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Farmer CB, Roach EL, Bice LR, Falgout ME, Mata KG, Roche JK, Roberts RC. Excitatory and inhibitory imbalances in the trisynaptic pathway in the hippocampus in schizophrenia: a postmortem ultrastructural study. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2023; 130:949-965. [PMID: 37193867 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-023-02650-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A preponderance of evidence suggests that the hippocampus is a key region of dysfunction in schizophrenia. Neuroimaging and other studies indicate a relationship between hippocampal dysfunction and the degree of psychosis. Clinical data indicate hyperactivity in the hippocampus that precedes the onset of psychosis, and is correlated with symptom severity. In this study, we sought to identify circuitry at the electron microscopic level that could contribute to region-specific imbalances in excitation and inhibition in the hippocampus in schizophrenia. We used postmortem tissue from the anterior hippocampus from patients with schizophrenia and matched controls. Using stereological techniques, we counted and measured synapses, postsynaptic densities (PSDs), and evaluated size, number and optical density of mitochondria and parvalbumin-containing interneurons in key nodes of the trisynaptic pathway. Compared to controls, the schizophrenia group had decreased numbers of inhibitory synapses in CA3 and increased numbers of excitatory synapses in CA1; together, this indicates deficits in inhibition and an increase in excitation. The thickness of the PSD was larger in excitatory synapses in CA1, suggesting greater synaptic strength. In the schizophrenia group, there were fewer mitochondria in the dentate gyrus and a decrease in the optical density, a measure of functional integrity, in CA1. The number and optical density of parvalbumin interneurons were lower in CA3. The results suggest region-specific increases in excitatory circuitry, decreases in inhibitory neurotransmission and fewer or damaged mitochondria. These results are consistent with the hyperactivity observed in the hippocampus in schizophrenia in previous studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlene B Farmer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Sparks Center 835C, 1720 7th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Erica L Roach
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Sparks Center 835C, 1720 7th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Lily R Bice
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Sparks Center 835C, 1720 7th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Madeleine E Falgout
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Sparks Center 835C, 1720 7th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Kattia G Mata
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Sparks Center 835C, 1720 7th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Joy K Roche
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Sparks Center 835C, 1720 7th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Rosalinda C Roberts
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Sparks Center 835C, 1720 7th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA.
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2
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AMPA receptors in schizophrenia: A systematic review of postmortem studies on receptor subunit expression and binding. Schizophr Res 2022; 243:98-109. [PMID: 35247795 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2022.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 12/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND While altered expression of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) type receptor has been reported in postmortem studies of schizophrenia, these findings are inconsistent. Therefore, we aimed to systematically review postmortem studies that investigated AMPA receptor expressions in schizophrenia. METHODS A systematic literature search was conducted for postmortem studies that measured AMPA receptor subunit expressions or receptor bindings in schizophrenia compared to healthy individuals on February 3, 2021, using Medline and Embase. RESULTS A total of 39 relevant articles were identified from 1360 initial reports. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) was the most investigated region (15 studies), followed by the medial temporal lobe (8 studies). For the DLPFC, 4/15 studies (26.7%) showed increased AMPA receptor binding or subunit expression in patients with schizophrenia compared to that in controls, especially in GRIA1 and GRIA4, 2/15 studies (13.3%) reported a decrease, particularly in GRIA2, and 8/15 studies (56.7%) found no significant differences. A decreased expression or receptor binding was observed in 6/8 studies (75.0%) in the subregions of the hippocampus in patients with schizophrenia compared to that in controls, whereas the other two studies found no significant differences. CONCLUSION Published data have reported decreased subunit expression or receptor binding in the hippocampus in schizophrenia. These findings were inconsistent in other brain regions, which might be due to the heterogeneity of this population, various study design, physiological changes after death, and limited number of studies. Future in vivo studies are warranted to examine AMPA receptor expressions in human brains, together with their comprehensive clinical characterization.
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3
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Stone TW. Relationships and Interactions between Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors and Nicotinic Receptors in the CNS. Neuroscience 2021; 468:321-365. [PMID: 34111447 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Although ionotropic glutamate receptors and nicotinic receptors for acetylcholine (ACh) have usually been studied separately, they are often co-localized and functionally inter-dependent. The objective of this review is to survey the evidence for interactions between the two receptor families and the mechanisms underlying them. These include the mutual regulation of subunit expression, which change the NMDA:AMPA response balance, and the existence of multi-functional receptor complexes which make it difficult to distinguish between individual receptor sites, especially in vivo. This is followed by analysis of the functional relationships between the receptors from work on transmitter release, cellular electrophysiology and aspects of behavior where these can contribute to understanding receptor interactions. It is clear that nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) on axonal terminals directly regulate the release of glutamate and other neurotransmitters, α7-nAChRs generally promoting release. Hence, α7-nAChR responses will be prevented not only by a nicotinic antagonist, but also by compounds blocking the indirectly activated glutamate receptors. This accounts for the apparent anticholinergic activity of some glutamate antagonists, including the endogenous antagonist kynurenic acid. The activation of presynaptic nAChRs is by the ambient levels of ACh released from pre-terminal synapses, varicosities and glial cells, acting as a 'volume neurotransmitter' on synaptic and extrasynaptic sites. In addition, ACh and glutamate are released as CNS co-transmitters, including 'cholinergic' synapses onto spinal Renshaw cells. It is concluded that ACh should be viewed primarily as a modulator of glutamatergic neurotransmission by regulating the release of glutamate presynaptically, and the location, subunit composition, subtype balance and sensitivity of glutamate receptors, and not primarily as a classical fast neurotransmitter. These conclusions and caveats should aid clarification of the sites of action of glutamate and nicotinic receptor ligands in the search for new centrally-acting drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor W Stone
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, UK; Institute of Neuroscience, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK.
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4
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Venkataramaiah C, Payani S, Priya BL, Pradeepkiran JA. Therapeutic potentiality of a new flavonoid against ketamine induced glutamatergic dysregulation in schizophrenia: In vivo and in silico approach. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 138:111453. [PMID: 34187143 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.111453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutamate and dopamine hypotheses are leading theories of the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that dopaminergic and glutamatergic dysfunction is an underlying mechanism in schizophrenia. Since currently available antipsychotic drugs have significant untoward side effects, identification of new neuroprotective compounds from the medicinal plants may prove beneficial in neurodegenerative disorders. In our previous investigation we have isolated, characterized and reported a novel bioactive compound viz. 3-(3, 4-dimethoxy phenyl)-1-(4-methoxy phenyl) prop-2-en-1-one from the Celastrus paniculatus (CP) is used for the current clinical intervention of schizophrenia disease. The present study is mainly aimed to evaluate the neuroprotective potential of the above bioactive compound against ketamine-induced schizophrenia with particular reference to glutamate metabolism using in vivo and in silico methods. The decrease in glutamine content and the activity levels of glutamate dehydrogenase, glutamine synthetase, and glutaminase in different regions of the rat brain suggests lowered oxidative deamination and lowered mobilization of glutamate towards glutamine formation during ketamine-induced schizophrenia. Pre-treatment with the plant compound reversed the alterations in glutamate metabolism and restored the normal glutamatergic neurotransmission akin to the reference drug, clozapine. In addition, the compound has shown strong interaction and exhibited the highest binding energies against selected NMDA receptors with the lowest inhibition constant than the reference drug. Recoveries of these parameters during anti-schizophrenic treatment suggest that administration of plant compound might offer neuroprotection by interrupting the pathological cascade of glutamatergic neurotransmission that occurs during schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chintha Venkataramaiah
- Division of Molecular Biology, Department of Zoology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India; Department of Zoology, Faculty of Humanities and Sciences, Sri Venkateswara Vedic University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Sholapuri Payani
- Division of Molecular Biology, Department of Zoology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Bandila Lakshmi Priya
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Venkateswara Institute of Medical Sciences, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Jangampalli Adi Pradeepkiran
- Division of Molecular Biology, Department of Zoology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India; Deapartment of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University of Health Science Centre, Lubbock, TX, USA.
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5
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Hippocampal subfield transcriptome analysis in schizophrenia psychosis. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:2577-2589. [PMID: 32152472 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-020-0696-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We have previously demonstrated functional and molecular changes in hippocampal subfields in individuals with schizophrenia (SZ) psychosis associated with hippocampal excitability. In this study, we use RNA-seq and assess global transcriptome changes in the hippocampal subfields, DG, CA3, and CA1 from individuals with SZ psychosis and controls to elucidate subfield-relevant molecular changes. We also examine changes in gene expression due to antipsychotic medication in the hippocampal subfields from our SZ ON- and OFF-antipsychotic medication cohort. We identify unique subfield-specific molecular profiles in schizophrenia postmortem samples compared with controls, implicating astrocytes in DG, immune mechanisms in CA3, and synaptic scaling in CA1. We show a unique pattern of subfield-specific effects by antipsychotic medication on gene expression levels with scant overlap of genes differentially expressed by SZ disease effect versus medication effect. These hippocampal subfield changes serve to confirm and extend our previous model of SZ and can explain the lack of full efficacy of conventional antipsychotic medication on SZ symptomatology. With future characterization using single-cell studies, the identified distinct molecular profiles of the DG, CA3, and CA1 in SZ psychosis may serve to identify further potential hippocampal-based therapeutic targets.
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6
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Čater M, Majdič G. How early maternal deprivation changes the brain and behavior? Eur J Neurosci 2021; 55:2058-2075. [PMID: 33870558 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Early life stress can adversely influence brain development and reprogram brain function and consequently behavior in adult life. Adequate maternal care in early childhood is therefore particularly important for the normal brain development, and adverse early life experiences can lead to altered emotional, behavioral, and neuroendocrine stress responses in the adulthood. As a form of neonatal stress, maternal deprivation/separation is often used in behavioral studies to examine the effects of early life stress and for modeling the development of certain psychiatric disorders and brain pathologies in animal models. The temporary loss of maternal care during the critical postpartum periods remodels the offspring's brain and provokes long-term effects on learning and cognition, the development of mental disorders, aggression, and an increased tendency for the drug abuse. Early life stress through maternal deprivation affects neuroendocrine responses to stress in adolescence and adulthood by dysregulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and permanently disrupts stress resilience. In this review, we focused on how improper maternal care during early postnatal life affects brain development resulting in modified behavior later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maša Čater
- Veterinary Faculty, Laboratory for Animal Genomics, Institute for Preclinical Studies, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Physiology, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Majdič
- Veterinary Faculty, Laboratory for Animal Genomics, Institute for Preclinical Studies, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Physiology, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
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7
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Oka M, Ito K, Koga M, Kusumi I. Changes in subunit composition of NMDA receptors in animal models of schizophrenia by repeated administration of methamphetamine. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2020; 103:109984. [PMID: 32473191 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.109984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The dopamine and glutamate hypotheses reflect only some of the pathophysiological changes associated with schizophrenia. We have proposed a new "comprehensive progressive pathophysiology model" based on the "dopamine to glutamate hypothesis." Repeated administration of methamphetamine (METH) at a dose of 2.5 mg/kg in rats has been used to assess dynamic changes in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Previous use of this model suggested N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDA-R) dysfunction, but the mechanism could only be inferred from limited, indirect observations. In the present study, we used this model to investigate changes in the expression of NMDA-R subunits. Repeated administration of METH significantly decreased the gene expression levels of glutamate ionotropic receptor NMDA type subunit (Grin) subtypes Grin1 and Grin2c in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), Grin1 and Grin2a in the hippocampus (HPC), and Grin1, Grin2b, and Grin2d in the striatum (ST).We observed a significant difference in Grin1 expression between the PFC and ST. Furthermore, repeated administration of METH significantly decreased the protein expression of GluN1 in both cytosolic and synaptosomal fractions isolated from the PFC, and significantly decreased the protein expression of GluN1 in the cytosolic fraction, but not the synaptosomal fraction from the ST. These regional differences may be due to variations in the synthesis of GluN1 or intracellular trafficking events in each area of the brain. Considering that knockdown of Grin1 in mice affects vulnerability to develop schizophrenia, these results suggest that this model reflects some of the pathophysiological changes of schizophrenia, combining both the dopamine and glutamate hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matsuhiko Oka
- Department of Psychiatry, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, West 7, North 15, Kita Ward, Sapporo City, Hokkaido 060-8638, JAPAN.
| | - Koki Ito
- Department of Psychiatry, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, West 7, North 15, Kita Ward, Sapporo City, Hokkaido 060-8638, JAPAN
| | - Minori Koga
- Department of Psychiatry, National Defense Medical College, 3-2, Namiki, Tokorozawa, Saitama 359-8513, Japan.
| | - Ichiro Kusumi
- Department of Psychiatry, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, West 7, North 15, Kita Ward, Sapporo City, Hokkaido 060-8638, JAPAN.
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8
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Candidate Strategies for Development of a Rapid-Acting Antidepressant Class That Does Not Result in Neuropsychiatric Adverse Effects: Prevention of Ketamine-Induced Neuropsychiatric Adverse Reactions. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21217951. [PMID: 33114753 PMCID: PMC7662754 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21217951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate/glutamate receptor (NMDAR) antagonism has been considered to play important roles in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. In spite of severe neuropsychiatric adverse effects, esketamine (racemic enantiomer of ketamine) has been approved for the treatment of conventional monoaminergic antidepressant-resistant depression. Furthermore, ketamine improves anhedonia, suicidal ideation and bipolar depression, for which conventional monoaminergic antidepressants are not fully effective. Therefore, ketamine has been accepted, with rigorous restrictions, in psychiatry as a new class of antidepressant. Notably, the dosage of ketamine for antidepressive action is comparable to the dose that can generate schizophrenia-like psychotic symptoms. Furthermore, the psychotropic effects of ketamine precede the antidepressant effects. The maintenance of the antidepressive efficacy of ketamine often requires repeated administration; however, repeated ketamine intake leads to abuse and is consistently associated with long-lasting memory-associated deficits. According to the dissociative anaesthetic feature of ketamine, it exerts broad acute influences on cognition/perception. To evaluate the therapeutic validation of ketamine across clinical contexts, including its advantages and disadvantages, psychiatry should systematically assess the safety and efficacy of either short- and long-term ketamine treatments, in terms of both acute and chronic outcomes. Here, we describe the clinical evidence of NMDAR antagonists, and then the temporal mechanisms of schizophrenia-like and antidepressant-like effects of the NMDAR antagonist, ketamine. The underlying pharmacological rodent studies will also be discussed.
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9
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Oh SJ, Fan X. Current understanding on the role of nitric oxide and therapeutic potential of NO supplementation in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2020; 222:23-30. [PMID: 32475621 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2020.05.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- SeungJu Jackie Oh
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01655, United States of America
| | - Xiaoduo Fan
- UMass Memorial Health Care, University of Massachusetts Medical School, United States of America.
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10
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Adell A. Brain NMDA Receptors in Schizophrenia and Depression. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10060947. [PMID: 32585886 PMCID: PMC7355879 DOI: 10.3390/biom10060947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists such as phencyclidine (PCP), dizocilpine (MK-801) and ketamine have long been considered a model of schizophrenia, both in animals and humans. However, ketamine has been recently approved for treatment-resistant depression, although with severe restrictions. Interestingly, the dosage in both conditions is similar, and positive symptoms of schizophrenia appear before antidepressant effects emerge. Here, we describe the temporal mechanisms implicated in schizophrenia-like and antidepressant-like effects of NMDA blockade in rats, and postulate that such effects may indicate that NMDA receptor antagonists induce similar mechanistic effects, and only the basal pre-drug state of the organism delimitates the overall outcome. Hence, blockade of NMDA receptors in depressive-like status can lead to amelioration or remission of symptoms, whereas healthy individuals develop psychotic symptoms and schizophrenia patients show an exacerbation of these symptoms after the administration of NMDA receptor antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Adell
- Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology of Cantabria, IBBTEC (CSIC-University of Cantabria), Calle Albert Einstein 22 (PCTCAN), 39011 Santander, Spain; or
- Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health (CIBERSAM), 39011 Santander, Spain
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11
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Zhang B, Yuan Y, Jia Y, Yu X, Xu Q, Shen Y, Shen Y. An association study between polymorphisms in five genes in glutamate and GABA pathway and paranoid schizophrenia. Eur Psychiatry 2020; 20:45-9. [PMID: 15642443 DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2004.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2004] [Accepted: 09/09/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractDysfunctions of glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission are two important hypotheses for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Thus, genes in the pathway are candidates for schizophrenia susceptibility. Phosphate-activated glutaminase (GLS), glutamine synthetase (GLUL), glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), GABA transaminase (ABAT) and succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH5A1) are five primary enzymes in glutamate and GABA synthetic and degradative pathway. In order to investigate the possible involvement of these genes in the development of paranoid schizophrenia, we genotyped 80 paranoid schizophrenics from northern China and 108 matched controls by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) methods or directly sequencing of PCR product. Seven SNPs were found to be polymorphic in the population investigated. No significant differences in the genotype distributions or allele frequencies between patients and controls were found. Therefore, we conclude the polymorphisms studied in the five genes do not play major roles in pathogenesis of paranoid schizophrenia in the population investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyu Zhang
- National Laboratory of Medical Molecular Biology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, 5, Dong Dan San Tiao, Beijing 100005, China
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12
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Bitanihirwe BKY, Woo TUW. A conceptualized model linking matrix metalloproteinase-9 to schizophrenia pathogenesis. Schizophr Res 2020; 218:28-35. [PMID: 32001079 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) is an extracellularly operating zinc-dependent endopeptidase that is commonly expressed in the brain, other tissues. It is synthesized in a latent zymogen form known as pro-MMP-9 that is subsequently converted to the active MMP-9 enzyme following cleavage of the pro-domain. Within the central nervous system, MMP-9 is localized and released from neurons, astrocytes and microglia where its expression levels are modulated by cytokines and growth factors during both normal and pathological conditions as well as by reactive oxygen species generated during oxidative stress. MMP-9 is involved in a number of key neurodevelopmental processes that are thought to be affected in schizophrenia, including maturation of the inhibitory neurons that contain the calcium-binding protein parvalbumin, developmental formation of the specialized extracellular matrix structure perineuronal net, synaptic pruning, and myelination. In this context, the present article provides a narrative synthesis of the existing evidence linking MMP-9 dysregulation to schizophrenia pathogenesis. We start by providing an overview of MMP-9 involvement in brain development and physiology. We then discuss the potential mechanisms through which MMP-9 dysregulation may affect neural circuitry maturation as well as how these anomalies may contribute to the disease process of schizophrenia. We conclude by articulating a comprehensive, cogent, and experimentally testable hypothesis linking MMP-9 to the developmental pathophysiologic cascade that triggers the onset and sustains the chronicity of the illness.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tsung-Ung W Woo
- Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA; Program in Cellular Neuropathology, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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13
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Bobilev AM, Perez JM, Tamminga CA. Molecular alterations in the medial temporal lobe in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2020; 217:71-85. [PMID: 31227207 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The medial temporal lobe (MTL) and its individual structures have been extensively implicated in schizophrenia pathophysiology, with considerable efforts aimed at identifying structural and functional differences in this brain region. The major structures of the MTL for which prominent differences have been revealed include the hippocampus, the amygdala and the superior temporal gyrus (STG). The different functions of each of these regions have been comprehensively characterized, and likely contribute differently to schizophrenia. While neuroimaging studies provide an essential framework for understanding the role of these MTL structures in various aspects of the disease, ongoing efforts have sought to employ molecular measurements in order to elucidate the biology underlying these macroscopic differences. This review provides a summary of the molecular findings in three major MTL structures, and discusses convergent findings in cellular architecture and inter-and intra-cellular networks. The findings of this effort have uncovered cell-type, network and gene-level specificity largely unique to each brain region, indicating distinct molecular origins of disease etiology. Future studies should test the functional implications of these molecular changes at the circuit level, and leverage new advances in sequencing technology to further refine our understanding of the differential contribution of MTL structures to schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia M Bobilev
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX, United States of America.
| | - Jessica M Perez
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX, United States of America.
| | - Carol A Tamminga
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX, United States of America.
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14
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Segev A, Yanagi M, Scott D, Southcott SA, Lister JM, Tan C, Li W, Birnbaum SG, Kourrich S, Tamminga CA. Reduced GluN1 in mouse dentate gyrus is associated with CA3 hyperactivity and psychosis-like behaviors. Mol Psychiatry 2020; 25:2832-2843. [PMID: 30038231 PMCID: PMC6344327 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-018-0124-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Revised: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Recent findings from in vivo-imaging and human post-mortem tissue studies in schizophrenic psychosis (SzP), have demonstrated functional and molecular changes in hippocampal subfields that can be associated with hippocampal hyperexcitability. In this study, we used a subfield-specific GluN1 knockout mouse with a disease-like molecular perturbation expressed only in hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) and assessed its association with hippocampal physiology and psychosis-like behaviors. First, we used whole-cell patch-clamp recordings to measure the physiological changes in hippocampal subfields and cFos immunohistochemistry to examine cellular excitability. DG-GluN1 KO mice show CA3 cellular hyperactivity, detected using two approaches: (1) increased excitatory glutamate transmission at mossy fibers (MF)-CA3 synapses, and (2) an increased number of cFos-activated pyramidal neurons in CA3, an outcome that appears to project downstream to CA1 and basolateral amygdala (BLA). Furthermore, we examined psychosis-like behaviors and pathological memory processing; these show an increase in fear conditioning (FC), a reduction in prepulse inhibition (PPI) in the KO animal, along with a deterioration in memory accuracy with Morris Water Maze (MWM) and reduced social memory (SM). Moreover, with DREADD vectors, we demonstrate a remarkably similar behavioral profile when we induce CA3 hyperactivity. These hippocampal subfield changes could provide the basis for the observed increase in human hippocampal activity in SzP, based on the shared DG-specific GluN1 reduction. With further characterization, these animal model systems may serve as targets to test psychosis mechanisms related to hippocampus and assess potential hippocampus-directed treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Segev
- grid.267313.20000 0000 9482 7121Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX 75390 USA
| | - Masaya Yanagi
- grid.267313.20000 0000 9482 7121Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX 75390 USA ,grid.258622.90000 0004 1936 9967Present Address: Department of Neuropsychiatry, Kindai University Faculty of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Daniel Scott
- grid.267313.20000 0000 9482 7121Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX 75390 USA
| | - Sarah A. Southcott
- grid.267313.20000 0000 9482 7121Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX 75390 USA
| | - Jacob M. Lister
- grid.267313.20000 0000 9482 7121Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX 75390 USA ,grid.47100.320000000419368710Yale University, School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510 USA ,grid.47100.320000000419368710Present Address: Yale University, School of Medicine, New Haven, CT USA
| | - Chunfeng Tan
- grid.267313.20000 0000 9482 7121Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX 75390 USA
| | - Wei Li
- grid.267313.20000 0000 9482 7121Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX 75390 USA
| | - Shari G. Birnbaum
- grid.267313.20000 0000 9482 7121Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX 75390 USA
| | - Saïd Kourrich
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA.
| | - Carol A. Tamminga
- grid.267313.20000 0000 9482 7121Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX 75390 USA
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15
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Intson K, van Eede MC, Islam R, Milenkovic M, Yan Y, Salahpour A, Henkelman RM, Ramsey AJ. Progressive neuroanatomical changes caused by Grin1 loss-of-function mutation. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 132:104527. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2019.104527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2019] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 07/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
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16
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Wannan CMJ, Cropley VL, Chakravarty MM, Van Rheenen TE, Mancuso S, Bousman C, Everall I, McGorry PD, Pantelis C, Bartholomeusz CF. Hippocampal subfields and visuospatial associative memory across stages of schizophrenia-spectrum disorder. Psychol Med 2019; 49:2452-2462. [PMID: 30511607 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291718003458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND While previous studies have identified relationships between hippocampal volumes and memory performance in schizophrenia, these relationships are not apparent in healthy individuals. Further, few studies have examined the role of hippocampal subfields in illness-related memory deficits, and no study has examined potential differences across varying illness stages. The current study aimed to investigate whether individuals with early and established psychosis exhibited differential relationships between visuospatial associative memory and hippocampal subfield volumes. METHODS Measurements of visuospatial associative memory performance and grey matter volume were obtained from 52 individuals with a chronic schizophrenia-spectrum disorder, 28 youth with recent-onset psychosis, 52 older healthy controls, and 28 younger healthy controls. RESULTS Both chronic and recent-onset patients had impaired visuospatial associative memory performance, however, only chronic patients showed hippocampal subfield volume loss. Both chronic and recent-onset patients demonstrated relationships between visuospatial associative memory performance and hippocampal subfield volumes in the CA4/dentate gyrus and the stratum that were not observed in older healthy controls. There were no group by volume interactions when chronic and recent-onset patients were compared. CONCLUSIONS The current study extends the findings of previous studies by identifying particular hippocampal subfields, including the hippocampal stratum layers and the dentate gyrus, that appear to be related to visuospatial associative memory ability in individuals with both chronic and first-episode psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra M J Wannan
- Department of Psychiatry, Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Carlton South, Victoria, Australia
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- The Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- The Cooperative Research Centre for Mental Health, Melbourne, Australia
- North Western Mental Health, Melbourne Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Vanessa L Cropley
- Department of Psychiatry, Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Carlton South, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Mental Health, Faculty of Health, Arts and Design, School of Health Sciences, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - M Mallar Chakravarty
- Cerebral Imaging Centre, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Canada
- Departments of Psychiatry and Biological and Biomedical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Tamsyn E Van Rheenen
- Department of Psychiatry, Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Carlton South, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Mental Health, Faculty of Health, Arts and Design, School of Health Sciences, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Sam Mancuso
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Chad Bousman
- Departments of Medical Genetics, Psychiatry, and Physiology & Pharmacology, University of Calgary, AB, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Ian Everall
- The Cooperative Research Centre for Mental Health, Melbourne, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Centre for Neural Engineering, University of Melbourne, South Carlton, Victoria, Australia
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
- Florey Institute for Neuroscience & Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Patrick D McGorry
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christos Pantelis
- Department of Psychiatry, Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Carlton South, Victoria, Australia
- The Cooperative Research Centre for Mental Health, Melbourne, Australia
- North Western Mental Health, Melbourne Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Centre for Neural Engineering, University of Melbourne, South Carlton, Victoria, Australia
- Florey Institute for Neuroscience & Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Cali F Bartholomeusz
- Department of Psychiatry, Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Carlton South, Victoria, Australia
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- The Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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17
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Uno Y, Coyle JT. Glutamate hypothesis in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2019; 73:204-215. [PMID: 30666759 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.12823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a chronic and severe psychiatric disorder that has profound impact on an individual's life and on society. Thus, developing more effective therapeutic interventions is essential. Over the past quarter-century, an abundance of evidence from pharmacologic challenges, post-mortem studies, brain imaging, and genetic studies supports the role of glutamatergic dysregulation in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, and the results of recent randomized clinical trials based on this evidence have yielded promising results. In this article, we review the evidence that alterations in glutamatergic neurotransmission, especially focusing on the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) function, may be a critical causative feature of schizophrenia, how this contributes to pathologic circuit function in the brain, and how these insights are revealing whole new avenues for treatment development that could reduce treatment-resistant symptoms, which account for persistent disability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yota Uno
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA.,Laboratory for Psychiatric and Molecular Neuroscience, McLean Hospital, Belmont, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Joseph T Coyle
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA.,Laboratory for Psychiatric and Molecular Neuroscience, McLean Hospital, Belmont, USA
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18
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In-silico investigation of coding variants potentially affecting the functioning of the glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor in schizophrenia. Psychiatr Genet 2019; 29:44-50. [DOI: 10.1097/ypg.0000000000000216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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19
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Krzystanek M, Pałasz A. NMDA Receptor Model of Antipsychotic Drug-Induced Hypofrontality. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20061442. [PMID: 30901926 PMCID: PMC6471005 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20061442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a chronic mental disease, affecting around 1% of the general population. Schizophrenia is characterized by productive, negative, affective, and disorganization symptoms, and cognitive deficits. Cognitive deficits prevail in most of the schizophrenia patients and are one of the most disabling symptoms. They usually occur before the acute episode of the disease and tend to become chronic with no satisfactory treatment from antipsychotic drugs. Because of their early manifestation in patients’ lives, cognitive deficits are suggested to be the primary symptom of schizophrenia. The pathogenesis of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia is not fully understood. They are linked with hypofrontality, which is a decrease in blood flow and glucose metabolism in the prefrontal lobe of schizophrenia-suffering patients. Hypofrontality is linked with disturbances of the corticolimbothalamic circuit, important for cognition and memory in humans. The circuit consists of a group of neuroanatomic structures and hypothetically any disturbance in them may result in cognitive deficits. We present a translational preclinical model of understanding how antipsychotic medication may decrease the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptors’ activity and produce dysfunctions in the corticolimbothalamic circuit and hypofrontality. From several pharmacological experiments on rats, including mainly our own recent findings, we collected data that suggest that antipsychotic medication may maintain and escalate hypofrontality in schizophrenia, decreasing NMDA receptor activity in the corticolimbothalamic circuit in the human brain. We discuss our findings within the literature of the subject.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Krzystanek
- Department and Clinic of Psychiatric Rehabilitation, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, School of Medicine in Katowice, Ziołowa 45/47, 40-635 Katowice, Poland.
| | - Artur Pałasz
- Department of Histology, School of Medicine in Katowice, Medyków 18, 40-752 Katowice, Poland.
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20
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Popiolek M, Mandelblat-Cerf Y, Young D, Garst-Orozco J, Lotarski SM, Stark E, Kramer M, Butler CR, Kozak R. In Vivo Modulation of Hippocampal Excitability by M4 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor Activator: Implications for Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease and Schizophrenic Patients. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:1091-1098. [PMID: 30335349 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal hippocampal activity has been linked to impaired cognitive performance in Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia, leading to a hypothesis that normalization of this activity may be therapeutically beneficial. Our work suggests that one approach for hippocampal normalization may be through activation of the M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. We used a brain penetrant M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor selective activator, PT-3763, to show dose-dependent attenuation of field potentials in Schaffer collateral (CA3-CA1) and recurrent associational connections (CA3-CA3) ex vivo in hippocampal slices. In vivo, systemic administration of PT-3763 led to attenuation of glutamate release in CA3 as measured by amperometry and to a dose-dependent decrease in population CA1 pyramidal activity as measured by fiber photometry. This decrease in population activity was also evident with a localized administration of the compound to the recorded site. Finally, PT-3763 reversed scopolamine-induced deficit in Morris water maze. Our results suggest that M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor activation may be a suitable therapeutic treatment in diseases associated with hyperactive hippocampal activity.
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21
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Abstract
Glutamate is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter, present at the bulk of cortical synapses, and participating in many physiologic and pathologic processes ranging from learning and memory to stroke. The tripeptide, glutathione, is one-third glutamate and present at up to low millimolar intracellular concentrations in brain, mediating antioxidant defenses and drug detoxification. Because of the substantial amounts of brain glutathione and its rapid turnover under homeostatic control, we hypothesized that glutathione is a relevant reservoir of glutamate and could influence synaptic excitability. We find that drugs that inhibit generation of glutamate by the glutathione cycle elicit decreases in cytosolic glutamate and decreased miniature excitatory postsynaptic potential (mEPSC) frequency. In contrast, pharmacologically decreasing the biosynthesis of glutathione leads to increases in cytosolic glutamate and enhanced mEPSC frequency. The glutathione cycle can compensate for decreased excitatory neurotransmission when the glutamate-glutamine shuttle is inhibited. Glutathione may be a physiologic reservoir of glutamate neurotransmitter.
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22
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Abstract
Hippocampal abnormalities have been heavily implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. The dentate gyrus of the hippocampus was shown to manifest an immature molecular profile in schizophrenia subjects, as well as in various animal models of the disorder. In this position paper, we advance a hypothesis that this immature molecular profile is accompanied by an identifiable immature morphology of the dentate gyrus granule cell layer. We adduce evidence for arrested maturation of the dentate gyrus in the human schizophrenia-affected brain, as well as multiple rodent models of the disease. Implications of this neurohistopathological signature for current theory regarding the development of schizophrenia are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayda Tavitian
- Department of Neurology & Neurosurgery, Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Wei Song
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Hyman M. Schipper
- Department of Neurology & Neurosurgery, Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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23
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Lucatch AM, Lowe DJE, Clark RC, Kozak K, George TP. Neurobiological Determinants of Tobacco Smoking in Schizophrenia. Front Psychiatry 2018; 9:672. [PMID: 30574101 PMCID: PMC6291492 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose of review: To provide an overview of the underlying neurobiology of tobacco smoking in schizophrenia, and implications for treatment of this comorbidity. Recent findings: Explanations for heavy tobacco smoking in schizophrenia include pro-cognitive effects of nicotine, and remediation of the underlying pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Nicotine may ameliorate neurochemical deficits through nicotine acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) located on the dopamine, glutamate, and GABA neurons. Neurophysiological indices including electroencephalography, electromyography, and smooth pursuit eye movement (SPEM) paradigms may be biomarkers for underlying neuronal imbalances that contribute to the specific risk of tobacco smoking initiation, maintenance, and difficulty quitting within schizophrenia. Moreover, several social factors including socioeconomic factors and permissive smoking culture in mental health facilities, may contribute to the smoking behaviors (initiation, maintenance, and inability to quit smoking) within this disorder. Summary: Tobacco smoking may alleviate specific symptoms associated with schizophrenia. Understanding the neurobiological underpinnings and psychosocial determinants of this comorbidity may better explain these potential beneficial effects, while also providing important insights into effective treatments for smoking cessation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aliya M. Lucatch
- Addictions Division, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Darby J. E. Lowe
- Addictions Division, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Rachel C. Clark
- Addictions Division, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Karolina Kozak
- Addictions Division, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Tony P. George
- Addictions Division, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Division and Brain and Therapeutics, Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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24
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Loureiro CM, Shuhama R, Fachim HA, Menezes PR, Del-Ben CM, Louzada-Junior P. Low plasma concentrations of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor subunits as a possible biomarker for psychosis. Schizophr Res 2018; 202:55-63. [PMID: 29935886 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2018.06.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 03/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) has been largely implicated in the neurobiology of schizophrenia and other psychosis. Aiming to evaluate their potential as peripheral biomarkers for psychosis, we quantified the plasma concentrations of NR1 and NR2 NMDAR subunits of first-episode psychosis patients in their first contact with mental health services due to psychotic symptoms, compared with siblings and matched community-based controls. METHODS The quantifications of NR1 and NR2 plasma concentrations were performed by ELISA. Data were analysed by nonparametric tests and Receiver Operating Curve (ROC) analysis. RESULTS We included 166 first-episode psychosis patients (mean age = 30.3 ± 12.2 years; 64% men), with the diagnosis of schizophrenia spectrum (n = 84), bipolar disorder (n = 51) and psychotic depression (n = 31), 76 siblings (mean age = 31.5 ± 11.0 years; 30.3% men) and 166 healthy community-based controls (mean age = 31.4 ± 12.0 years; 63.9% men). NMDAR subunits were significantly lower in patients compared with siblings and controls (p < 0.001), except by NR1 plasma concentrations of bipolar patients compared with siblings and controls. NR1 plasma concentrations lower than 17.65 pg/ml (AUC = 0.621) showed sensitivity of 42.8%, specificity of 84.3%, positive predictive value (PPV) of 73.2% and negative predictive value (NPV) of 59.6%. Individuals with NR2 plasma concentrations lower than 2.92 ng/ml (AUC = 0.801) presented a 10.61-fold increased risk of psychosis, with a sensibility of 71.9%, specificity of 80.6%, PPV of 79.0% and NPV of 73.9%. CONCLUSIONS This is the first study reporting the measurement and the reduction of NR1 and NR2 NMDAR subunits plasma concentrations in psychiatric disorders. In particular, the NR2 subunit may be a possible plasma biomarker for psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Loureiro
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Clinical Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - R Shuhama
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Division of Psychiatry, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - H A Fachim
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Division of Psychiatry, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil; Institute of Neuroscience and Behaviour- INeC, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - P R Menezes
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - C M Del-Ben
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Division of Psychiatry, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - P Louzada-Junior
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Clinical Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
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25
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O'Neill N, McLaughlin C, Komiyama N, Sylantyev S. Biphasic Modulation of NMDA Receptor Function by Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors. J Neurosci 2018; 38:9840-9855. [PMID: 30282730 PMCID: PMC6234301 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1000-18.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 09/02/2018] [Accepted: 09/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
A recently reported rapid potentiation of NMDA receptors by Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRIs) via a Homer protein link is distinct from the classical, relatively slow inhibitory G-protein-associated signaling triggered by mGluRI activation. The relationship between these two mechanisms remains unknown. Here, we focused on the mGluRI-dependent modulation of NMDAR response in hippocampal dentate gyrus granule cells and cerebellar granule cells of C57BL6-J mice and found that these two contrasting mechanisms overlap competitively on the time scale from hundreds of milliseconds to seconds, with the net effect depending on the cell type. At a shorter time interval (units of millisecond), the Homer-mediated signal from mGluRIs prevails, causing upregulation of NMDAR function, in both dentate gyrus granule cells and cerebellar granule cells. Our results shed light on the possible mechanisms of anti-schizophrenia drugs that disrupt Homer-containing protein link.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Here we study modulation of NMDA receptors triggered by activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors Group I via two distinct pathways: classical G-protein signaling system and newly discovered high-speed modulatory mechanism associated with Homer-protein-containing direct molecular link. We found that these two contrasting mechanisms overlap competitively on the time scale from hundreds of milliseconds to seconds, with the net effect depending on the cell type. We have also found that both crosstalk mechanisms cause significant changes in synaptic strength and plasticity. Our results resolve an apparent discrepancy between earlier studies that demonstrated contradictive effects of Homer-containing protein link disruption on NMDA receptor signaling. On top of that, our data provide a plausible explanation for unclear action mechanisms of anti-schizophrenia drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathanael O'Neill
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine McLaughlin
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Noboru Komiyama
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, Edinburgh, United Kingdom, and
| | - Sergiy Sylantyev
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,
- Department for Clinical and Experimental Epilepsy, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
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26
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Multi-Target Approach for Drug Discovery against Schizophrenia. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19103105. [PMID: 30309037 PMCID: PMC6213273 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19103105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Revised: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Polypharmacology is nowadays considered an increasingly crucial aspect in discovering new drugs as a number of original single-target drugs have been performing far behind expectations during the last ten years. In this scenario, multi-target drugs are a promising approach against polygenic diseases with complex pathomechanisms such as schizophrenia. Indeed, second generation or atypical antipsychotics target a number of aminergic G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) simultaneously. Novel strategies in drug design and discovery against schizophrenia focus on targets beyond the dopaminergic hypothesis of the disease and even beyond the monoamine GPCRs. In particular these approaches concern proteins involved in glutamatergic and cholinergic neurotransmission, challenging the concept of antipsychotic activity without dopamine D₂ receptor involvement. Potentially interesting compounds include ligands interacting with glycine modulatory binding pocket on N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, positive allosteric modulators of α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors, positive allosteric modulators of metabotropic glutamatergic receptors, agonists and positive allosteric modulators of α7 nicotinic receptors, as well as muscarinic receptor agonists. In this review we discuss classical and novel drug targets for schizophrenia, cover benefits and limitations of current strategies to design multi-target drugs and show examples of multi-target ligands as antipsychotics, including marketed drugs, substances in clinical trials, and other investigational compounds.
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27
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Weng YT, Chien T, Kuan II, Chern Y. The TRAX, DISC1, and GSK3 complex in mental disorders and therapeutic interventions. J Biomed Sci 2018; 25:71. [PMID: 30285728 PMCID: PMC6171312 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-018-0473-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychiatric disorders (such as bipolar disorder, depression, and schizophrenia) affect the lives of millions of individuals worldwide. Despite the tremendous efforts devoted to various types of psychiatric studies and rapidly accumulating genetic information, the molecular mechanisms underlying psychiatric disorder development remain elusive. Among the genes that have been implicated in schizophrenia and other mental disorders, disrupted in schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) have been intensively investigated. DISC1 binds directly to GSK3 and modulates many cellular functions by negatively inhibiting GSK3 activity. The human DISC1 gene is located on chromosome 1 and is highly associated with schizophrenia and other mental disorders. A recent study demonstrated that a neighboring gene of DISC1, translin-associated factor X (TRAX), binds to the DISC1/GSK3β complex and at least partly mediates the actions of the DISC1/GSK3β complex. Previous studies also demonstrate that TRAX and most of its interacting proteins that have been identified so far are risk genes and/or markers of mental disorders. In the present review, we will focus on the emerging roles of TRAX and its interacting proteins (including DISC1 and GSK3β) in psychiatric disorders and the potential implications for developing therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ting Weng
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec. 2, Academia Rd. Nankang, Taipei, 115, Taiwan, Republic of China.,Program in Molecular Medicine, National Yang-Ming University and Academia Sinica, No.155, Sec.2, Linong Street, Taipei, 112, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Ting Chien
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec. 2, Academia Rd. Nankang, Taipei, 115, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - I-I Kuan
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec. 2, Academia Rd. Nankang, Taipei, 115, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yijuang Chern
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec. 2, Academia Rd. Nankang, Taipei, 115, Taiwan, Republic of China. .,Program in Molecular Medicine, National Yang-Ming University and Academia Sinica, No.155, Sec.2, Linong Street, Taipei, 112, Taiwan, Republic of China.
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28
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Yuan A, Veeranna, Sershen H, Basavarajappa BS, Smiley JF, Hashim A, Bleiwas C, Berg M, Guifoyle DN, Subbanna S, Darji S, Kumar A, Rao MV, Wilson DA, Julien JP, Javitt DC, Nixon RA. Neurofilament light interaction with GluN1 modulates neurotransmission and schizophrenia-associated behaviors. Transl Psychiatry 2018; 8:167. [PMID: 30143609 PMCID: PMC6109052 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-018-0194-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurofilament (NFL) proteins have recently been found to play unique roles in synapses. NFL is known to interact with the GluN1 subunit of N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDAR) and be reduced in schizophrenia though functional consequences are unknown. Here we investigated whether the interaction of NFL with GluN1 modulates synaptic transmission and schizophrenia-associated behaviors. The interaction of NFL with GluN1 was assessed by means of molecular, pharmacological, electrophysiological, magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), and schizophrenia-associated behavior analyses. NFL deficits cause an NMDAR hypofunction phenotype including abnormal hippocampal function, as seen in schizophrenia. NFL-/- deletion in mice reduces dendritic spines and GluN1 protein levels, elevates ubiquitin-dependent turnover of GluN1 and hippocampal glutamate measured by MRS, and depresses hippocampal long-term potentiation. NMDAR-related behaviors are also impaired, including pup retrieval, spatial and social memory, prepulse inhibition, night-time activity, and response to NMDAR antagonist, whereas motor deficits are minimal. Importantly, partially lowering NFL in NFL+/- mice to levels seen regionally in schizophrenia, induced similar but milder NMDAR-related synaptic and behavioral deficits. Our findings support an emerging view that central nervous system neurofilament subunits including NFL in the present report, serve distinctive, critical roles in synapses relevant to neuropsychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aidong Yuan
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA.
- Departments of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
| | - Veeranna
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
- Departments of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Henry Sershen
- Departments of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
- Neurochemistry Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Balapal S Basavarajappa
- Departments of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
- Analytical Psychopharmacology Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - John F Smiley
- Neurochemistry Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Audrey Hashim
- Neurochemistry Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Cynthia Bleiwas
- Neurochemistry Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Martin Berg
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - David N Guifoyle
- Center for Biomedical Imaging and Neuromodulation, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Shivakumar Subbanna
- Analytical Psychopharmacology Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Sandipkumar Darji
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Asok Kumar
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Mala V Rao
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
- Departments of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Donald A Wilson
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
- Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
- Neuroscience Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Jean-Pierre Julien
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université Laval, Département d'anatomie et physiologie de l'Université Laval, 2795 boul. Laurier, Québec, G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Daniel C Javitt
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- Schizophrenia Research, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Ralph A Nixon
- Center for Dementia Research, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA.
- Departments of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
- Neuroscience Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
- Department of Cell Biology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
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Stępnicki P, Kondej M, Kaczor AA. Current Concepts and Treatments of Schizophrenia. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23082087. [PMID: 30127324 PMCID: PMC6222385 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23082087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a debilitating mental illness which involves three groups of symptoms, i.e., positive, negative and cognitive, and has major public health implications. According to various sources, it affects up to 1% of the population. The pathomechanism of schizophrenia is not fully understood and current antipsychotics are characterized by severe limitations. Firstly, these treatments are efficient for about half of patients only. Secondly, they ameliorate mainly positive symptoms (e.g., hallucinations and thought disorders which are the core of the disease) but negative (e.g., flat affect and social withdrawal) and cognitive (e.g., learning and attention disorders) symptoms remain untreated. Thirdly, they involve severe neurological and metabolic side effects and may lead to sexual dysfunction or agranulocytosis (clozapine). It is generally agreed that the interactions of antipsychotics with various neurotransmitter receptors are responsible for their effects to treat schizophrenia symptoms. In particular, several G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), mainly dopamine, serotonin and adrenaline receptors, are traditional molecular targets for antipsychotics. Comprehensive research on GPCRs resulted in the exploration of novel important signaling mechanisms of GPCRs which are crucial for drug discovery: intentionally non-selective multi-target compounds, allosteric modulators, functionally selective compounds and receptor oligomerization. In this review, we cover current hypotheses of schizophrenia, involving different neurotransmitter systems, discuss available treatments and present novel concepts in schizophrenia and its treatment, involving mainly novel mechanisms of GPCRs signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Stępnicki
- Department of Synthesis and Chemical Technology of Pharmaceutical Substances, Faculty of Pharmacy with Division of Medical Analytics, Medical University of Lublin, 4A Chodzki St., PL-20093 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Magda Kondej
- Department of Synthesis and Chemical Technology of Pharmaceutical Substances, Faculty of Pharmacy with Division of Medical Analytics, Medical University of Lublin, 4A Chodzki St., PL-20093 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka A Kaczor
- Department of Synthesis and Chemical Technology of Pharmaceutical Substances, Faculty of Pharmacy with Division of Medical Analytics, Medical University of Lublin, 4A Chodzki St., PL-20093 Lublin, Poland.
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland.
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Lieberman JA, Girgis RR, Brucato G, Moore H, Provenzano F, Kegeles L, Javitt D, Kantrowitz J, Wall MM, Corcoran CM, Schobel SA, Small SA. Hippocampal dysfunction in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia: a selective review and hypothesis for early detection and intervention. Mol Psychiatry 2018; 23:1764-1772. [PMID: 29311665 PMCID: PMC6037569 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2017.249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 233] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Revised: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Scientists have long sought to characterize the pathophysiologic basis of schizophrenia and develop biomarkers that could identify the illness. Extensive postmortem and in vivo neuroimaging research has described the early involvement of the hippocampus in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. In this context, we have developed a hypothesis that describes the evolution of schizophrenia-from the premorbid through the prodromal stages to syndromal psychosis-and posits dysregulation of glutamate neurotransmission beginning in the CA1 region of the hippocampus as inducing attenuated psychotic symptoms and initiating the transition to syndromal psychosis. As the illness progresses, this pathological process expands to other regions of the hippocampal circuit and projection fields in other anatomic areas including the frontal cortex, and induces an atrophic process in which hippocampal neuropil is reduced and interneurons are lost. This paper will describe the studies of our group and other investigators supporting this pathophysiological hypothesis, as well as its implications for early detection and therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- JA Lieberman
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - RR Girgis
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - G Brucato
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - H Moore
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - F Provenzano
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - L Kegeles
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - D Javitt
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - J Kantrowitz
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - MM Wall
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA,Department of Biostatistics, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - CM Corcoran
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - SA Schobel
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - SA Small
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA,Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA,Department of Radiology, College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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Wesołowska A, Partyka A, Jastrzębska-Więsek M, Kołaczkowski M. The preclinical discovery and development of cariprazine for the treatment of schizophrenia. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2018; 13:779-790. [PMID: 29722587 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2018.1471057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cariprazine is approved in the United States and Europe for the treatment of manic or mixed episodes associated with bipolar I disorder and for the treatment of schizophrenia in adult patients. It is typically administered orally once a day (a dose range 1.5 - 6 mg/day), does require titration, and may be given with or without food. It has a half-life of 2 - 4 days with an active metabolite that has a terminal half-life of 2 - 3 weeks. Areas covered: This review article focuses on the preclinical discovery of cariprazine providing details regarding its pharmacological, behavioral, and neurochemical mechanisms and its contribution to clinical therapeutic benefits. This article is based on the available literature with respect to the preclinical and clinical findings and product labels of cariprazine. Expert opinion: Cariprazine shows highest affinity toward D3 receptors, followed by D2, 5-HT2B, and 5-HT1A receptors. It also shows moderate affinity toward σ1, 5-HT2A, and histamine H1 receptors. Long-term administration of cariprazine altered the abundance of dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate receptor subtypes in different brain regions. All these mechanisms of cariprazine may contribute toward its unique preclinical profile and its clinically observed benefits in the treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar mania, and possibly other psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Wesołowska
- a Department of Clinical Pharmacy , Jagiellonian University Medical College , Kraków , Poland
| | - Anna Partyka
- a Department of Clinical Pharmacy , Jagiellonian University Medical College , Kraków , Poland
| | | | - Marcin Kołaczkowski
- b Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry , Jagiellonian University Medical College , Kraków , Poland
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Wang X, Pinto-Duarte A, Behrens MM, Zhou X, Sejnowski TJ. Ketamine independently modulated power and phase-coupling of theta oscillations in Sp4 hypomorphic mice. PLoS One 2018. [PMID: 29513708 PMCID: PMC5841791 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Reduced expression of Sp4, the murine homolog of human SP4, a risk gene of multiple psychiatric disorders, led to N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) hypofunction in mice, producing behavioral phenotypes reminiscent of schizophrenia, including hypersensitivity to ketamine. As accumulating evidence on molecular mechanisms and behavioral phenotypes established Sp4 hypomorphism as a promising animal model, systems-level neural circuit mechanisms of Sp4 hypomorphism, especially network dynamics underlying cognitive functions, remain poorly understood. We attempted to close this gap in knowledge in the present study by recording multi-channel epidural electroencephalogram (EEG) from awake behaving wildtype and Sp4 hypomorphic mice. We characterized cortical theta-band power and phase-coupling phenotypes, a known neural circuit substrate underlying cognitive functions, and further studied the effects of a subanesthetic dosage of ketamine on theta abnormalities unique to Sp4 hypomorphism. Sp4 hypomorphic mice had markedly elevated theta power localized frontally and parietally, a more pronounced theta phase progression along the neuraxis, and a stronger frontal-parietal theta coupling. Acute subanesthetic ketamine did not affect theta power in wildtype animals but significantly reduced it in Sp4 hypomorphic mice, nearly completely neutralizing their excessive frontal/parietal theta power. Ketamine did not significantly alter cortical theta phase progression in either wildtype or Sp4 hypomorphic animals, but significantly strengthened cortical theta phase-coupling in wildtype, but not in Sp4 hypomorphic animals. Our results suggested that the resting-state phenotypes of cortical theta oscillations unique to Sp4 hypomorphic mice closely mimicked a schizophrenic endophenotype. Further, ketamine independently modulated Sp4 hypomorphic anomalies in theta power and phase-coupling, suggesting separate underlying neural circuit mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wang
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - António Pinto-Duarte
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - M. Margarita Behrens
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Xianjin Zhou
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Terrence J. Sejnowski
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- Division of Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
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Scott D, Tamminga CA. Effects of genetic and environmental risk for schizophrenia on hippocampal activity and psychosis-like behavior in mice. Behav Brain Res 2018; 339:114-123. [PMID: 29155005 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.10.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness most notably characterized by psychotic symptoms. In humans, psychotic disorders are associated with specific hippocampal pathology. However, animal model systems for psychosis often lack this pathology, and have been weak in providing a representation of psychosis. We utilized a double-risk model system combining genetic risk with environmental stress. We hypothesized these factors will induce hippocampal subfield pathology consistent with human findings, as well as behavioral phenotypes relevant to psychosis. To address this, we exposed wild-type and transgenic Disc1 dominant negative (Disc1-deficient) mice to maternal deprivation. In adulthood, hippocampal subfields were examined for signs of cellular and behavioral pathology associated with psychosis. Mice exposed to maternal deprivation showed a decrease in dentate gyrus activity, and an increase in CA3/CA1 activity. Furthermore, results demonstrated a differential behavioral effect between maternal deprivation and Disc1 deficiency, with maternal deprivation associated with a hyperactive phenotype and impaired prepulse inhibition, and Disc1 deficiency causing an impairment in fear conditioning. These results suggest distinct consequences of environmental and genetic risk factors contributing to psychosis, with maternal deprivation inducing a state more wholly consistent with schizophrenia psychosis. Further research is needed to determine if this pathology is causally related to a specific behavioral phenotype. The development of a strong inference animal model system for psychosis would satisfy a high medical need in schizophrenia research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Scott
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas TX, 75390-9127, United States.
| | - Carol A Tamminga
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas TX, 75390-9127, United States
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Marballi KK, Gallitano AL. Immediate Early Genes Anchor a Biological Pathway of Proteins Required for Memory Formation, Long-Term Depression and Risk for Schizophrenia. Front Behav Neurosci 2018; 12:23. [PMID: 29520222 PMCID: PMC5827560 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
While the causes of myriad medical and infectious illnesses have been identified, the etiologies of neuropsychiatric illnesses remain elusive. This is due to two major obstacles. First, the risk for neuropsychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia, is determined by both genetic and environmental factors. Second, numerous genes influence susceptibility for these illnesses. Genome-wide association studies have identified at least 108 genomic loci for schizophrenia, and more are expected to be published shortly. In addition, numerous biological processes contribute to the neuropathology underlying schizophrenia. These include immune dysfunction, synaptic and myelination deficits, vascular abnormalities, growth factor disruption, and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction. However, the field of psychiatric genetics lacks a unifying model to explain how environment may interact with numerous genes to influence these various biological processes and cause schizophrenia. Here we describe a biological cascade of proteins that are activated in response to environmental stimuli such as stress, a schizophrenia risk factor. The central proteins in this pathway are critical mediators of memory formation and a particular form of hippocampal synaptic plasticity, long-term depression (LTD). Each of these proteins is also implicated in schizophrenia risk. In fact, the pathway includes four genes that map to the 108 loci associated with schizophrenia: GRIN2A, nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFATc3), early growth response 1 (EGR1) and NGFI-A Binding Protein 2 (NAB2); each of which contains the "Index single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)" (most SNP) at its respective locus. Environmental stimuli activate this biological pathway in neurons, resulting in induction of EGR immediate early genes: EGR1, EGR3 and NAB2. We hypothesize that dysfunction in any of the genes in this pathway disrupts the normal activation of Egrs in response to stress. This may result in insufficient electrophysiologic, immunologic, and neuroprotective, processes that these genes normally mediate. Continued adverse environmental experiences, over time, may thereby result in neuropathology that gives rise to the symptoms of schizophrenia. By combining multiple genes associated with schizophrenia susceptibility, in a functional cascade triggered by neuronal activity, the proposed biological pathway provides an explanation for both the polygenic and environmental influences that determine the complex etiology of this mental illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ketan K. Marballi
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences and Psychiatry, University of Arizona College of Medicine—Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | - Amelia L. Gallitano
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences and Psychiatry, University of Arizona College of Medicine—Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ, United States
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Leal SL, Yassa MA. Integrating new findings and examining clinical applications of pattern separation. Nat Neurosci 2018; 21:163-173. [PMID: 29371654 PMCID: PMC5898810 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-017-0065-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Pattern separation, the ability to independently represent and store similar experiences, is a crucial facet of episodic memory. Growing evidence suggests that the hippocampus possesses unique circuitry that is computationally capable of resolving mnemonic interference by using pattern separation. In this Review, we discuss recent advances in the understanding of this process and evaluate the caveats and limitations of linking across animal and human studies. We summarize clinical and translational studies using methods that are sensitive to pattern separation impairments, an approach that stems from the fact that the hippocampus is a major site of disruption in many brain disorders. We critically evaluate the assumptions that guide fundamental and translational studies in this area. Finally, we suggest guidelines for future research and offer ways to overcome potential interpretational challenges to increase the utility of pattern separation as a construct that can further understanding of both memory processes and brain disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie L Leal
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Michael A Yassa
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior and Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.
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Yoshikawa A, Nishimura F, Inai A, Eriguchi Y, Nishioka M, Takaya A, Tochigi M, Kawamura Y, Umekage T, Kato K, Sasaki T, Kasai K, Kakiuchi C. Novel rare variations in genes that regulate developmental change in N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor in patients with schizophrenia. Hum Genome Var 2018; 5:17056. [PMID: 29423241 PMCID: PMC5794673 DOI: 10.1038/hgv.2017.56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Revised: 10/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanism underlying the vulnerability to developing schizophrenia (SCZ) during adolescence remains elusive. Hypofunction of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) has been implicated in the pathophysiology of SCZ. During development, the composition of synaptic NMDARs dramatically changes from NR2B-containing NMDARs to NR2A-containing NMDARs through the phosphorylation of NR2B S1480 or Y1472 by CDK5, CSNK2A1, and EphB2, which plays a pivotal role in the maturation of neural circuits. We hypothesized that the dysregulation of developmental change in NMDARs could be involved in the onset of SCZ. Using next-generation sequencing, we re-sequenced all the coding regions and splice sites of CDK5, CSNK2A1, and EphB2 in 474 patients with SCZ and 475 healthy controls. Variants on the database for human control subjects of Japanese origin were removed and all the nonsynonymous and nonsense variants were validated using Sanger sequencing. Four novel variants in CDK5 were observed in patients with SCZ but were not observed in controls. The total number of variants, however, was not significantly different between the SCZ and control groups (P=0.062). In silico analyses predicted P271T to be damaging. Further genetic research using a larger sample is required to examine whether CDK5 is involved in the pathophysiology of SCZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akane Yoshikawa
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Fumichika Nishimura
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Aya Inai
- Department of Child Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yosuke Eriguchi
- Department of Child Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaki Nishioka
- Division for Counseling and Support, Office for Mental Health Support, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Atsuhiko Takaya
- Department of Psychiatry, Fukui Memorial Hospital, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Mamoru Tochigi
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshiya Kawamura
- Department of Psychiatry, Shonan Kamakura General Hospital, Kamakura, Japan
| | - Tadashi Umekage
- Division for Environment, Health and Safety, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kayoko Kato
- Department of Health Education, Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tsukasa Sasaki
- Department of Health Education, Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kiyoto Kasai
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chihiro Kakiuchi
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Disability Services Office, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Long-term effects of aripiprazole exposure on monoaminergic and glutamatergic receptor subtypes: comparison with cariprazine. CNS Spectr 2017; 22:484-494. [PMID: 28059046 DOI: 10.1017/s1092852916000894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study examined the chronic effects of aripiprazole and cariprazine on serotonin (5-HT1A and 5-HT2A) and glutamate (NMDA and AMPA) receptor subtypes. In addition, the effects of aripiprazole on D2 and D3 receptors were tested and compared with previously reported cariprazine data. METHODS Rats received vehicle, aripiprazole (2, 5, or 15 mg/kg), or cariprazine (0.06, 0.2, or 0.6 mg/kg) for 28 days. Receptor levels were quantified using autoradiographic assays on brain sections from the medial prefrontal cortex (MPC), dorsolateral frontal cortex (DFC), nucleus accumbens (NAc), caudate-putamen medial (CPu-M), caudate-putamen lateral (CPu-L), hippocampal CA1 (HIPP-CA1) and CA3 (HIPP-CA3) regions, and the entorhinal cortex (EC). RESULTS Similar to previous findings with cariprazine, aripiprazole upregulated D2 receptor levels in various regions; D3 receptor changes were less than those reported with cariprazine. All aripiprazole doses and higher cariprazine doses increased 5-HT1A receptors in the MPC and DFC. Higher aripiprazole and all cariprazine doses increased 5-HT1A receptors in HIPP-CA1 and HIPP-CA3. Aripiprazole decreased 5-HT2A receptors in the MPC, DFC, HIPP-CA1, and HIPP-CA3 regions. Both compounds decreased NMDA receptors and increased AMPA receptors in select brain regions. CONCLUSIONS Long-term administration of aripiprazole and cariprazine had similar effects on 5-HT1A, NMDA, and AMPA receptors. However, cariprazine more profoundly increased D3 receptors while aripiprazole selectively reduced 5-HT2A receptors. These results suggest that the unique actions of cariprazine on dopamine D3 receptors, combined with its effects on serotonin and glutamate receptor subtypes, may confer the clinical benefits, safety, and tolerability of this novel compound in schizophrenia and bipolar mania.
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38
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Ding J, Zhou HH, Ma QR, He ZY, Ma JB, Liu YM, Zhang YW, He YQ, Liu J. Expression of NR1 and apoptosis levels in the hippocampal cells of mice treated with MK‑801. Mol Med Rep 2017; 16:8359-8364. [PMID: 28990059 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.7674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2017] [Accepted: 09/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate the characteristics of N‑methyl‑D‑aspartate receptor R1 (NR1) expression and apoptosis in the nerve cells of the hippocampus in schizophrenia‑like mice. C57BL/6 mice were randomly allocated to the following groups: i) Blank group; ii) MK‑801 group; iii) MK‑801+NMDA group, according to body weight. The NMDAR antagonist, MK‑801 (0.6 mg/kg/d) was intraperitoneally injected daily for 14 days to induce a schizophrenia‑like phenotype mouse model, and the effect of the NMDA injection via the lateral ventricle was observed. The results demonstrated that the number of NR1 positive cells in the MK‑801 group increased in the CA1 and DG regions, indicating that NMDA may reverse this change. The level of damage decreased in the MK‑801 treated group when compared with the blank group in the CA3 region. The protein expression of NR1 increased however, at the mRNA expression level, NR1 was lower in the MK‑801 treated group when compared to the blank group; NMDA also reversed this change. In addition, early and total apoptosis detected in the hippocampal nerve cells was significantly increased in the MK‑801 group when compared with the blank group, which was reversible following treatment with NMDA. These results indicated that NMDA may regulate the expression of NR1 and suppress apoptosis in hippocampal nerve cells in schizophrenia‑like mice. Thus, NR1 may be a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Ding
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Cerebrocranial Diseases, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Hui-Hui Zhou
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Cerebrocranial Diseases, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Quan-Rui Ma
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Cerebrocranial Diseases, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Zhong-Yi He
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Cerebrocranial Diseases, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Jiang-Bo Ma
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Cerebrocranial Diseases, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Yin-Ming Liu
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Cerebrocranial Diseases, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Yi-Wei Zhang
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Cerebrocranial Diseases, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Yu-Qing He
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Cerebrocranial Diseases, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
| | - Juan Liu
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Cerebrocranial Diseases, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia 750004, P.R. China
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Activation of Group II Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors Promotes LTP Induction at Schaffer Collateral-CA1 Pyramidal Cell Synapses by Priming NMDA Receptors. J Neurosci 2017; 36:11521-11531. [PMID: 27911756 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1519-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well established that selective activation of group I metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors induces LTD of synaptic transmission at Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses. In contrast, application of 1S,3R-ACPD, a mixed agonist at group I and group II mGlu receptors, induces LTP. Using whole-cell recordings from CA1 pyramidal cells and field recordings in the hippocampal CA1 region, we investigated the specific contribution of group II mGlu receptors to synaptic plasticity at Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses in acute slices of adult mice. Pharmacological activation of group II mGlu receptors (mGlu2 and mGlu3 receptors) with the specific agonist LY354740 in conjunction with electrical stimulation induced postsynaptic LTP. This form of plasticity requires coactivation of NMDA receptors (NMDARs). Group II mGlu receptor activation led to PKC-dependent phosphorylation of the GluN1 subunit. We found that both synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDARs, which are differentially modulated by mGlu2 and mGlu3 receptors, contribute to LTP induction. Furthermore, LTP initiated by activation of group II mGlu receptors was not occluded by LTP induced with high-frequency trains of stimuli. However, the phosphorylation of NMDARs mediated by group II mGlu receptor activation led to a priming effect that enhanced subsequent high-frequency stimulation-induced LTP. These findings reveal a novel metaplastic mechanism through which group II mGlu receptors modulate synaptic function at the Schaffer collateral input to CA1 pyramidal cells, thereby lowering the threshold to induce plasticity. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The group II metabotropic glutamate (mGlu II) receptors exert a well characterized action on presynaptic neuron terminals to modulate neurotransmitter release. Here, we show that these receptors also have postsynaptic effects in promoting the induction of synaptic plasticity. Using an electrophysiological approach including field and whole-cell patch recording in hippocampi from wild-type and transgenic mice, we show that activation of group II mGlu receptors enhances NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-mediated currents through PKC-dependent phosphorylation. This priming of NMDARs lowers the threshold for the induction of LTP of synaptic transmission. These findings may also provide new insights into the mechanisms through which drugs targeting mGlu II receptors alleviate hypoglutamatergic conditions such as those occurring in certain brain disorders such as schizophrenia.
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Rhindress K, Robinson DG, Gallego JA, Wellington R, Malhotra AK, Szeszko PR. Hippocampal subregion volume changes associated with antipsychotic treatment in first-episode psychosis. Psychol Med 2017; 47:1706-1718. [PMID: 28193301 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291717000137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hippocampal dysfunction is considered central to many neurobiological models of schizophrenia, yet there are few longitudinal in vivo neuroimaging studies that have investigated the relationship between antipsychotic treatment and morphologic changes within specific hippocampal subregions among patients with psychosis. METHOD A total of 29 patients experiencing a first episode of psychosis with little or no prior antipsychotic exposure received structural neuroimaging examinations at illness onset and then following 12 weeks of treatment with either risperidone or aripiprazole in a double-blind randomized clinical trial. In addition, 29 healthy volunteers received structural neuroimaging examinations at baseline and 12-week time points. We manually delineated six hippocampal subregions [i.e. anterior cornu ammonis (CA) 1-3, posterior CA1-3, subiculum, dentate gyrus/CA4, entorhinal cortex, and fimbria] from 3T magnetic resonance images using an established method with high inter- and intra-rater reliability. RESULTS Following antipsychotic treatment patients demonstrated significant reductions in dentate gyrus/CA4 volume and increases in subiculum volume. Healthy volunteers demonstrated non-significant volumetric changes in these subregions across the two time points. We observed a significant quadratic (i.e. inverted U) association between changes in dentate gyrus/CA4 volume and cumulative antipsychotic dosage between the scans. CONCLUSIONS This study provides the first evidence to our knowledge regarding longitudinal in vivo volumetric changes within specific hippocampal subregions in patients with psychosis following antipsychotic treatment. The finding of a non-linear relationship between changes in dentate gyrus/CA4 subregion volume and antipsychotic exposure may provide new avenues into understanding dosing strategies for therapeutic interventions relevant to neurobiological models of hippocampal dysfunction in psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Rhindress
- Department of Psychiatry,New York University School of Medicine,New York, NY,USA
| | - D G Robinson
- Department of Psychiatry,Hofstra Northwell School of Medicine,Hempstead, NY,USA
| | - J A Gallego
- Department of Psychiatry,Weill Cornell Medical College,White Plains, NY,USA
| | - R Wellington
- Department of Psychology,St John's University,Queens, NY,USA
| | - A K Malhotra
- Department of Psychiatry,Hofstra Northwell School of Medicine,Hempstead, NY,USA
| | - P R Szeszko
- James J. Peters VA Medical Center,Bronx, NY,USA
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Keller A, Ambert N, Legendre A, Bedez M, Bouteiller JM, Bischoff S, Baudry M, Moussaoui S. Impact of synaptic localization and subunit composition of ionotropic glutamate receptors on synaptic function: modeling and simulation studies. IEEE/ACM TRANSACTIONS ON COMPUTATIONAL BIOLOGY AND BIOINFORMATICS 2017; 14:892-904. [PMID: 27164603 DOI: 10.1109/tcbb.2016.2561932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Ionotropic NMDA and AMPA glutamate receptors (iGluRs) play important roles in synaptic function under physiological and pathological conditions. iGluRs sub-synaptic localization and subunit composition are dynamically regulated by activity-dependent insertion and internalization. However, understanding the impact on synaptic transmission of changes in composition and localization of iGluRs is difficult to address experimentally. To address this question, we developed a detailed computational model of glutamatergic synapses, including spine and dendritic compartments, elementary models of subtypes of NMDA and AMPA receptors, glial glutamate transporters, intracellular calcium and a calcium-dependent signaling cascade underlying the development of long-term potentiation (LTP). These synapses were distributed on a neuron model and numerical simulations were performed to assess the impact of changes in composition and localization (synaptic vs extrasynaptic) of iGluRs on synaptic transmission and plasticity following various patterns of presynaptic stimulation. In addition, the effects of various pharmacological compounds targeting NMDARs or AMPARs were determined. Our results showed that changes in NMDAR localization have a greater impact on synaptic plasticity than changes in AMPARs. Moreover, the results suggest that modulators of AMPA and NMDA receptors have differential effects on restoring synaptic plasticity under different experimental situations mimicking various human diseases.
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Joseph J, Depp C, Shih PAB, Cadenhead KS, Schmid-Schönbein G. Modified Mediterranean Diet for Enrichment of Short Chain Fatty Acids: Potential Adjunctive Therapeutic to Target Immune and Metabolic Dysfunction in Schizophrenia? Front Neurosci 2017; 11:155. [PMID: 28396623 PMCID: PMC5366345 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Growing interest in gut and digestive processes and their potential link to brain and peripheral based inflammation or biobehavioral phenotypes has led to an increasing number of basic and translational scientific reports focused on the role of gut microbiota within the context of neuropsychiatric disorders. However, the effect of dietary modification on specific gut metabolites, in association with immune, metabolic, and psychopathological functioning in schizophrenia spectrum disorders has not been well characterized. The short chain fatty acids (SCFA) acetate, butyrate, and propionate, major metabolites derived from fermentation of dietary fibers by gut microbes, interact with multiple immune and metabolic pathways. The specific pathways that SCFA are thought to target, are dysregulated in cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes, and systemic inflammation. Most notably, these disorders are consistently linked to an attenuated lifespan in schizophrenia. Although, unhealthy dietary intake patterns and increased prevalence of immune and metabolic dysfunction has been observed in people with schizophrenia; dietary interventions have not been well utilized to target immune or metabolic illness. Prior schizophrenia patient trials primarily focused on the effects of gluten free diets. Findings from these studies indicate that a diet avoiding gluten benefits a limited subset of patients, individuals with celiac disease or non-celiac gluten sensitivity. Therefore, alternative dietary and nutritional modifications such as high-fiber, Mediterranean style, diets that enrich the production of SCFA, while being associated with a minimal likelihood of adverse events, may improve immune and cardiovascular outcomes linked to premature mortality in schizophrenia. With a growing literature demonstrating that SCFA can cross the blood brain barrier and target key inflammatory and metabolic pathways, this article highlights enriching dietary intake for SCFA as a potential adjunctive therapy for people with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie Joseph
- Department of Psychiatry, University of CaliforniaSan Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Colin Depp
- Department of Psychiatry, University of CaliforniaSan Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Department of Psychology, VA San Diego Healthcare SystemSan Diego, CA, USA
| | - Pei-an B. Shih
- Department of Psychiatry, University of CaliforniaSan Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Nakazawa K, Jeevakumar V, Nakao K. Spatial and temporal boundaries of NMDA receptor hypofunction leading to schizophrenia. NPJ SCHIZOPHRENIA 2017; 3:7. [PMID: 28560253 PMCID: PMC5441533 DOI: 10.1038/s41537-016-0003-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Revised: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor hypofunction is one of the most prevalent models of schizophrenia. For example, healthy subjects treated with uncompetitive N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonists elicit positive, negative, and cognitive-like symptoms of schizophrenia. Patients with anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis, which is likely caused by autoantibody-mediated down-regulation of cell surface N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors, often experience psychiatric symptoms similar to schizophrenia initially. However, where and when N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor hypofunction occurs in the brain of schizophrenic patients is poorly understood. Here we review the findings from N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonist and autoantibody models, postmortem studies on N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor subunits, as well as the global and cell-type-specific knockout mouse models of subunit GluN1. We compare various conditional GluN1 knockout mouse strains, focusing on the onset of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor deletion and on the cortical cell-types. Based on these results, we hypothesize that N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor hypofunction initially occurs in cortical GABAergic neurons during early postnatal development. The resulting GABA neuron maturation deficit may cause reduction of intrinsic excitability and GABA release, leading to disinhibition of pyramidal neurons. The cortical disinhibition in turn could elicit glutamate spillover and subsequent homeostatic down regulation of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor function in pyramidal neurons in prodromal stage. These two temporally-distinct N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor hypofunctions may be complimentary, as neither alone may not be able to fully explain the entire schizophrenia pathophysiology. Potential underlying mechanisms for N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor hypofunction in cortical GABA neurons are also discussed, based on studies of naturally-occurring N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonists, neuregulin/ErbB4 signaling pathway, and theoretical analysis of excitatory/inhibitory balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazu Nakazawa
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL USA
| | - Vivek Jeevakumar
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL USA
| | - Kazuhito Nakao
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL USA
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Alshehri FS, Althobaiti YS, Sari Y. Effects of Administered Ethanol and Methamphetamine on Glial Glutamate Transporters in Rat Striatum and Hippocampus. J Mol Neurosci 2016; 61:343-350. [PMID: 27888396 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-016-0859-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to ethanol (EtOH) or methamphetamine (MA) can lead to increase in extracellular glutamate concentration in the brain. Although studies from ours showed the effects of EtOH exposure on key glial glutamate transporters, little is known about the effects of sequential exposure to EtOH and MA or MA alone on certain glial glutamate transporters. In this study, we investigated the effects of sequential exposure to EtOH and MA on the expression of the major glutamate transporters, glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1), as well as cystine/glutamate antiporter (xCT) and glutamate aspartate transporter (GLAST) in striatum and hippocampus. We also tested the effects of ceftriaxone (CEF), known to upregulate GLT-1, in animals administered EtOH and MA. Wistar rats were orally gavaged with EtOH (6 g/kg) or water for 7 days. On the following day (day 8), the rats received four intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of MA (10 mg/kg) or saline (vehicle) occurring every 2 h. The rats were then treated with CEF (200 mg/kg/day, i.p.) or saline on days 8, 9, and 10. EtOH or MA exposure caused a significant downregulation of GLT-1 expression as compared to control groups in striatum and hippocampus. Furthermore, sequential exposure of EtOH and MA caused a significant downregulation of GLT-1 expression as compared to either drug administered alone in both brain regions. Importantly, GLT-1 expression was restored following CEF treatment. There were no significant differences on xCT and GLAST expression in striatum and hippocampus between all groups. These findings demonstrated that sequential exposure to EtOH and MA has additive effect in downregulation of GLT-1 and this effect can be attenuated by CEF treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahad S Alshehri
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Health Science Campus, 3000 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH, 43614, USA
| | - Yusuf S Althobaiti
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Health Science Campus, 3000 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH, 43614, USA
| | - Youssef Sari
- Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Health Science Campus, 3000 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH, 43614, USA.
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Piyabhan P, Wannasiri S, Naowaboot J. Bacopa monnieri(Brahmi) improved novel object recognition task and increased cerebral vesicular glutamate transporter type 3 in sub-chronic phencyclidine rat model of schizophrenia. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2016; 43:1234-1242. [DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.12658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pritsana Piyabhan
- Division of Physiology; Department of Preclinical Science; Faculty of Medicine; Thammasat University; Klongluang Pathumthani Thailand
| | - Supaporn Wannasiri
- Division of Physiology; Department of Preclinical Science; Faculty of Medicine; Thammasat University; Klongluang Pathumthani Thailand
| | - Jarinyaporn Naowaboot
- Division of Pharmacology; Department of Preclinical Science; Faculty of Medicine; Thammasat University; Klongluang Pathumthani Thailand
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Koványi B, Csölle C, Calovi S, Hanuska A, Kató E, Köles L, Bhattacharya A, Haller J, Sperlágh B. The role of P2X7 receptors in a rodent PCP-induced schizophrenia model. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36680. [PMID: 27824163 PMCID: PMC5099752 DOI: 10.1038/srep36680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
P2X7 receptors (P2X7Rs) are ligand-gated ion channels sensitive to extracellular ATP. Here we examined for the first time the role of P2X7R in an animal model of schizophrenia. Using the PCP induced schizophrenia model we show that both genetic deletion and pharmacological inhibition of P2X7Rs alleviate schizophrenia-like behavioral alterations. In P2rx7+/+ mice, PCP induced hyperlocomotion, stereotype behavior, ataxia and social withdrawal. In P2X7 receptor deficient mice (P2rx7−/−), the social interactions were increased, whereas the PCP induced hyperlocomotion and stereotype behavior were alleviated. The selective P2X7 receptor antagonist JNJ-47965567 partly replicated the effect of gene deficiency on PCP-induced behavioral changes and counteracted PCP-induced social withdrawal. We also show that PCP treatment upregulates and increases the functional responsiveness of P2X7Rs in the prefrontal cortex of young adult animals. The amplitude of NMDA evoked currents recorded from layer V pyramidal neurons of cortical slices were slightly decreased by both genetic deletion of P2rx7 and by JNJ-47965567. PCP induced alterations in mRNA expression encoding schizophrenia-related genes, such as NR2A, NR2B, neuregulin 1, NR1 and GABA α1 subunit were absent in the PFC of young adult P2rx7−/− animals. Our findings point to P2X7R as a potential therapeutic target in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bence Koványi
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (IEM HAS), H-1450 Budapest, Hungary.,János Szentágothai School of Neurosciences, Semmelweis University School of PhD Studies, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Cecilia Csölle
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (IEM HAS), H-1450 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Stefano Calovi
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (IEM HAS), H-1450 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Adrienn Hanuska
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, H-1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Erzsébet Kató
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, H-1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | - László Köles
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, H-1089 Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - József Haller
- Department of Behavioral Neurobiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (IEM HAS), H-1450, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Beáta Sperlágh
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (IEM HAS), H-1450 Budapest, Hungary
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Ketamine Self-Administration Reduces the Homeostasis of the Glutamate Synapse in the Rat Brain. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:7186-7193. [PMID: 27796754 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0231-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 10/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Quinta-Ferreira ME, Sampaio Dos Aidos FDS, Matias CM, Mendes PJ, Dionísio JC, Santos RM, Rosário LM, Quinta-Ferreira RM. Modelling zinc changes at the hippocampal mossy fiber synaptic cleft. J Comput Neurosci 2016; 41:323-337. [PMID: 27696002 DOI: 10.1007/s10827-016-0620-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Revised: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Zinc, a transition metal existing in very high concentrations in the hippocampal mossy fibers from CA3 area, is assumed to be co-released with glutamate and to have a neuromodulatory role at the corresponding synapses. The synaptic action of zinc is determined both by the spatiotemporal characteristics of the zinc release process and by the kinetics of zinc binding to sites located in the cleft area, as well as by their concentrations. This work addresses total, free and complexed zinc concentration changes, in an individual synaptic cleft, following single, short and long periods of evoked zinc release. The results estimate the magnitude and time course of the concentrations of zinc complexes, assuming that the dynamics of the release processes are similar to those of glutamate. It is also considered that, for the cleft zinc concentrations used in the model (≤ 1 μM), there is no postsynaptic zinc entry. For this reason, all released zinc ends up being reuptaken in a process that is several orders of magnitude slower than that of release and has thus a much smaller amplitude. The time derivative of the total zinc concentration in the cleft is represented by the difference between two alpha functions, corresponding to the released and uptaken components. These include specific parameters that were chosen assuming zinc and glutamate co-release, with similar time courses. The peak amplitudes of free zinc in the cleft were selected based on previously reported experimental cleft zinc concentration changes evoked by single and multiple stimulation protocols. The results suggest that following a low amount of zinc release, similar to that associated with one or a few stimuli, zinc clearance is mainly mediated by zinc binding to the high-affinity sites on the NMDA receptors and to the low-affinity sites on the highly abundant GLAST glutamate transporters. In the case of higher zinc release brought about by a larger group of stimuli, most zinc binding occurs essentially to the GLAST transporters, having the corresponding zinc complex a maximum concentration that is more than one order of magnitude larger than that for the high and low affinity NMDA sites. The other zinc complexes considered in the model, namely those formed with sites on the AMPA receptors, calcium and KATP channels and with ATP molecules, have much smaller contributions to the synaptic zinc clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Quinta-Ferreira
- CNC- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, P-3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal.
- Department of Physics, University of Coimbra, P-3004-516, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - F D S Sampaio Dos Aidos
- CNC- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, P-3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
- Department of Physics, University of Coimbra, P-3004-516, Coimbra, Portugal
- CFisUC, Department of Physics, University of Coimbra, P-3004-516, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - C M Matias
- CNC- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, P-3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
- UTAD- University of Trás-os-montes and Alto Douro, P-5000-801, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - P J Mendes
- Department of Physics, University of Coimbra, P-3004-516, Coimbra, Portugal
- LIP- Laboratory of Instrumentation and Experimental Particles Physics, P-3004-516, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - J C Dionísio
- CNC- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, P-3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
- Department of Animal Biology, University of Lisbon, P-1749-016, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - R M Santos
- CNC- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, P-3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, P-3004-516, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - L M Rosário
- CNC- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, P-3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, P-3004-516, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - R M Quinta-Ferreira
- CIEPQPF - Research Centre of Chemical Process Engineering and Forest Products, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, P-3030-790, Coimbra, Portugal
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Koga M, Serritella AV, Sawa A, Sedlak TW. Implications for reactive oxygen species in schizophrenia pathogenesis. Schizophr Res 2016; 176:52-71. [PMID: 26589391 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Revised: 06/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress is a well-recognized participant in the pathophysiology of multiple brain disorders, particularly neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. While not a dementia, a wide body of evidence has also been accumulating for aberrant reactive oxygen species and inflammation in schizophrenia. Here we highlight roles for oxidative stress as a common mechanism by which varied genetic and epidemiologic risk factors impact upon neurodevelopmental processes that underlie the schizophrenia syndrome. While there is longstanding evidence that schizophrenia may not have a single causative lesion, a common pathway involving oxidative stress opens the possibility for intervention at susceptible phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minori Koga
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 North Wolfe Street, Meyer 3-166, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Anthony V Serritella
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 North Wolfe Street, Meyer 3-166, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Akira Sawa
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 North Wolfe Street, Meyer 3-166, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Thomas W Sedlak
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 North Wolfe Street, Meyer 3-166, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA.
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