed to assess the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of the heparin-induced thrombocytopenia ICD-9-CM code; sensitivity was 90·9% (95% CI 57·1-99·5) and specificity was 94·4% (91·1-96·6).

INTERPRETATION

Complication rates for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia remain high and more effective preventive and treatment interventions are needed.

FUNDING

None.

Prevalence and outcome of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia diagnosed under veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: a retrospective nationwide study

PURPOSE

Thrombocytopenia is a frequent and serious adverse event in patients treated with veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO) for refractory cardiogenic shock. Similarly to postcardiac surgery patients, heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) could represent the causative underlying mechanism. However, the epidemiology as well as related mortality regarding HIT and VA-ECMO remains largely unknown. We aimed to define the prevalence and associated 90-day mortality of HIT diagnosed under VA-ECMO.

METHODS

This retrospective study included patients under VA-ECMO from 20 French centers between 2012 and 2016. Selected patients were hospitalized for more than 3 days with high clinical suspicion of HIT and positive anti-PF4/heparin antibodies. Patients were classified according to results of functional tests as having either Confirmed or Excluded HIT.

RESULTS

A total of 5797 patients under VA-ECMO were screened; 39/5797 met the inclusion criteria, with HIT confirmed in 21/5797 patients (0.36% [95% CI] [0.21-0.52]). Fourteen of 39 patients (35.9% [20.8-50.9]) with suspected HIT were ultimately excluded because of negative functional assays. Drug-induced thrombocytopenia tended to be more frequent in Excluded HIT at the time of HIT suspicion (p = 0.073). The platelet course was similar between Confirmed and Excluded HIT (p = 0.65). Mortality rate was 33.3% [13.2-53.5] in Confirmed and 50% [23.8-76.2] in Excluded HIT (p = 0.48).

CONCLUSIONS

Prevalence of HIT among patients under VA-ECMO is extremely low at 0.36% with an associated mortality rate of 33.3%, which appears to be in the same range as that observed in patients treated with VA-ECMO without HIT. In addition, HIT was ultimately ruled out in one-third of patients with clinical suspicion of HIT and positive anti-PF4/heparin antibodies.

Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia in the Critically Ill Patient

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is associated with clinically significant morbidity and mortality. Patients who are critically ill are commonly thrombocytopenic and exposed to heparin. Although HIT should be considered, it is not usually the cause of thrombocytopenia in the medical-surgical ICU population. A systematic approach to the patient who is critically ill who has thrombocytopenia according to clinical features, complemented by appropriate laboratory confirmation, should lead to a reduction in inappropriate laboratory testing and reduce the use of more expensive and less reliable anticoagulants. If the patient is deemed as being at intermediate or high risk for HIT or if HIT is confirmed by means of the serotonin-release assay, heparin should be stopped, heparin-bonded catheters should be removed, and a direct antithrombin or fondaparinux should be initiated to reduce the risk of thrombosis. Warfarin is absolutely contraindicated in the acute phase of HIT; if administered, its effects must be reversed by using vitamin K.

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in cardiac surgery and critically ill patients

Thrombocytopenia as well as anti-platelet factor 4/heparin (PF4/H) antibodies are common in cardiac surgery patients and those treated in the intensive care unit. In contrast, heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is uncommon in these populations (∼1 % and ∼0.5 %, respectively). A stepwise approach where testing for anti-PF4/H antibodies is performed only in patients with typical clinical symptoms of HIT improves diagnostic specificity of the laboratory assays without losing sensitivity, thereby helping to avoid overdiagnosis and resulting HIT overtreatment. Short-term re-exposure to heparin, especially given intraoperatively for cardiovascular surgery, is a reasonable therapeutic option in patients with a history of HIT who subsequently test negative for HIT antibodies. Organ failure(s), enhanced bleeding risks, and other characteristics require special considerations regarding non-heparin anticoagulation: Argatroban is the alternative anticoagulant with pharmacokinetics independent of renal function, but it has a prolonged half-life in case of impaired liver function. For bivalirudin, protocols during cardiopulmonary bypass surgery are established, and it is suitable for patients with liver insufficiency. A major issue of direct thrombin inhibitors are false high activated partial thromboplastin time values in patients with comorbidities affecting prothrombin, which can result in systematic underdosing of the drugs. This is not the case for danaparoid and fondaparinux, which can be monitored by anti-factor Xa assays, but have long half-lives and no suitable antidote. This review includes also information on management of on- and off-pump cardiac surgery, ventricular assist devices, percutaneous interventions, continuous renal replacement therapy, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in patients with HIT.

5B9, a monoclonal antiplatelet factor 4/heparin IgG with a human Fc fragment that mimics heparin-induced thrombocytopenia antibodies

Essentials No humanized monoclonal antibody was available to study heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). We developed the first anti-platelet factor 4 (PF4)/heparin antibody with a human Fc fragment. This antibody (5B9) fully mimics the effects of human HIT antibodies. 5B9 binds two regions within PF4 that may be critical for the pathogenicity of HIT antibodies.

SUMMARY

Background The diagnosis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is based on clinical and biological criteria, but a standard is lacking for laboratory assays. Moreover, no humanized HIT antibody is available for pathophysiological studies. Objective To characterise 5B9, a chimeric monoclonal antibody, which fully mimics the effects of human HIT antibodies. Methods/Results 5B9, a chimeric anti-platelet factor 4/heparin complexes IgG1 antibody, was obtained after immunizing specific transgenic mice. 5B9 induced heparin FcγRIIA-dependent platelet aggregation and tissue factor mRNA synthesis in monocytes. It also induced significant thrombocytopenia and thrombin generation in mice expressing human PF4 and FcγRIIA receptors. The binding of 5B9 to PF4/H complexes was inhibited by 15 of 25 HIT plasma samples and only three of 25 samples containing non-pathogenic anti-PF4/H antibodies. KKO, a murine IgG2b HIT antibody, also inhibited the binding of 5B9 to PF4/H, suggesting that epitopes recognized by both antibodies are close. A docking analysis based on VH and VL sequences of 5B9 showed that binding of 5B9 Fab to PF4 involved 12 and 12 residues in B and D monomers, respectively, including seven previously identified as critical to the formation of a PF4/KKO complex. Two regions (Asp-7 to Thr-15 and Ala-32 to Thr-38) therefore appeared important for the binding of 5B9 and KKO on PF4 modified by heparin. Conclusions 5B9 is the first anti-PF4/H monoclonal antibody with a human Fc fragment, which induces similar cellular activation as HIT antibodies. Moreover, 5B9 binds epitopes within PF4 that are likely to be critical for the pathogenicity of HIT antibodies.