Prevention of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases: a comparison of lifestyle factors in Westerners and East Asians

Comparing higher-dose and single standard-dose influenza vaccines in preventing cardiovascular events: a meta-analysis with 68,713 patients

INTRODUCTION

This manuscript offers an in-depth comparative examination of the effectiveness of higher-dose (double standard-dose and high-dose) influenza vaccines in contrast to a single standard-dose vaccine when it comes to alleviating major cardiovascular events.

STUDY DESIGN

Meta-Analysis.

METHODS

To conduct this study, an exhaustive search was carried out in the medical English literature using databases such as PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane CENTRAL until 10 April 2024. The evaluation of associations was achieved through the calculation of pooled relative risks (RRs) accompanied by their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

A meticulous analysis encompassed a comprehensive cohort of 68,713 patients. Among these participants, 34,430 individuals were randomly assigned to receive a higher-dose influenza vaccination, whereas 34,283 received the standard influenza vaccination. Contrary to initial expectations, a higher-dose influenza vaccine did not manifest elevated efficacy compared to the standard-dose vaccine in terms of mitigating major cardiovascular events. The computed pooled RR stood at 1.0, accompanied by a 95% CI ranging from 0.93 to 1.10.

CONCLUSION

While this systematic review and meta-analysis did not find a statistically significant advantage of higher-dose influenza vaccines over a single standard-dose vaccine in preventing major cardiovascular events, the observed trend towards risk reduction warrants continued investigation. These findings contribute to the ongoing dialogue surrounding vaccination strategies and their implications for cardiovascular outcomes.

The guardian of intracranial vessels: Why the pericyte?

Intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis (ICAS) is a pathological condition characterized by progressive narrowing or complete blockage of intracranial blood vessels caused by plaque formation. This condition leads to reduced blood flow to the brain, resulting in cerebral ischemia and hypoxia. Ischemic stroke (IS) resulting from ICAS poses a significant global public health challenge, especially among East Asian populations. However, the underlying causes of the notable variations in prevalence among diverse populations, as well as the most effective strategies for preventing and treating the rupture and blockage of intracranial plaques, remain incompletely comprehended. Rupture of plaques, bleeding, and thrombosis serve as precipitating factors in the pathogenesis of luminal obstruction in intracranial arteries. Pericytes play a crucial role in the structure and function of blood vessels and face significant challenges in regulating the Vasa Vasorum (VV)and preventing intraplaque hemorrhage (IPH). This review aims to explore innovative therapeutic strategies that target the pathophysiological mechanisms of vulnerable plaques by modulating pericyte biological function. It also discusses the potential applications of pericytes in central nervous system (CNS) diseases and their prospects as a therapeutic intervention in the field of biological tissue engineering regeneration.

Source apportionment of heavy metals in PM2.5 samples and effects of heavy metals on hypertension among schoolchildren in Tianjin

The prevalence of hypertension in children has increased significantly in recent years in China. The aim of this study was to provide scientific support to control ambient heavy metals (HMs) pollution and prevent childhood hypertension. In this study, ambient HMs in PM2.5 were collected, and 1339 students from Tianjin were randomly selected. Positive matrix factorization (PMF) was used to identify and determine the sources of HMs pollution. The generalized linear model, Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) and the quantile g-computation method were used to analyze the relationships between exposure to HMs and the risk of childhood hypertension. The results showed that HMs in PM2.5 mainly came from four sources: soil dust, coal combustion, incineration of municipal waste and the metallurgical industry. The positive relationships between As, Se and Pb exposures and childhood hypertension risk were found. Coal combustion and incineration of municipal waste were important sources of HMs in the occurrence of childhood hypertension. Based on these accomplishments, this study could provide guidelines for the government and individuals to alleviate the damaging effects of HMs in PM2.5. The government must implement policies to control prime sources of HMs pollution.

Characteristics and evaluation of atherosclerotic plaques: an overview of state-of-the-art techniques

Atherosclerosis is an important cause of cerebrovascular and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Lipid infiltration, inflammation, and altered vascular stress are the critical mechanisms that cause atherosclerotic plaque formation. The hallmarks of the progression of atherosclerosis include plaque ulceration, rupture, neovascularization, and intraplaque hemorrhage, all of which are closely associated with the occurrence of CVD. Assessing the severity of atherosclerosis and plaque vulnerability is crucial for the prevention and treatment of CVD. Integrating imaging techniques for evaluating the characteristics of atherosclerotic plaques with computer simulations yields insights into plaque inflammation levels, spatial morphology, and intravascular stress distribution, resulting in a more realistic and accurate estimation of plaque state. Here, we review the characteristics and advancing techniques used to analyze intracranial and extracranial atherosclerotic plaques to provide a comprehensive understanding of atheroma.

The effect of educational intervention in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases in patients with hypertension with application of health belief model: A quasi-experimental study

Background

The best methods for preventing and controlling cardiovascular diseases are preventive behaviours.

Aim

The purpose of the current study is to ascertain how educational intervention affects cardiovascular disease prevention.

Methods

The current investigation is a quasi-experimental study conducted in Shiraz, Iran, in the year 2022, focusing on 200 hypertension patients (by sample random sampling) that were divided into two groups: a control group consisting of 100 participants (63 males and 37 females) and an intervention group also consisting of 100 participants (58 males and 42 females). The data collection instrument comprises inquiries pertaining to demographic factors as well as constructs of the health belief model (HBM) and preventive behaviours for cardiovascular diseases. The participants in both groups completed the questionnaire prior to and three months after the intervention. The intervention group underwent a total of six training sessions, each lasting 55 min.

Results

The results showed that after the intervention, the intervention group showed a significant increase in all cues of the HBM model except for the perceived barriers. Following a period of three months subsequent to the educational intervention, the experimental group also exhibited a notable reduction in blood pressure in comparison to the control group.

Conclusion

The findings of the study indicate that the utilisation of the HBM demonstrated positive outcomes in facilitating the promotion of cardiovascular disease prevention among patients diagnosed with hypertension. The promotion of health among individuals with high blood pressure can be both beneficial and feasible. Moreover, this particular model can be utilised as a comprehensive framework for the development, execution, and evaluation of advantageous and effective healthcare initiatives.

Association of Early and Supernormal Vascular Aging categories with cardiovascular disease in the Chinese population

Background

Early Vascular Aging and Supernormal Vascular Aging are two extreme phenotypes of vascular aging, and people in the two categories demonstrate distinct clinical characteristics and cardiovascular prognosis. However, the clinical implication of vascular aging categories in the Asian or Chinese population has not been investigated. We aimed to investigate the association between vascular aging categories and cardiovascular events in a Chinese cohort.

Methods

We explored the association of vascular aging categories with incident cardiovascular disease in a community cohort in Shanghai, China, which included 10,375 participants following up for 4.5 years. Vascular age was predicted by a multivariable linear regression model including classical risk factors and brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity. Early and Supernormal vascular aging groups were defined by 10% and 90% percentiles of Δ-age, which was calculated as chronological minus vascular age.

Results

We found that cardiovascular risk significantly increased in Early [hazard ratio (HR), 1.597 (95% CI, 1.043–2.445)] and decreased in Supernormal [HR, 0.729 (95% CI, 0.539–0.986)] vascular aging individuals, comparing with normal vascular aging subjects. The associations were independent of the Framingham risk score. Early vascular aging individuals also showed an elevated risk of total mortality [HR, 2.614 (95% CI, 1.302–5.249)]. Further, the associations of vascular aging categories with cardiovascular risk were much stronger in females than in males. Vascular aging categories with different cutoff levels expressed as percentiles (10th, 20th, and 25th) of Δ-age showed similar associations with cardiovascular risk.

Conclusions

In conclusion, the vascular aging categories could identify people with different levels of cardiovascular risk in the Chinese population, particularly in women.

Retinal microvasculature and vasoreactivity changes in hypertension using optical coherence tomography-angiography

PURPOSE

To evaluate the retinal vasculature and vasoreactivity of patients with hypertension (HTN) using spectral domain optical coherence tomography angiography (SD-OCTA).

METHODS

Patients with and without a diagnosis of HTN were included in this cross-sectional observational study. All eyes were imaged with SD-OCTA using 3 mm × 3 mm and 6 mm × 6 mm centered on both the fovea and optic disk. A second 6 mm × 6 mm scan was taken after a 30 s breath-hold. Vessel density (VD), vessel skeletonized density (VSD), and fractal dimension (FD) were calculated using customized MATLAB scripts. Vessel diameter index (VDI) was obtained by taking the ratio of VD to VSD. Vasoreactivity was measured by subtracting the VD or VSD before and after breath-hold (∆VD, ∆VSD).

RESULTS

Twenty-three eyes with HTN (17 patients) and 17 control eyes (15 patients) were included. In the 6 mm × 6 mm angiogram centered on fovea, the superficial capillary plexus (SCP) VD (ß =  - 0.029, p = 0.012), VSD (ß =  - 0.004, p = 0.043) and the choriocapillaris VD (ß =  - 0.021, p = 0.030) were significantly decreased in HTN compared to control eyes. Similarly, FD was decreased in both the SCP (ß =  - 0.012, p = 0.013) and choriocapillaris (ß =  - 0.009, p = 0.030). In the 3 mm × 3 mm angiogram centered on optic disk, SCP VDI (ß =  - 0.364, p = 0.034) was decreased. ∆VD and ∆VSD were both reduced in the DCP (ß =  - 0.034, p = 0.032; ß =  - 0.013, p = 0.043) and ∆VSD was elevated in the choriocapillaris of HTN eyes (ß = 0.004, p = 0.032).

CONCLUSIONS

The study used SD-OCTA to show significant differences in the retinal vasculature of hypertensive patients. It was also the first to demonstrate the potential of OCT-A to investigate retinal vascular reactivity in patients with HTN.

Blood Pressure and Stroke: A Review of Sex- and Ethnic/Racial-Specific Attributes to the Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Management of Raised Blood Pressure

Raised blood pressure (BP) is the leading cause of death and disability worldwide, and its particular strong association with stroke is well established. Although systolic BP increases with age in both sexes, raised BP is more prevalent in males in early adulthood, overtaken by females at middle age, consistently across all ethnicities/races. However, there are clear regional differences on when females overtake males. Higher BP among males is observed until the seventh decade of life in high-income countries, compared with almost 3 decades earlier in low- and middle-income countries. Females and males tend to have different cardiovascular disease risk profiles, and many lifestyles also influence BP and cardiovascular disease in a sex-specific manner. Although no hypertension guidelines distinguish between sexes in BP thresholds to define or treat hypertension, observational evidence suggests that in terms of stroke risk, females would benefit from lower BP thresholds to the magnitude of 10 to 20 mm Hg. More randomized evidence is needed to determine if females have greater cardiovascular benefits from lowering BP and whether optimal BP is lower in females. Since 1990, the number of people with hypertension worldwide has doubled, with most of the increase occurring in low- and-middle-income countries where the greatest population growth was also seen. Sub-Saharan Africa, Oceania, and South Asia have the lowest detection, treatment, and control rates. High BP has a more significant effect on the burden of stroke among Black and Asian individuals than Whites, possibly attributable to differences in lifestyle, socioeconomic status, and health system resources. Although pharmacological therapy is recommended differently in local guidelines, recommendations on lifestyle modification are often very similar (salt restriction, increased potassium intake, reducing weight and alcohol, smoking cessation). This overall enhanced understanding of the sex- and ethnic/racial-specific attributes to BP motivates further scientific discovery to develop more effective prevention and treatment strategies to prevent stroke in high-risk populations.

Attitude and self-care practice on hypertension among antihypertensive medication users in a tertiary care hospital Nepal

Background:

Hypertension a “silent killer” is a serious global health problem, whose prevalence is increasing in Nepal.

Objective:

This study aimed to determine the attitude and practice of hypertension among anti-hypertensive medication users in a tertiary care teaching hospital in western Nepal.

Methodology:

A hospital-based cross-sectional study design was used among 136 hypertensive patients under medication, aged ⩾ 30 years, and visiting medical outpatient department, medical ward, and geriatric ward, using a non-probability convenience sampling technique. Semi-structured questionnaires were used for data collection through interviews. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used, and a p value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results:

Most of the patients were male (56.6%), mean ± standard deviation age was 56.74 ± 12.58. Majority of them were Hindu (69.9%), upper caste people (29.4%), illiterate (22.1%), and house maker (27.2%). Half of the patients (50.7%) had a positive attitude and more than half (52.2%) had performed adequate self-care practice. Selected variables such as educational status and dietary pattern and attitude were significantly associated, whereas no association was found between sociodemographic variables and self-care practice. Attitude and self-care practices were found strongly associated with one another (p = 0.002).

Conclusion:

Our study found that half of the study population had positive attitude, and more than half of them had performed adequate self-care practice. Hence, educational interventions and awareness programs on dietary aspects should be focused for improving the attitude and practice of all the patient groups.

The effect of education based on health belief model on promoting preventive behaviors of hypertensive disease in staff of the Iran University of Medical Sciences

BACKGROUND

Hypertension is one of the major causes of many diseases, such as heart attack, strokes, kidney failure, and many internal disorders. This presentresearch study aimed to investigate the impact of educational programs based on the health belief model to promote hypertension prevention behavior of Iran University of Medical Sciences staff.

METHODS

This study has incorporated pretest-posttest quasi-experimental based on 128 staff members and randomly assigned the recruited and involved participants to an intervention (n = 64) and a control group (n = 64). The data collection tool was based on a questionnaire related to health belief model constructs based on 42 questions. The study interpreted the results using ANCOVA and robust ANCOVA as suitable approaches.

RESULTS

ANCOVA showed improvement in the cues to participants' action following educational interventional (p = 0.011). the robust ANCOVA specified that the intervention was successful for participants with low to moderate initial levels of knowledge, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived barriers, and self-efficacy scores. The levels of these components did not change in participants with very high baseline scores. Compared to a control group, regardless of baseline score, the perceived benefits and practice (behavior) of participants at the intervention group were improved significantly (P <  0.05).

CONCLUSION

This current study specified that the education-based health belief model effectively promotes hypertension preventive behaviors among Iran University of Medical Sciences staff.

Cigarette Smoking and Longitudinal Associations With Blood Pressure: The CARDIA Study

Background

The associations of chronic cigarette smoking with blood pressure (BP) remain mixed. It is unclear whether a lack of examination of racial differences contributed to the mixed findings in previous studies. Black smokers metabolize nicotine at a slower rate than White smokers and racial discrimination contributes to nicotine dependence and higher BP among Black smokers.

Methods and Results

We studied the association between cigarette smoking and longitudinal (30‐year) changes in systolic BP, diastolic BP, and pulse pressure (PP) in 4786 Black and White individuals from the CARDIA (Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults) study using repeated‐measures regression models. Neither systolic BP, nor diastolic BP differed between Black consistent smokers compared with Black never smokers, although Black consistent smokers had higher PP than Black never smokers (β=1.01 mm Hg, P=0.028). White consistent smokers had similar systolic BP, but lower diastolic BP (β=−2.27 mm Hg, P<0.001) and higher PP (β=1.59 mm Hg, P<0.001) compared with White never smokers. There were no differences in systolic BP, diastolic BP, or PP between Black or White long‐term former smokers compared with never smokers (all P>0.05).

Conclusions

Although the associations of cigarette smoking with alterations in BP are small, the greater PP observed in consistent smokers may contribute in part to the higher cardiovascular disease risk observed in this group because PP is a strong predictor of cardiovascular disease risk after middle age.

Running to Lower Resting Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

According to previous epidemiological studies, there are pros and cons for the relationship between running regularly and changes in resting blood pressure (RBP), and the changes may depend on the form of exercise.

OBJECTIVE

The aims of the current systematic review were to summarize the effects of running regularly on RBP and to investigate the most efficacious form of running in reducing RBP for this purpose.

METHODS

The inclusion criteria were: randomized controlled trials, involving healthy adults or adults with hypertension, the exercise group only performed regular running and the control group did not exercise, and the study reported the mean resting systolic blood pressure (RSBP) and/or diastolic blood pressure (RDBP). The mean difference (MD) in RBP in each trial was defined as follows: (mean value at post-intervention in the exercise group - mean value at baseline in the exercise group) - (mean value at post-intervention in the control group - mean value at baseline in the control group) and was calculated. The weighted MD (WMD) was defined as the synthesis of all MD. A linear meta-regression analysis, exercise intensity [the percentage of maximum heart rate] (%) and total exercise time throughout the intervention (hours) were selected as explanatory variables and the MD in RBP served as the objective variable.

RESULTS

Twenty-two trials (736 subjects) were analyzed. When trials were limited to those involving healthy subjects, the WMD in RBP decreased significantly [RSBP: - 4.2 mmHg (95% confidence intervals (95% CI) - 5.9 to - 2.4); RDBP: - 2.7 mmHg (95% CI - 4.2 to - 1.1)] and did not contain significant heterogeneity (RSBP: P = 0.67, I² = 0.0%; DBP: P = 0.38, I² = 7.2%). When trials were limited to those involving subjects with hypertension, the WMD in RBP decreased significantly [RSBP: - 5.6 mmHg (95% CI - 9.1 to - 2.1); RDBP: - 5.2 mmHg (95% CI - 9.0 to - 1.4)] but contained significant heterogeneity (RSBP: P = 0.01, I² = 62.2%; DBP: P < 0.01, I² = 87.7) and a meta-regression analysis showed that the percentage of maximum heart rate was significantly associated with the WMD in RSBP [slope: 0.56 (95% CI 0.21 to 0.92), intercept: - 48.76 (95% CI - 76.30 to - 21.22), R² = 0.88] and RDBP [slope: 0.45 (95% CI 0.01 to 0.87), intercept: - 38.06 (95% CI - 72.30 to - 4.08), R² = 0.41]. When trials were limited to those involving subjects with hypertension and a mean age ≥ 40 years, a meta-regression analysis showed that total exercise time throughout the intervention was significantly associated with the WMD in RDBP [slope: 0.82 (95% CI 0.54 to 1.09), intercept: - 22.90 (95% CI - 29.04 to - 16.77), R² = 0.99].

CONCLUSIONS

Running regularly decreases RBP, but the changes in subjects with hypertension may differ depending on exercise intensity or total exercise time. Therefore, running regularly at moderate intensity and at a restrained volume is recommended to lower RBP in subjects with hypertension.

Prevalence, prognosis, and treatment of atherosclerotic intracranial stenosis in Caucasians

BACKGROUND

Intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis is a highly prevalent cause of stroke worldwide with important ethnic disparities. Widely considered to be a common cause of stroke in Asian and Afro-Caribbean populations, relatively less is known about the burden and significance of intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis in Caucasians.

AIMS

We aim to highlight recent insights and advances into the prevalence, prognosis, and treatment of symptomatic and asymptomatic atherosclerotic intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis in Caucasian patients.

SUMMARY OF REVIEW

We identified 48 articles studying intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis in Caucasian patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack. Most studies were on hospital-based cohorts of consecutive patients and half were graded as "fair" quality. There was significant variation between studies in the definition of intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis and in the imaging modalities used to detect intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis. Overall, 12.1% of Caucasian patients were found to have any intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis, 6.4% symptomatic intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis and 11.1% asymptomatic intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis, with higher rates at older ages. In studies reporting prognosis, there were 61 and 10 same-territory ischemic strokes in 1000 person-years in patients with symptomatic and asymptomatic intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis, respectively. Percutaneous stenting and angioplasty have not proven superior to intensive medical management in patients with symptomatic intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis has previously been neglected as a cause of stroke in Caucasians but is highly prevalent at older ages and frequently discovered with the growing use of noninvasive angiography. Intensive medical therapy is the treatment of choice, but there is a need to develop novel treatments or therapeutic approaches to lower the risk of stroke in higher risk patients.

Relationship Between Step Counts and Cerebral Small Vessel Disease in Japanese Men

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) is a common subclinical feature of the aging brain. Steps per day may contribute to its prevention. We herein investigated the association between step counts and CSVD in a healthy Japanese male population.

METHODS

We analyzed data from 680 men who were free of stroke and participated in this observational study. Seven-day step counts were assessed at baseline (2006-2008) using a pedometer. CSVD was assessed at follow-ups (2012-2015) based on deep and subcortical white matter hyperintensities (WMHs), periventricular hyperintensities, lacunar infarcts, and cerebral microbleeds on magnetic resonance imaging. Using a logistic regression analysis, we computed the adjusted odds ratios, with 95% CIs, of prevalent CSVD according to quartiles of step counts (reference: Q1). We also investigated the association between step counts and WMH volumes using a quantile regression.

RESULTS

Steps per day were significantly associated with lower odds ratios, with the lowest at Q3 (8175-10 614 steps/day), of higher (versus low or no burden) deep and subcortical WMHs (odds ratio, 0.52 [95% CI, 0.30-0.89]), periventricular hyperintensities (0.50 [95% CI, 0.29-0.86]), and lacunar infarcts (0.52 [95% CI, 0.30-0.91]) compared with Q1 (≤6060 steps/day) but not cerebral microbleeds. An inverse linear association was observed between step counts and WMH volumes. These associations were independent of age and smoking and drinking status and remained consistent when adjusted for vascular risk factors.

CONCLUSIONS

We found a J-shaped relationship between step counts and prevalent CSVD in healthy Japanese men, with the lowest risk being observed among participants with ≈8000 to 10 000 steps/day. Higher steps were also associated with lower WMH volumes.

Physical Illnesses Before Diagnosed as Schizophrenia: A Nationwide Case-Control Study

Some physical illnesses are potentially associated with the development of schizophrenia. However, few studies have investigated these associations. Here, we examined physical illnesses and medical utilization patterns existing before patients received a diagnosis of schizophrenia. We enrolled a large representative cohort of the general population in Taiwan (N = 1 000 000) and identified 1969 young patients with a new diagnosis of schizophrenia from January 1, 2000 to December 31, 2013. We conducted a nested case-control study based on risk-set sampling. Each case was age-matched and sex-matched with 4 controls selected from the general population. The case and control groups were compared on the basis of various clinical characteristics. Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate the magnitude of risk associated with newly diagnosed schizophrenia. Within the 1 year before the schizophrenia diagnosis, the cases were most likely to visit the psychiatry department, followed by internal medicine and family medicine departments. According to multivariate analysis, compared with the controls, the cases had substantially higher risk of physical conditions in the prodromal phase, including hypertension (adjusted risk ratio [aRR] = 1.93, P = .001), other forms of heart disease (aRR = 2.07, P < .001), cerebrovascular diseases (aRR = 2.96, P = .001), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (aRR = 1.50, P = .005), asthma (aRR = 1.76, P = .003), and irritable bowel syndrome (aRR = 2.00, P < .001). A wide range of psychiatric diseases and concomitant use of medications were significantly associated with schizophrenia development. In conclusion, several physical illnesses were identified to be associated with schizophrenia development, indicating that people with these illnesses could be vulnerable to schizophrenia.

Factors Influencing 1-Year Medication Adherence of Korean Ischemic Stroke Survivors

BACKGROUND

Medication adherence is important for secondary stroke prevention. However, suboptimal adherence to medication among patients after stroke or transient ischemic attack is reportedly 30.9%. We assessed medication adherence of Korean stroke survivors within 1 year of acute ischemic stroke and identified factors that influence adherence.

METHODS

We consecutively enrolled ischemic stroke survivors who visited the Department of Neurology of a university hospital from March 9 to June 15, 2016. Data were collected by face-to-face interviews using a structured questionnaire which assessed general characteristics, clinical characteristics, medication beliefs, social support, and depression. Medication adherence was measured using the 8-item Morisky Medication Adherence Scale. Multiple logistic regression was used to identify factors independently associated with medication adherence.

RESULTS

Of the total 250 participants, 183 (73%) were in the optimal adherence group. Age (p = 0.035), smoking (p = 0.020), number of prescribed medicines (p = 0.037), frequency of daily doses (p = 0.040), and beliefs about medication (p < 0.001) were associated with medication adherence. Optimal medication adherence was associated with being a non-smoker (OR, 3.19; 95% CI, 1.29-7.87; p = 0.012), more prescribed medicines (OR, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.05-1.54; p = 0.014), less frequency of daily doses (OR, 0.37; 95% CI, 0.18-0.79; p = 0.010), and stronger beliefs about medication (OR, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.03-1.15; p = 0.004).

CONCLUSION

To improve medication adherence of stroke survivors, post-stroke care should focus on bolstering patients' belief in the necessity of medication and encouraging lifestyle modifications, such as quitting smoking, as well as prescribing medicine with simple regimens.

The Efficacy of Squalene in Cardiovascular Disease Risk-A Systematic Review

INTRODUCTION

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide. Squalene (SQ), an intermediate for the cholesterol biosynthesis, has been proposed to act similarly to statins via inhibition of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase in the liver.

PURPOSE

This paper explores the effects of SQ in CVD.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was performed to identify relevant studies about SQ and CVD. A comprehensive search in Medline and Scopus for relevant studies published between the years 1946 and 2019 was performed. The main inclusion criteria were that the study was published in English; that the study reported association or effect of SQ and CVD; and that CVD should be related to lifestyle variables, aging, or experimentally induced conditions.

RESULTS

The literature searches identified 5562 potentially relevant articles, whereby 21 studies met the inclusion criteria. There were three human studies and 18 animal experimental studies included in this paper. Only one human study reported positive outcome of SQ in CVD. The remaining two studies reported inconsistent and/or no effect. For animal studies, 15 studies reported positive effect while the remaining reported negative and/or no effect of SQ on various related parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

This evidence-based review emphasizes the potential of SQ being used for cardiovascular-related diseases. The effect of SQ, especially of plant-based warrants further exploration. Controlled human observational studies should be performed to provide comprehensive evidence.

Body mass index modifies the association between frequency of alcohol consumption and incidence of hypertension in men but not in women: a retrospective cohort study

Alcohol consumption is one of the major modifiable risk factors of hypertension. The aim of the present retrospective study was to assess the clinical impact of obesity on the association between alcohol consumption and the incidence of hypertension. The present study included 5116 male and 6077 female university employees with a median age of 32 (interquartile range 27-39) who underwent annual health checkups between January 2005 and March 2013. Self-reported drinking frequency was recorded at their first checkup and categorized into rarely and 1-3, 4-6, and 7 days/week. During the median observational period of 4.9 years (interquartile range 2.1-8.3), hypertension, defined as systolic/diastolic blood pressure of ≥140/90 mmHg and/or self-reported treatment for hypertension, was observed in 1067 (20.9%) men and 384 (6.3%) women. Poisson regression models adjusted for clinically relevant factors revealed a dose-dependent association between drinking frequency and the incidence of hypertension in men (adjusted incidence rate ratio [95% confidence interval] of men who drank rarely, 1-3, 4-6, and 7 days/week was 1.00 [reference], 1.12 [0.97-1.30], 1.42 [1.19-1.70], and 1.35 [1.14-1.59], respectively; P_trend < 0.001). However, this association was not observed in women. The dose-dependent association was significant in nonobese men (body mass index (BMI) < 25 kg/m²), but not in obese men (BMI ≥25 kg/m²) (P for interaction between drinking frequency and BMI = 0.072). The present study provides clinically useful evidence to identify the drinkers who may reap the health benefits of abstinence from alcohol consumption.

Associations of Dietary Intake with Cardiovascular Disease, Blood Pressure, and Lipid Profile in the Korean Population: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE

Previous studies have separately reported the contributions of dietary factors to the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and its markers, including blood pressure (BP) and lipid profile. This study systematically reviewed the current evidence on this issue in the Korean population.

METHODS

Sixty-two studies from PubMed and Embase were included in this meta-analysis. We performed a random-effects model to analyze pooled odds ratios (ORs) and hazard ratios (HRs) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the consumption of 14 food items, three macro- and eight micro-nutrients, two dietary patterns, and three dietary indices.

RESULTS

An analysis of pooled effect sizes from at least four individual study populations showed significant associations between coffee consumption and CVD (OR/HR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.52-0.97) and elevated/high triglycerides (TG) (OR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.78-0.90), sugar-sweetened beverage intake and elevated BP (OR/HR, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.09-1.33), and milk and dairy intake and elevated/high TG and low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) (OR/HR, 0.82; 95% CI, 0.76-0.89 for both). Carbohydrate consumption and the low-carbohydrate-diet score were consistently related to an approximately 25% risk reduction for elevated TG and low HDL-C. A lower risk of elevated total cholesterol, but not low-density lipoprotein, was additionally observed for those with a higher low-carbohydrate-diet score. A healthy dietary pattern was only associated with a reduced risk of elevated TG in the Korea National Cancer Screenee Cohort (OR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.67-0.98).

CONCLUSION

This study showed that milk and dairy and coffee had protective effects for CVD and its risk factors, such as BP and lipid profile, while sugar-sweetened beverages exerted harmful effects.

Association of School Residential PM2.5 with Childhood High Blood Pressure: Results from an Observational Study in 6 Cities in China

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association of long-term PM_2.5 exposure with blood pressure (BP) outcomes in children aged 6-18 years, and to examine the population attributable risk (PAR) of PM_2.5 exposure.

METHODS

A total of 53,289 participants aged 6-18 years with full record of age, sex, BP, height, and local PM_2.5 exposure from a cross-sectional survey conducted in 6 cities of China in 2013 were involved in the present study. PM_2.5 data from 18 January 2013 to 31 December 2013 were obtained from the nearest environmental monitoring station for each selected school. Two-level linear and logistic regression models were used to evaluate the influence of PM_2.5 on children's BP, and PAR was calculated in each sex and age group.

RESULTS

Participants had a mean age of 10.8 (standard deviation: 3.4) years at enrollment, 51.7% of them were boys. U-shaped trends along with increased PM_2.5 concentration were found for both systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP), with the thresholds of 57.8 and 65.0 μg/m³, respectively. Both increased annual mean of PM_2.5 concentration and ratio of polluted days were associated with increased BP levels and high blood pressure (HBP), with effect estimates for BP ranging from 2.80 (95% CI: -0.51, 6.11) mmHg to 5.78 (95% CI: 2.32, 9.25) mmHg for SBP and from 0.77 (95% CI: -1.98, 3.52) mmHg to 2.66 (-0.35, 5.66) mmHg for DBP, and the odds ratios for HBP from 1.21 (0.43, 3.38) to 1.92 (0.65, 5.67) in the highest vs. the lowest quartiles. Overall, 1.16% of HBP in our participants could be attributed to increased annual mean of PM_2.5 concentration, while 2.82% could be attributed to increased ratio of polluted days. These proportions increased with age.

CONCLUSIONS

The association between long-term PM_2.5 exposure and BP values appeared to be U-shaped in Chinese children aged 6-18 years, and increased PM_2.5 exposure was associated with higher risk of HBP.

Effect of Home Medication Titration on Blood Pressure Control in Patients With Hypertension: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

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Background:

Medication titration has been used in home blood pressure (BP) control, with the expectation of enabling patients with hypertension to better manage their BP.

Objective:

The study goal was to estimate the effects of medication titration intervention in lowering the systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure of patients with hypertension.

Methods:

The meta-analysis included randomized controlled trials on adults diagnosed with hypertension and BP≧130/80 mm Hg, having a medication-titration intervention, and using a home BP measurement. We systematically searched PubMed, CINAHL, Ovid-Medline, and the Cochrane Library, for studies published from 1997 to 2017. The quality of the studies was evaluated by the Modified Jadad scale. Statistical heterogeneity among the trials was evaluated using Q statistics and I². Publication bias was assessed with the funnel plot and Rosenthal’s fail-safe N.

Results:

The meta-analysis included 4 studies randomizing 1335 participants. Medication-titration intervention significantly assisted hypertensive patients to improve BP control; systolic blood pressure was reduced by 6.86 mm Hg [95% confidence interval (CI), 4.80-8.93, P<0.0001] and diastolic blood pressure by 3.03 mm Hg (95% CI, 2.07-3.99, P<0.0001), did not significantly affect EQ-5D scores (mean difference, 0.02; 95% CI, −0.01 to 0.04, P=0.13).

Conclusions:

Our findings suggest home medication titration of antihypertensive medication for hypertensive patients significantly improved home BP control. However, the strategy did not enhance quality of life in patients with hypertension.

Knowledge, attitude and practice regarding hypertension among residents in a housing area in Selangor, Malaysia

Background and aims

Hypertension is becoming a global epidemic and threat to the world population. This cross-sectional study was carried out at a housing area in Selangor, Malaysia to study the knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) regarding hypertension among the residents.

Methods

A total of 110 respondents aged 18 years old and above were selected by convenience sampling. Data was collected using a structured interviewer-guided questionnaire with Likert-scale choices of answers.

Results

All respondents were Malay with the mean age of 41 years [Standard Deviation (SD)=11.828]. The total mean and SD of knowledge, attitude and practice scores were 74.33 (SD=6.25), 44.22 (SD=5.05) and 27.55 (SD=2.86), respectively. There were significant positive correlations between knowledge with attitude (r=+0.393; p<0.001) and practice (r=+0.378; p<0.001). However, there was no significant correlation between attitude and practice (r=+0.120; p=0.212). There were significant fair positive correlations between age with knowledge (r=+0.402; p<0.001), attitude (r=+0.265; p=0.005) and practice (r=+0.337; p<0.001) regarding hypertension. Meanwhile, gender, educational level, employment status and family history had no significant association with knowledge, attitude and practice regarding hypertension.

Conclusion

This study revealed that KAP regarding hypertension were associated with age, but not with other socio-demographic characteristics studied. The awareness, prevention and control programs of hypertension in their community should be increased, so that the residents could enjoy and maintain the healthy lifestyle.

Exercise and incidence of myocardial infarction, stroke, hypertension, type 2 diabetes and site-specific cancers: prospective cohort study of 257 854 adults in South Korea

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to examine the longitudinal associations of exercise frequency with the incidence of myocardial infarction, stroke, hypertension, type 2 diabetes and 10 different cancer outcomes.

DESIGN

A prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Physical examination data linked with the entire South Korean population's health insurance system: from 2002 to 2015.

PARTICIPANTS

257 854 South Korean adults who provided up to 7 repeat measures of exercise (defined as exercises causing sweat) and confounders.

PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Each disease incidence was defined using both fatal and non-fatal health records (a median follow-up period of 13 years).

RESULTS

Compared with no exercise category, the middle categories of exercise frequency (3-4 or 5-6 times/week) showed the lowest risk of myocardial infarction (HR 0.79; 95% CI 0.70 to 0.90), stroke (HR 0.80; 95% CI 0.73 to 0.89), hypertension (HR 0.86; 95% CI 0.85 to 0.88), type 2 diabetes (HR 0.87; 95% CI 0.84 to 0.89), stomach (HR 0.87; 95% CI 0.79 to 0.96), lung (HR 0.80; 95% CI 0.71 to 0.91), liver (HR 0.85; 95% CI 0.75 to 0.98) and head and neck cancers (HR 0.76; 95% CI 0.63 to 0.93; for 1-2 times/week), exhibiting J-shaped associations. There was, in general, little evidence of effect modification by body mass index, smoking, alcohol consumption, family history of disease and sex in these associations.

CONCLUSIONS

Moderate levels of sweat-inducing exercise showed the lowest risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, stomach, lung, liver and head and neck cancers. Public health and lifestyle interventions should, therefore, promote moderate levels of sweat-causing exercise as a behavioural prevention strategy for non-communicable diseases in a wider population of East Asians.

Difference in the risk profiles of carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity: results from two community-based studies in China and Sweden

Carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV) and its risk factors may differ between various populations. Few studies have compared the risk profiles associated with cfPWV in different ethnic populations. The study population included 4321 subjects from Shanghai, China (n = 1272, age 75.0 ± 6.5 years, female 57.3%) and Malmö, Sweden (n = 3049, age 72.5 ± 5.5 years, female 60.4%). cfPWV was measured using the SphygmoCor device in both cohorts, with some difference in the determination of pulse transmission distance. The median cfPWV was 8.9 and 10.1 m/s (P < 0.001) respectively in the Chinese and Swedish subjects. cfPWV was associated (P < 0.05) with age, body mass index (BMI), mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate, fasting plasma glucose and serum triglycerides in both populations. The standardized effect size (m/s) associated with age (0.091 vs. 0.048, P < 0.001) and fasting plasma glucose (0.025 vs. 0.012, P = 0.046) was greater in the Swedish than Chinese subjects, whereas those with BMI (0.046 vs. 0.008, P < 0.001), MAP (0.079 vs. 0.067, P = 0.016), and heart rate (0.057 vs. 0.046, P = 0.036) were greater in Chinese. No difference was observed in those associated with serum triglycerides (P = 0.128). cfPWV was additionally associated with sex, serum total cholesterol, and on antihypertensive medication in the Swedish subjects, and with serum uric acid in the Chinese subjects (P ≤ 0.041). In conclusion, Chinese and Swedish subjects shared similar major risk factors of arterial stiffness, but with some differences in the strength of associations.

Impact of a structured yoga program on blood pressure reduction among hypertensive patients: study protocol for a pragmatic randomized multicenter trial in primary health care settings in Nepal

BACKGROUND

Hypertension control remains a major global challenge. The behavioral approaches recommended for blood pressure reduction are stress reduction, increased exercise and healthy dietary habits. Some study findings suggest that yoga has a beneficial effect in reducing blood pressure. However, the role of yoga on blood pressure has received little attention in existing health care practices in developing countries. This study will be conducted in primary health care facilities in Nepal to assess the effectiveness of a pragmatic yoga intervention to complement standard practice in further reducing blood pressure.

METHODS

This will be multicentric, two arms, randomized, nonblinded, pragmatic trial. It will be conducted in seven District Ayurveda Health Centers (DAHCs) in Nepal between July 2017 and June 2018. The study participants will consist of hypertensive patients with or without antihypertensive medication attending to the outpatient department (OPD). One hundred and forty participants will be randomized to treatment or control groups by using a stratified block randomization. At the study site, the treatment arm participants will receive an intervention consisting of five days of structured yoga training and practice of the same package at home with a recommendation of five days a week for the following 90 days. Both the intervention and control groups will receive two hours of health education on lifestyle modifications. The primary outcome of this trial will be the change in systolic blood pressure and it will be assessed after 90 days of the intervention.

DISCUSSION

This study will establish the extent to which a yoga intervention package can help reduce blood pressure in hypertensive patients. If proven effective, study findings may be used to recommend the governing bodies and other stakeholders for the integration of yoga in the national healthcare system for the treatment and control of hypertension.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinical Trial Registry- India (CTRI); CTRI Reg. No- CTRI/2017/02/007822 . Registered on 10/02/2017.

Impact of Intima-Media Thickness Progression in the Common Carotid Arteries on the Risk of Incident Cardiovascular Disease in the Suita Study

Background

No prospective study of the relationship between intima–media thickness (IMT) progression and incident cardiovascular disease (CVD) has been performed.

Methods and Results

We studied 4724 participants (mean age: 59.7±11.9 years; without CVD at the baseline) who had carotid ultrasonographic measurement of IMT on both sides of the entire carotid artery area (ie, the entire scanned common carotid artery [CCA], carotid artery bulb, internal carotid artery, and external carotid artery areas for both sides) between April 1994 and August 2001. Carotid ultrasonographic follow‐up was performed every 2 years between April 1994 and March 2005 in 2722 of these participants, newly revealing 193 CCA plaques (maximum IMT in the CCA >1.1 mm). We followed up for incident CVD until December 2013. Statistical analyses were performed using a Cox proportional hazards regression model, evaluated using C statistics, and net reclassification improvement. During the 59 909 person‐years of follow‐up, we observed 221 strokes and 154 coronary heart disease events. CCA plaque and maximum IMT in the whole carotid artery area >1.7 mm were risk factors for CVD. CCA plaque presented an increased risk of CVD based on C statistics and the reclassification improvement of the current risk prediction model. After adding the new incident CCA plaques, during the 23 702 person‐years of follow‐up, 69 strokes and 43 coronary heart disease events occurred. The adjusted hazard ratios for incident CCA plaque were 1.95 (95% confidence interval, 1.14–3.30) in CVD and 2.01 (95% confidence interval, 1.01–3.99) in stroke.

Conclusions

Maximum IMT in the CCA contributed significantly but modestly to the predictive power of incident CVD used in calculating traditional risk factors. This study provides the first demonstration that new progression of incident CCA plaque is a CVD risk.

Comparing the Consistency and Performance of Various Coronary Heart Disease Prediction Models for Primary Prevention Using a National Representative Cohort in Taiwan

BACKGROUND

Predicting future coronary artery disease (CAD) risk by model-based approaches can facilitate identification of high-risk individuals for prevention and management. Therefore, we compared the consistency and performance of various CAD models for primary prevention using 1 external validation dataset from a national representative cohort in Taiwan.Methods and Results:The 10 CAD prediction models were assessed in a validation cohort of 3559 participants (≥35 years old, 53.5% women) from a Taiwanese national representative cohort that was followed up for a median 9.70 (interquartile range, 9.63-9.74) years; 63 cases were documented as developing CAD events. The overall κ value was 0.51 for all 10 models, with a higher value for women than for men (0.53 for women, 0.40 for men). In addition, the areas under the receiver operating characteristics curves ranged from 0.804 (95% confidence interval, 0.758-0.851) to 0.847 (95% confidence interval, 0.805-0.889). All non-significant chi-square values indicated good calibration ability.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrated these 10 CAD prediction models for primary prevention were feasible and validated for use in Taiwanese subjects. Further studies of screening and management are warranted.

Relationship between subtle urinary albumin excretion and risk of incident hypertension: modification by glomerular filtration rate

It has been reported that an increase in urinary albumin excretion (UAE) within the normal range could be a risk factor for incident hypertension. However, it remains unclear how the subtle increases in UAE and renal function interact in the development of hypertension. We examined the modification of UAE as a risk factor for incident hypertension by glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in the Japanese population. We prospectively followed 1281 normotensive individuals from Watari town (34.3% men; mean age, 58.0±12.3 years old) whose UAE was <30 mg g⁻¹· Cr. Hypertension was diagnosed as a systolic blood pressure (BP)⩾140 mm Hg and/or a diastolic BP⩾90 mm Hg, or antihypertensive medication use. The relationship between sex-specific quartiles of UAE and incident hypertension was examined with Cox proportional hazard analysis. During a mean follow-up of 3.7 years, 315 individuals developed hypertension. Multivariate Cox proportional hazard analysis revealed that a subtle increase in UAE was a risk factor for incident hypertension, but there was a significant interaction between UAE and estimated GFR (eGFR) (P=0.018). The risk of incident hypertension dose dependently increased in the highest eGFR quartile (⩾90 ml min⁻¹ per 1.73 m²). Decline in renal function alone increased the risk of incident hypertension but the increased risk with a subtle increase in UAE became smaller and less clear in the lower eGFR quartiles. The present data suggest that UAE as a risk factor for incident hypertension is largely dependent on eGFR levels.

Concentrations of environmental organic contaminants in meat and meat products and human dietary exposure: A review

Meat and meat products is one of the most relevant food groups in an important number of human diets. Recently, the IARC, based on results of a number of epidemiological studies, classified the consumptions of red meat and processed meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans" and as "carcinogenic to humans", respectively. It was suggested that the substances responsible of the potential carcinogenicity would be mainly generated during meat processing, such as curing and smoking, or when meat is heated at high temperatures. However, the exposure to environmental pollutants through meat consumption was not discussed. The purpose of the present paper was to review recent studies reporting the concentrations of PCDD/Fs, DL-PCBs and PAHs in meat and meat products, as well as the human exposure to these pollutants through the diet. It is concluded that the health risks derived from exposure to carcinogenic environmental contaminants must be considered in the context of each specific diet, which besides meat and meat products, includes other foodstuffs containing also chemical pollutants, some of them with carcinogenic potential. Anyhow, meat and meat products are not the main food group responsible of the dietary exposure to carcinogenic (or probably carcinogenic) environmental organic pollutants.

Multivitamin use and the risk of hypertension in a prospective cohort study of women

OBJECTIVE

Despite the widespread use of multivitamin supplements, little is known regarding their effects on blood pressure (BP) and the development of hypertension. We, therefore, sought to prospectively investigate how multivitamin use was associated with incident hypertension among middle-aged and older women.

METHODS

We studied 28 157 women from the Women's Health Study aged at least 45 years and free of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and hypertension at baseline. Women reported information on a wide range of lifestyle, clinical, and dietary factors, including multivitamin and other supplement use at baseline. Hypertension was identified on baseline and annual follow-up questionnaires. Incident hypertension was defined as either a new diagnosis of hypertension by a physician, initiation of antihypertensive medication, newly reported SBP at least 140 mmHg, or DBP at least 90 mmHg during follow-up.

RESULTS

During a mean follow-up of 11.5 years, we identified 16 316 cases of incident hypertension. We found that neither baseline (hazard ratio = 1.03, 95% confidence interval: 1.00, 1.07) nor time-varying multivitamin use (hazard ratio = 0.97, 95% confidence interval: 0.94-1.00) were associated with the risk of incident hypertension in multivariable-adjusted models. When we investigated the duration of multivitamin use reported at baseline, we also observed no association with the risk of hypertension.

CONCLUSION

The results from this prospective study of middle-aged and older women suggest that neither baseline multivitamin use nor time-varying multivitamin use is associated with the risk of developing hypertension.

Dietary supplements and disease prevention - a global overview

Dietary supplements are widely used and offer the potential to improve health if appropriately targeted to those in need. Inadequate nutrition and micronutrient deficiencies are prevalent conditions that adversely affect global health. Although improvements in diet quality are essential to address these issues, dietary supplements and/or food fortification could help meet requirements for individuals at risk of deficiencies. For example, supplementation with vitamin A and iron in developing countries, where women of reproductive age, infants and children often have deficiencies; with folic acid among women of reproductive age and during pregnancy; with vitamin D among infants and children; and with calcium and vitamin D to ensure bone health among adults aged ≥65 years. Intense debate surrounds the benefits of individual high-dose micronutrient supplementation among well-nourished individuals because the alleged beneficial effects on chronic diseases are not consistently supported. Daily low-dose multivitamin supplementation has been linked to reductions in the incidence of cancer and cataracts, especially among men. Baseline nutrition is an important consideration in supplementation that is likely to modify its effects. Here, we provide a detailed summary of dietary supplements and health outcomes in both developing and developed countries to help guide decisions about dietary supplement recommendations.

Location of cerebral atherosclerosis: Why is there a difference between East and West?

Intracranial atherosclerosis is more prevalent in Asian patients, whereas extracranial atherosclerosis is more common in individuals from western countries. The reasons for this discrepancy remain unknown. We reviewed the relevant literature and discussed the currently available information. Although the study population, diagnostic modality, and risk factor definitions differ between studies, hypercholesterolemia is more correlated with extracranial atherosclerosis than intracranial atherosclerosis. The difference in hypercholesterolemia prevalence is one of the main reasons for racial differences. Intracranial arteries contain higher antioxidant level than extracranial arteries and may be more vulnerable to risk factors for antioxidant depletion (e.g., metabolic syndrome and diabetes mellitus). Intracranial arteries may be vulnerable to factors associated with hemodynamic stress (e.g., advanced, salt-retaining hypertension and arterial tortuosity) because of a smaller diameter, thinner media and adventitia, and fewer elastic medial fibers than extracranial arteries. Additionally, non-atherosclerotic arterial diseases (e.g., moyamoya disease) that commonly occur in the intracranial arteries of East Asians may contaminate the reports of intracranial atherosclerosis cases. Genes, including RNF 213 or those associated with high salt sensitivity, may also explain racial differences in atherosclerotic location. To understand racial differences, further well-designed studies on various risk and genetic factors should be performed in patients with cerebral atherosclerosis. Additionally, improvements in diagnostic accuracy via advancements in imaging technologies and increased genetic data will aid in the differentiation of atherosclerosis from non-atherosclerotic intracranial diseases.

Lifestyle Modifications Versus Antihypertensive Medications in Reducing Cardiovascular Events in an Aging Society: A Success Rate-oriented Simulation

Objective It is difficult to compare directly the practical effects of lifestyle modifications and antihypertensive medications on reducing cardiovascular disease (CVD). The purpose of this study was to compare the hypothetical potential of lifestyle modifications with that of antihypertensive medications in reducing CVD in an aging society using a success rate-oriented simulation. Methods We constructed a simulation model for virtual Japanese subpopulations according to sex and age at 10-year intervals from 40 years of age as an example of an aging society. The fractional incidence rate of CVD was calculated as the product of the incidence rate at each systolic blood pressure (SBP) level and the proportion of the SBP frequency distribution in the fractional subpopulations of each SBP. The total incidence rate was calculated by the definite integral of the fractional incidence rate at each SBP level in the sex- and age-specific subpopulations. Results If we consider the effects of lifestyle modifications on metabolic factors and transfer them onto SBP, the reductions in the total incidence rate of CVD were competitive between lifestyle modifications and antihypertensive medications in realistic scenarios. In middle-aged women, the preventive effects of both approaches were limited due to a low incidence rate. In middle-aged men and extremely elderly subjects whose adherence to antihypertensive medications is predicted to be low, lifestyle modifications could be an alternative choice. Conclusion The success rate-oriented simulation suggests that the effectiveness of lifestyle modifications or antihypertensive medications in preventing cardiovascular events largely depends on the baseline incidence rate and sex- and age-specific behavioral factors.

Hypertension Is a Risk Factor for Several Types of Heart Disease: Review of Prospective Studies

Many prospective cohort studies have demonstrated that hypertension is a strong risk factor for total mortality and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Heart disease includes coronary heart disease (CHD), heart failure, atrial fibrillation, valvular disease, sudden cardiac death (SCD), sick sinus syndrome (SSS), cardiomyopathy, and aortic aneurysms. Most of the epidemiologic prospective studies of heart disease focused on coronary/ischemic heart disease. Here we comprehensively reviewed the association between hypertension and the above-mentioned heart diseases. We found that CHD, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, aortic valvular disease, SCD, SSS, left ventricular hypertrophy, and abdominal aortic aneurysms were all associated with hypertension. Those relations tended to be stronger in men. The prevention of hypertension and lowering one's blood pressure may help reduce the risk of developing heart disease.

Interaction of Blood Pressure and Body Mass Index With Risk of Incident Atrial Fibrillation in a Japanese Urban Cohort: The Suita Study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

To prevent stroke, strategies for atrial fibrillation (AF) prevention and an early detection of AF by electrocardiogram are essential. However, only a limited prospective studies have examined the risk factors for AF, even in blood pressure (BP) and body mass index (BMI), which are not clear among general populations. We investigated the impacts of BP and BMI on the risk of incident AF in a general population.

METHODS

A total of 6,906 participants (30-84 years) in the Suita Study were prospectively followed up for incident AF. Participants were diagnosed with AF if AF or atrial flutter was present on an electrocardiogram from a routine health examination (every 2 years) or if AF was indicated as a present illness from health examinations and/or medical records during follow-up. Adjusted Cox proportional hazard ratios (HRs) were calculated.

RESULTS

During the 12.8-year follow-up, 253 incident AF events occurred. Compared with the systolic BP (SBP) < 120 mm Hg and normal-weight, the adjusted HRs (95% confidence intervals; CIs) of incident AF in the systolic hypertension and the overweight (BMI ≥ 25kg/m(2)) groups were 1.74 (1.22-2.49) and 1.35 (1.01-1.80), respectively. Compared with SBP < 120 mm Hg and normal weight, the adjusted HRs (95% CIs) of incident AF in the SBP = 120-139 mm Hg with overweight and the systolic hypertension with normal or overweight were 1.72 (1.01-2.91), 1.66 (1.10-2.50), and 2.31 (1.47-3.65), respectively (P for interaction = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Systolic prehypertension and overweight are associated with incident AF in Japanese population. The association between SBP and AF may be evident by overweight.