Pursuit of Comfort and Pursuit of Harmony: Culture, Relationships, and Social Support Seeking

How Much Is It Weighing on You? Development and Validation of the Secrecy Burden Scale

Keeping a secret is often considered burdensome, with numerous consequences for well-being. However, there is no standardized measure of secrecy burden, and most studies focus on individual/cognitive burden without considering social/relational aspects. This research aimed to develop and validate a secrecy burden measure tapping both intrapersonal and interpersonal components. Study 1 used exploratory factor analysis to reveal a four-factor model of secrecy burden: Daily Personal Impact, Relationship Impact, Pull to Reveal, and Anticipated Consequences. Study 2 used confirmatory factor analysis to replicate this factor structure and found that each factor was uniquely associated with different emotional and well-being outcomes. Study 3 employed a longitudinal design and found that higher scores on each factor predicted lower authenticity and higher depression and anxiety 2 to 3 weeks later. Altogether, this research is the first step in standardizing a secrecy burden measure and applying it to real-world secrets and well-being outcomes.

A Meta-Study of Posttraumatic Growth and Coping Strategies

The present study examined the relationship between posttraumatic growth (PTG) and different types of coping strategies to explain the mechanism underlying PTG. It also considered whether the relationship takes on different patterns in different cultures, thereby expanding on the existing literature regarding PTG. Initially, we found 666 articles published and unpublished between 2013 and 2020. All potentially eligible studies were examined based on the inclusion criteria for this study. The inclusion criteria ultimately yielded total of 96 studies. The findings of this meta-analysis indicate that the relationship varies depending on the coping strategy and culture. Moreover, identifying the coping strategies involved in overcoming traumatic events may be the key to differentiating real PTG from illusory PTG. The results show that PTG has different correlations with the four groups of coping strategies: problem-focused coping, positive emotion-focused coping, negative emotion-focused coping, and unclassified coping.

Effect of virtual reality self-counseling with the intimate other avatar

Virtual reality self-counseling (VR-SC) is considered an effective approach for addressing mental health problems. Previous studies have shown the effectiveness of VR-SC using Sigmund Freud's avatar as the counselor. However, considering that virtual reality (VR) enables embodied perspective-taking of another person, VR-SC using the avatar of a person who cares about the participant (an intimate person), such as a family member or friend, is considered effective because it could create warm attitudes toward the participants themselves. In this study, 60 undergraduate and graduate students were split into three conditions: VR-SC with intimate persons, VR-SC with Freud, and a control group. The intervention effects were then compared. The results showed that VR-SC with an intimate person was the most effective in improving anxiety symptoms. These results may be attributed to accepting and affirming oneself from the perspective of the intimate person's avatar and counseling oneself. This study is significant in that it is the first to conduct VR-SC with the avatar of an intimate person and compare the effects with Freud's avatar. More importantly, it showed that the same VR-SC method could have different effects depending on the avatar of the counseling partner.

Association of social support before ICU admission with postdischarge mental health symptoms in ICU patients: a single-centre prospective cohort study in Japan

OBJECTIVES

Mental health problems after discharge from the intensive care unit (ICU) interfere with physical recovery and seriously affect daily life. Social support has been suggested to be associated with mental health but has not been sufficiently characterised. This study aimed to evaluate the association of social support before ICU admission with mental health after ICU discharge.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Medical-surgical ICU of a hospital in Japan.

PARTICIPANTS

Patients admitted to the ICU for more than 48 hours were surveyed on social support prior to ICU admission, and 3 months after discharge from the ICU, mental health questionnaires were mailed to the patient.

PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)-related symptoms were measured using the Impact of Event Scale-Revised, and anxiety and depressive symptoms were measured using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale.

RESULTS

A total of 153 patients were enrolled; the prevalence of PTSD-related symptoms, anxiety and depressive symptoms 3 months after discharge from the ICU was 11.3%, 14.0% and 24.6%, respectively. Multivariate analysis using linear regression models adjusted for age, sex and years of education for PTSD-related symptoms, anxiety and depressive symptoms revealed that social support (β=-0.018, 95% CI: -0.029 to 0.006, p=0.002) and female sex (β=0.268, 95% CI: 0.005 to 0.531, p=0.046) were independent factors associated with the severity of depressive symptoms. In addition, sex differences were observed in the association between depressive symptoms and social support (p for interaction=0.056).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher social support before ICU admission was not associated with PTSD symptoms after ICU discharge, although it may be associated with a lower prevalence depressive symptoms after ICU discharge. Therefore, it is important to provide necessary social support when needed.

Psychological distress and alcohol use disorder in college students of color: Social support's moderating properties

Alcohol use is prevalent among college students. Research has found that psychological distress in the form of depression, anxiety, or loneliness has been consistently associated with greater alcohol use. Because Students of Color (SoC) disproportionately experience greater psychological distress than White students, it is critical to determine buffers against psychological distress and subsequent alcohol use consequences. Previous literature found that social support can protect against the effects of psychological distress and weaken its link with alcohol use. This study aimed to determine the moderating effect of social support in the relation between psychological distress and alcohol use among SoC. College Students of Color from across the U.S. (n = 211, Mage = 27.51, SD = 9.63) were recruited via Prolific to answer an online survey through Qualtrics. Linear regression analyses showed that psychological distress variables (i.e., depression, anxiety, and loneliness) were positively associated with alcohol use. However, moderation analysis did not find any form of social support to moderate the relation between psychological distress variables and alcohol use. Future research needs to identify other protective factors against alcohol use to support SoC in their academic journey.

Parenting Style and Subjective Well-Being in Children and Youth: A Meta-Analysis

Parenting styles influence child development. Some theories and numerous studies have shown a close relationship between parenting style and youths' subjective well-being; however, the results of different studies were inconsistent. Hence, our meta-analysis aimed to determine the overall relationship between positive and negative parenting styles on subjective well-being (including life satisfaction, positive and negative affect) and any moderating effects between them. After searching and screening the literature, 155 studies were included in the analysis, comprising 79,979 participants and 417 effect sizes. The results showed that positive parenting style was significantly positively associated with subjective well-being (r = .318, 95% CI = .287 to .348), life satisfaction (r = .358, 95% CI = .326 to .389), and positive affect (r = .355, 95% CI = .303 to .406), but significantly negatively associated with negative affect (r = -.153, 95% CI = -.207 to -.098). Negative parenting style was significantly negatively related to subjective well-being (r = -.173, 95% CI = -.205 to -.152), life satisfaction (r = -.144, 95% CI = -.175 to -.112), and positive affect (r = -.078, 95% CI = -.129 to -.027), but significantly positively related to negative affect (r = .204, 95% CI = .149 to .257). Moderating effect results showed that the relationship between parenting style and subjective well-being is moderated by age, gender, and cultural background. Findings highlight the benefits of positive parenting styles in promoting healthy child development and well-being.

Communication rules regarding support seeking in patients with a physical illness, according to people with a Surinamese or a Dutch cultural background

Objective

People with different cultural backgrounds can evaluate the appropriateness of direct and indirect support seeking differently. In this study we explored how direct and indirect communication rules for verbal support seeking by patients with diabetes were perceived among Dutch and Surinamese female participants, and whether the appropriateness differed for the ingroup, outgroup and intercultural support seeker-support provider interactions.

Methods

The study applied a 2 (direct versus indirect support seeking) X 2 (Surinamese patient versus Dutch patient) X 2 (Surinamese support provider versus Dutch support provider)-design. Dutch and Surinamese participants (N = 686) were randomly assigned to one of the eight conditions in which they were provided with a depiction of the patient, the direct or indirect request for help, and the help provider. The main outcome was the rated appropriateness of the help-seeking request in the specific context.

Results

The results revealed a significant main effect of communication style: both, Surinamese and Dutch participants evaluated the direct help-seeking as more appropriate compared to indirect help-seeking, independent of patient or provider culture. This effect was particularly strong in participants who scored high on the individual difference in independent self, as shown by a significant interaction.

Discussion

Literature usually identifies that Surinamese and Dutch populations have different cultural backgrounds and values that express themselves in different attitudes, in general more collectivistic and more individualistic, respectively. However, with regard to help seeking preferences the study results did not verify this expectation. These findings underscore the importance of the support providers' role in assessing and understanding the individuals' communication style with regard to help-seeking, rather than assuming communication preferences on the basis of cultural background.

The role of social support among caregivers of people with cancer from Chinese and Arabic communities: a qualitative study

PURPOSE

Cancer caregivers from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) communities have reported significant unmet emotional support needs. This study aimed explore the role of social support to manage emotional wellbeing among cancer caregivers from Arabic and Chinese communities in Australia.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with Chinese (n = 12) and Arabic (n = 12) speaking cancer caregivers. Participants' mean age was 40.6 years; majority were female (83%) and providing care to a parent (41.67%).

RESULTS

Using thematic analysis to analyse interview data, five overarching themes emerged describing caregivers' perspectives on social support. Themes were related to the following: (1) receiving emotional support from social networks, (2) barriers to accessing emotional support from social networks, (3) isolation and loss of connection following the cancer diagnosis, (4) faith as a source of support, and (5) utility of support groups and caregiver advocates. Several caregivers relied on social networks for emotional support; however, caregivers identified key cultural and generational barriers to seeking support from their social networks which prevented caregivers from disclosing their emotions and caregiving situation. Caregivers also reported being isolated from their support system.

CONCLUSION

Empirical testing of culturally appropriate strategies that improve social support seeking among caregivers from CALD communities is recommended.

Association of explicit and implicit social support with psychological adjustment in Chinese women with breast cancer: An interpersonal explanation

This study aimed to examine the linear and non-linear relationship between explicit and implicit social support and psychological adjustment as well as the underlying interpersonal mechanisms in a sample of Chinese women with breast cancer (n = 202). The results showed that explicit social support was associated with poorer psychological adjustment, while implicit social support exhibited the opposite trend. Moreover, the association between implicit social support and psychological adjustment was stronger at lower levels of implicit social support, but it weakened or disappeared at moderate or higher levels. Furthermore, we found that all the associations between social support and psychological adjustment could be explained by relationship concerns and perceived burdensomeness. These findings emphasize the importance of providing social support and supportive care to patients who have unmet supportive care needs, in line with cultural norms and expectations.

Cultural differences in explicit and implicit support provision and underlying motivations for self-esteem, closeness, and relational concerns

This research explores how culture influences the motivations underlying explicit (emotional and instrumental) and implicit (companionship and attentiveness) support provision. Two studies (N = 1,106) compared the responses of European Americans and Japanese individuals to a close other's stressful event. The results showed that European Americans were more likely than Japanese to provide explicit support and more motivated to increase the close other's self-esteem and feeling of closeness. Conversely, Japanese individuals were more likely to provide attentiveness support, motivated by concern for an entire group and a friend. These findings support the motivation as a mediator hypothesis. On the other hand, the culture as a moderator hypothesis applied to the association between concern for an entire group motivation and implicit support provision. Specifically, concern for an entire group motivation predicted companionship support provision only in Japanese, while it predicted attentiveness support provision mainly in European Americans.

Social Verification Theory: A New Way to Conceptualize Validation, Dissonance, and Belonging

ACADEMIC ABSTRACT

In the present review, we propose a theory that seeks to recontextualize various existing theories as functions of people's perceptions of their consistency with those around them. This theory posits that people seek social consistency for both epistemic and relational needs and that social inconsistency is both negative and aversive, similar to the experience of cognitive dissonance. We further posit that the aversive nature of perceiving social inconsistency leads people to engage in various behaviors to mitigate or avoid these inconsistencies. When these behaviors fail, however, people experience chronic social inconsistency, which, much like chronic rejection, is associated with physical and mental health and well-being outcomes. Finally, we describe how mitigation and avoidance of social inconsistency underlie many seemingly unrelated theories, and we provide directions for how future research may expand on this theory.

PUBLIC ABSTRACT

In the present review, we propose that people find inconsistency with those around them to be an unpleasant experience, as it threatens people's core need to belong. Because the threat of reduced belongingness evokes negative feelings, people are motivated to avoid inconsistency with others and to mitigate the negative feelings that are produced when it inevitably does arise. We outline several types of behaviors that can be implemented to avoid or mitigate these inconsistencies (e.g., validation, affirmation, distancing, etc.). When these behaviors cannot be implemented successfully, people experience chronic invalidation, which is associated with reduced physical and mental health and well-being outcomes. We discuss how invalidation may disproportionately affect individuals with minoritized identities. Furthermore, we discuss how belongingness could play a key role in radicalization into extremist groups.

Association between self-esteem and fear of cancer recurrence in cancer survivors: A cross-sectional study

PURPOSE

There may be a correlation between self-esteem as an important psychological resource for individuals and Fear of cancer recurrence (FCR), but the relationship between the two is unclear. The aim of our investigation was to evaluate the association of FCR and self-esteem in cancer survivors.

METHODS

Cross-sectional sampling was used to select cancer survivors. The study instruments used included: General information questionnaire, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Perceived Social Support Scale, Fear of Cancer Recurrence Inventory- Shorter Form. We used logistic regression, where models were adjusted considering confounding variables to determine odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the association of FCR with self-esteem.

RESULTS

Between February 2022 to July 2022, we screened 380 participants for eligibility, of whom 348 were included in the study. The percentage of cancer survivors who experienced clinical level of FCR was 73.9% and the self-esteem score was 27.73 ± 3.67 at a moderate level. The Pearson' s correlation coefficient indicated a significant inverse relationship between FCR and self-esteem (p < 0.001; r = -0.375). In a multivariable logistic regression model, FCR still has a negative correlation with self-esteem (OR, 0.812; 95%CI, 0.734-0.898). Subgroup analysis indicated that the correlation between FCR and self-esteem in cancer survivors was nearly the same in various strata, demonstrating its soundness and stability.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirms that elevated self-esteem in individuals surviving cancer may be a protective factor for FCR. Improving the level of self-esteem in cancer survivors can be one of the important directions of clinical interventions for FCR.

A Qualitative Study of Psychosocial Factors in Patients With Knee Osteoarthritis: Insights Learned From an Asian Population

BACKGROUND

A patient's experience with knee osteoarthritis (OA) is influenced by many psychosocial contributors that can influence the impact of pain. Such factors are known to explain some of the discordance between objective clinical parameters and patient-reported levels of disability and treatment effectiveness. However, few data are available to help clinicians understand the psychosocial factors that apply to the world's many Asian populations. Insights gained from a qualitative study in such a population may support targeted interventions.

QUESTIONS/PURPOSES

In this qualitative study involving a group of Asian patients with knee OA in Singapore, we asked: (1) What psychologic factors contribute to patients' experiences, rehabilitation, and recovery? (2) What social factors contribute to patients' experiences, rehabilitation, and recovery?

METHODS

Semistructured interviews eliciting broad patient experiences of managing knee OA were conducted in an urban, referral-based tertiary hospital in central Singapore. Patients were recruited if they met either of the following criteria: Kellgren-Lawrence grade ≥ 3 (minimum of one knee); Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score ≤ 60; or the Pain average (P), interference with Enjoyment of life (E), and interference with General activity (G) (PEG) ≥ 5. All patients had a clinical diagnosis of knee OA, were ambulatory in the community with or without a walking aid, had not undergone partial arthroplasty or TKA, were prescribed nonsurgical treatment, and were conversant in either English or Mandarin. Forty-six patients (30 women and 16 men, mean age 64 years old) were recruited for this study. A thematic analysis with elements of grounded theory and framework analysis was performed using a deductive approach. Psychologic influences specific to patients' behavioral and emotional responses to pain, as well as social factors known to have an impact on the experience of managing knee OA, were identified in the interview transcripts and coded according to established factors from earlier research. An inductive thematic analysis was then applied to the remaining transcripts to identify new themes that emerged from the data. Thematic saturation was attained when study team members agreed data and thematic sufficiency were met in the 46 transcripts. The study team discussed and deemed the 46 transcripts to contain sufficient insights for a reasonably clear understanding of the codes and development of themes to answer the study's research questions.

RESULTS

Six main themes related to psychosocial influences on pain emerged. Psychologic factors were "loss of face" because of knee OA, anticipation and avoidance of pain and suffering, and a vicious cycle of negative emotional experiences. The social factors we identified were social and family support, workplace environment and employment uncertainty, and built environment (patients' ability to navigate manmade structures and facilities).

CONCLUSION

Psychosocial factors have an important impact on patients' physical, psychologic, and social functioning. Although several of our findings have been addressed previously, the phenomenon of loss of face and the wide spectrum of social and family support dynamics found in our Asian patients with knee OA were new findings. With loss of face, patients were concerned about how others would view the change in them, including movement changes because of knee OA. They appeared to associate the use of walking canes with major disability, loss of respect, and being discriminated against by others, motivating patients to "save face" by dissociating themselves from those stigmas, even at the cost of mobility and independence. An interplay of complex cultural processes (perceived social roles and contributions to family, desire to avoid burdening family, help-seeking behavior, and the preference for unsolicited social support) underpinned by the value of collectivism impacted the behaviors and choices patients exhibited.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

With knowledge about the impact of culturally relevant psychosocial factors on the experience and outcomes of patients with knee OA, clinicians will be able to screen and actively explore these factors more effectively. Especially important themes include pain perception (paying close attention to signs of pain catastrophizing and negative affect), presence of chronic illness shame associated with a diagnosis of knee OA (including the stigma associated with using a walking aid), and level of social support received and contributions of a patient's built environment to kinesiophobia. For patients who are still working, the presence of workplace stressors and management of these stressors should also be explored. Where possible, screening tools that measure psychosocial factors such as pain catastrophizing and emotional distress can also be used as an added layer of screening in busy clinical settings.

Cross-cultural adaptation of Chinese international students: Effects of distant and close support-seeking

Introduction

Social support-seeking is considered to be an effective way for international students to cope with their acculturative stress and contribute to cross-cultural adaptation. In addition to support from people in the host country (close support), the ease of online communication now allows international students to receive additional support from people back in their home country (distant support). However, little research has investigated whether distant support works as effectively as close support. In two studies, we examined the differential effect of distant and close support-seeking on the psychological adaptation of Chinese international students in the host country and how acculturation orientations relate to the use of these two types of support.

Methods

Chinese international students in Japan (Study 1; N = 172) and the United States (Study 2; N = 118) completed an online survey that assessed participants’ host/home culture orientation, distant emotional/instrumental support-seeking, close emotional/instrumental support-seeking, and psychological adaptation.

Results

Results showed that distant emotional support-seeking negatively predicted psychological adaptation in the host country. Nevertheless, distant emotional support-seeking alleviated feelings of loneliness in Chinese international students as close emotional support-seeking did (Study 2). Also, the results showed that international students with higher home-culture orientation sought more distant support, whereas those with higher host-culture orientation sought more close support. Further, Chinese-culture orientation increased distant emotional support-seeking, decreasing psychological adaptation as well as loneliness.

Discussion

These findings highlight the importance of considering the source and types of support when discussing the implications of social support for the cross-cultural adaptation of international students.

Workers' individual and dyadic coping with the COVID-19 health emergency: A cross cultural study

The aim of this study was to examine workers' psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic as a function of their individual coping, dyadic coping, and work-family conflict. We also tested the moderating role of gender and culture in these associations. To achieve this aim, we run HLM analyses on data from 1521 workers cohabiting with a partner, coming from six countries (Italy, Spain, Malta, Cyprus, Greece, and Russia) characterized by various degrees of country-level individualism/collectivism. Across all six countries, findings highlighted that work-family conflict as well as the individual coping strategy social support seeking were associated with higher psychological distress for workers, while the individual coping strategy positive attitude and common dyadic coping were found to be protective against workers' psychological distress. This latter association, moreover, was stronger in more individualistic countries.

Cultural Variations in Perceived Partner Responsiveness: The Role of Self-Consistency

Past research has shown that perceived partner responsiveness (PPR) is a key process contributing to individual and relational outcomes and identified dispositional, relational, and situational factors that can influence it. However, little is known about how cultural factors play a role in the process of PPR. In Studies 1 ( n = 4,041) and 2 ( n = 414), we examined whether the degree of PPR differs across cultures by comparing European Americans and East Asians. We found that East Asians are less likely to experience perceived responsiveness from others than European Americans (Cohen’s d = 1.11–1.25 for Study 1 and Cohen’s d = 0.23 for Study 2). Furthermore, we found that self-consistency explained the cultural difference in PPR, indicating that East Asians underperceived partner responsiveness compared with European Americans because they behave less consistently across social situations. We conclude by highlighting the importance of exploring the process of PPR from a cultural perspective.

Thriving together: the benefits of women's social ties for physical, psychological and relationship health

The relationship between social support and well-being is well established in social psychology, with evidence suggesting that these benefits are especially prominent among women. When faced with an environmental stressor, women are more likely to adopt a tend-and-befriend strategy rather than fight-or-flight. Furthermore, female friendships tend to be higher in self-disclosure and more frequently relied on for social support, which is associated with physical and psychological benefits. Women are also more effective at providing social support, further augmenting those benefits. We begin with an overview of the characteristics of women's social ties and how they can be especially useful in times of stress. We then transition to the benefits of female social networks even in the absence of negative events and incorporate research from health and social psychology to consider the positive implications of having strong social bonds and the negative implications of lacking such bonds. Additionally, we consider cross-cultural differences in tendencies to seek out social support and its subsequent benefits, as well as the need for more research with culturally diverse samples. It remains unclear the extent to which patterns of social support benefits for women vary cross-culturally. This article is part of the theme issue 'Cooperation among women: evolutionary and cross-cultural perspectives'.

Perceived COVID-19 susceptibility and preventive behaviors: moderating effects of social support in Italy and South Korea

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic hit Italy much harder than South Korea. As a way of explaining the different impact in the two countries, this study examines the moderating role of social support on the relationship between perceived susceptibility and preventive behaviors in the two countries.

METHODS

Surveys were conducted in South Korea (n = 1396) and Italy (n = 487) of participants aged 50 to 89 years.

RESULTS

South Koreans felt higher levels of perceived social support than their Italian counterparts. As would be expected, greater perceived susceptibility was associated with increased preventive behavior. Furthermore, a significant three-way interaction effect was found for perceived susceptibility, social support, and country. For Italians, a person who feels him/herself highly susceptible will increase preventive behaviors, if there is a lot of social support. On the other hand, for South Koreans, those with a low level of susceptibility perform more preventive measures than people with a high level of susceptibility if there is a lot of social support.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides insights into how cognitive factors, such as susceptibility and severity, as well as social and environmental factors can be taken into account, and the public be told the real risk and given behavioral guidelines when a pandemic is approaching. Given the critical role of social support as a coping mechanism in crisis situations, societies should mull over ways to increase emotional and instrumental support.

Strangers helping strangers in a strange land: Vietnamese immigrant (expectant) mothers in the US use social media to navigate health issues in acculturation

Objectives

Trying to adapt to a new culture, Vietnamese (expectant) mothers in the USA gathered in few Facebook groups with thousands of members discussing pregnancy, health, and child caring issues. However, there is little research exploring how social support was given/taken among these (expectant) mothers. This empirical research aims at shedding light on how such mothers use social media groups for social support seeking/providing regarding health utilization during their acculturation process.

Methods

Drawing from Andersen's Behavioral Model of Health Utilization, acculturation, and online social support conceptual frameworks, this study analyzes 18 in-depth interviews with immigrant Vietnamese (expectant) mothers in the United States on the use of social media in navigating health acculturation during their pregnancy and motherhood.

Results

Results show that these mothers give and take all forms of social support including informational, emotional, relational, and instrumental ones. Facebook groups do not provide the best environment for improving "bonding" social capital for its members. However, these groups provide a platform where "strangers help strangers" overcome various barriers to sufficiently understand and independently access and use the official healthcare system. The groups, hence, aid these women's pregnancy and their child(ren)'s health. The informational and emotional support provided by Facebook groups among (soon-to-be) mothers helped them tremendously in overcoming acculturative stress. Moreover, with better language skills, knowledge, and experience in using health and social security systems, help-seekers tend to be transformed into help providers to deliver support for those "newcomers."

Conclusions

This research provides insights into personal experience on the uses of social media in navigating health behavior in the process of acculturation among Vietnamese immigrant (expectant) mothers in the United States. The research seeks to contribute to the conceptual frameworks and practical experience of behavioral model of health utitlization among immigrant Vietnamese ethnic immigrant pregnant women and mothers of babies and toddlers in navigating health during acculturation process in the United States. The limitations and future research suggestions are also discussed.

Development and validation of caregiver stress and support scale for caregivers of individuals with disabilities in Singapore

PURPOSE

Few available measures include culturally salient stressors and support systems for caregivers of offspring with disabilities in Asia. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a self-report measure that included relevant stressors and sources of support for caregivers of offspring with disabilities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Open-ended interviews with eight caregivers in Singapore, along with existing measures were used to develop items. The original 34 items were administered to caregivers of offspring with disabilities in Singapore (n = 234, 85% mothers). Based on an examination of factor loadings, internal consistency, and feedback from professionals, the scale was revised and administered to 370 caregivers (78% mothers), along with other measures of stress, support, depression, and well-being.

RESULTS

Exploratory factor analysis of the original 34-item scale yielded two factors, Sources of Stress and Sources of Support. After scale revision, confirmatory factor analysis showed that a two-factor structure demonstrated a fair fit. The subscales showed adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and significant associations in expected directions with other measures of stress and support, as well as with depressive symptoms and well-being.

CONCLUSIONS

The measure has adequate reliability and validity, with implications for use by local service providers.Implications for rehabilitationCaregivers face unique challenges, such as stressors associated with caregiving, with varying support systems available to reduce the stress.A psychometrically-sound measure can be used to assess sources of stress and support, monitor services, and address service gaps for caregivers.The Sources of Caregiver Stress and Support Scale is a contextually-sensitive self-report measure for caregivers of people with disabilities in Singapore.

An exploration of elite Japanese female footballers' acute cultural transition experiences in Europe

The globalisation of women's football reflects the increasing number of female football players moving abroad for their professional careers. Yet, the cultural transition of Asian female athletes into western culture is merely studied. This study focused on the experiences of nine elite Japanese female football players competing in the professional league in Spain and Portugal in the immediate period after moving from Japan. During the semi-structured interview participants shared their experiences of their sporting and non-sporting lives abroad and the impact of this transition on their athletic and non-athletic self and well-being. By using thematic analysis three themes illustrating their positive acculturation experiences were identified: opening up to people's kindness, redefining family, and learning a new mentality. Based on the concept of two types of happiness (interdependent and independent), and the collectivism versus individualism dichotomy, the influence of culture on the relationship between life satisfaction and athletic performance, personal growth, and expanding the support system were critically discussed. Practical implications include insights for sport professionals on how cultural change can affect transnational athletes' sporting and non-sporting lives and influence their mental health.

Future-oriented thinking promotes positive attitudes toward the “Help Mark” in Japan

The “Help Mark,” created in Japan, is worn by people who need help in public settings. It is designed to induce help from others for those in need of help because of their hidden disabilities or health conditions. Several attempts have been made to publicize the meaning and implications of this wearable sign through various media. However, it is difficult to assert whether there is sufficient awareness regarding this sign in the Japanese society. The purpose of this study was to examine the type of messages that are more effective in promoting the “Help Mark” system (Study 1). Additionally, based on the data obtained in Study 1, we presented a newly designed poster to promote the “Help Mark” sign and attempted to empirically examine the effect of this poster (Study 2). The results suggest that a message that reflects that the “Help Mark” is for “everyone,” based on future-oriented thinking, is more effective. Furthermore, it was indicated that people who saw the poster containing a message implying that the “Help Mark” is “for everyone” reported increased positive attitudes toward the “Help Mark” system. These results indicate that encouraging future-oriented thinking may lead to positive attitudes regarding the “Help Mark” system.

Oxytocin reactivity to a lab-based stressor predicts support seeking after stress in daily life: Implications for the Tend-and-Befriend theory

Social relationships play an important role in mental and physical health, particularly during times of stress. However, little is known about the biological mechanisms underlying the tendency to seek support following stress. The Tend-and-Befriend theory suggests that oxytocin (OT) may enhance the desire for social contact in response to stress. Yet, no studies in humans have provided empirical support for the connection between stress-induced changes in endogenous OT and increased support seeking after stress. In the present study, 94 participants performed a standardized laboratory stressor and then completed two weeks of daily assessments of support seeking after stress. In line with preregistered hypotheses, stress-induced plasma OT reactivity to the laboratory stressor was associated with more frequent support seeking behaviors following stress in daily life (i.e., outside of the laboratory). Additional results suggested that attachment anxiety (but not avoidance) strengthened this association. Our findings implicate the OT system in affiliative behaviors following stress, providing empirical support for the Tend-and-Befriend theory.

Solicitation matters: Cultural differences in solicited and unsolicited support provision

Two studies aimed to examine cultural differences in social support provision, with or without solicitation, in Japan and the United States (US). In Study 1, we replicated a previous study with Japanese university students. We found that the Japanese participants did not provide social support when it was not solicited, as compared with when it was solicited. Furthermore, in Study 2, participants were asked to respond to a questionnaire regarding a hypothetical stressful situation experienced by a close other and to indicate their willingness to provide support. We confirmed our hypothesis that Japanese participants hesitate to provide unsolicited support to close others (such as family members or close friends), even when they recognize that the close others are in need, whereas the American participants do not hesitate to provide such support. Contrastingly, regarding solicited support, the Japanese and Americans were equally ready to provide support, as hypothesized. The cultural difference in social support resides in the provision of unsolicited support. These results suggest that differences in culturally appropriate responses to needy people are responsible for the difference in the provision of unsolicited vs. solicited social support.

The relational dynamics of anger and shame: scripts for emotional interactions in Germany and Japan

This study explored German and Japanese scripts for anger and shame interactions between romantic partners. We started from the idea that emotion scripts structure people’s knowledge about emotional interactions and should vary systematically between cultures in line with the cultural significance of the emotion that the script organizes. Specifically, we expected that emotions that are consistent with culturally dominant relationship ideals (anger in Germany, shame in Japan) compared to those that are inconsistent (anger in Japan, shame in Germany) are experienced more commonly and that scripts for culturally consistent compared to inconsistent emotions should represent more knowledge about interpersonal contingencies. German and Japanese participants (N = 344) indicated for eight anger (or shame) situations how frequently they encounter similar situations, how intensely they would respond with anger/shame, how their partners would react, and how angry/ashamed they would feel after the interaction. In line with our expectations, we found that people encounter shame situations with their partners frequently to the extent that they lead to culturally consistent emotions; this was partially also the case for anger situations. Moreover, we found that, overall, participants took imagined partner responses more into account when imagining interactions around culturally consistent compared to inconsistent emotions, supporting the idea that these scripts represent more interpersonal influence.

The Protective Effect of Culture on Depression During Covid-19 Pandemic: A Romanian National Study

Previous studies indicated that collectivism represents a protective factor against depressive disorders, even among vulnerable populations. The protective effect of collectivism in relation to depressive disorders is often attributed to the social support networks available to individuals in collectivistic societies. The current study aims to investigate the protective effect of collectivism in the relationship between psychological vulnerabilities and depression. Moreover, we examined whether the protective effect of collectivism in relation to depression can be explained through the mechanism of social support. We measured individualism-collectivism for 42 Romanian counties ( n = 2,882) before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Data for irrational cognitions, depression, and social support were collected online during the lockdown in Romania ( n = 5,310). All instruments showed acceptable measurement and scalar invariance across regions. In a multi-level regression model, county-level collectivism was associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms b = −.032, 95% CI [−0.045; −0.019], while irrational cognitions were positively associated with depression b = .474, 95% CI [0.438; 0.510]. The interaction between irrational beliefs and collectivism had a significant and negative effect on depression, b = −.004, 95% CI [−0.008; −0.000]. The indirect effect of collectivism on depression via social support was tested in a two-level SEM model. Explicit and implicit social support were not significant mediators. Collectivism was negatively associated with the perceived availability of explicit social support, b = −.043, 95% CI [−0.074; −0.012]. The results support a general protective effect of collectivism on mental health but cast doubt that the mechanism for this effect is related to social support.

Do Chinese employees avoid seeking social support when coping with work stress?

Organisational psychology literature is abounded with empirical evidence of the mitigating effect that social support seeking (SSS) behaviour has on stress. However, it is unclear if this phenomenon is present in a collectivist context where workers might be hesitant to seek social support when under stress. A total of 123 employees from China completed a longitudinal survey over 4 weeks assessing their appraisals of an ongoing work stressor, coping strategies, and stress level. Path-analysis, hierarchical regression and means comparison determined the degree of fit of two theoretical perspectives (stress-buffer and main effects) to Chinese employee's SSS behaviour, and its frequency of use against other coping strategies. Results showed that SSS was not elicited by primary and secondary appraisals, but instead may be better explained by employees' collectivistic aspirations. Implications of the results were addressed in relation to stress management strategies and human resource support initiatives. Future research directions were also discussed.

Lack of alternative: Chinese first-time mothers’ construction of social support network of online secondary groups

Background

As a result of rapid modernization and the long-term implementation of One Child Policy, Chinese first-time mothers’ primary child-raising social support network is gradually shrinking. At the same time, the social support system for child raising is still very incomplete. Therefore, Chinese first-time mothers generally face great pressure.

Objective

This paper aims to understand Chinese first-time mothers’ construction of social support network of online secondary groups.

Methods

This paper employs a qualitative research method, with semi-structured interviews with 23 participants, two focus groups and observations conducted in nine online child-raising communities.

Results

Based on the principle of instrumental rationality first-time mothers use various strategies to join different types of online communities and their online social support network is always the dynamic changing. The online social support network is a supplementary channel in which first-time mothers can obtain both instrumental and emotional support. But communication risks and ethical issues remain, such as information exchange interfered by commercial capital, widespread anxiety and superficial social relationships.

Conclusions

Online social support network is an alternative for Chinese first-time mothers and they urgently need a more well-rounded social support network system with government leading and multiple subjects participating in it.

Cultural differences in social support seeking: The mediating role of empathic concern

Prior research has found that East Asians are less willing than Westerners to seek social support in times of need. What factors account for this cultural difference? Whereas previous research has examined the mediating effect of relational concern, we predicted that empathic concern, which refers to feeling sympathy and concern for people in need and varies by individuals from different cultures, would promote support seeking. We tested the prediction in two studies. In Study 1, European Canadians reported higher empathic concern and a higher frequency of support seeking, compared to the Japanese participants. As predicted, cultural differences in social support seeking were influenced by empathic concern. In Study 2, both empathic concern and relational concern mediated cultural differences in support seeking. Japanese with lower empathic concern but higher relational concern were more reluctant than European Americans to seek social support during stressful times. Finally, loneliness, which was more prevalent among the Japanese than among the European Americans, was partially explained by social support seeking.

Exploring challenges in mental health service provisions for school-going adolescents in Sri Lanka

Schools provide an ideal setting for early, accessible intervention according to research conducted in developed countries for adolescents experiencing adverse mental health (MH). Many schools in South Asia, however, lack structured and standardized school counselling services. Research indicates that where services do exist, students are reluctant to access them due to perceived high risks and low benefits in MH help seeking. This paper explores the challenges experienced in MH provision from the perspective of school counsellors. A qualitative approach was chosen, and three main themes emerged from the data using the thematic analysis: negative perceptions of MH and counselling, the unwillingness to invest in MH services, and the challenges inherent in the system itself. The findings reveal cultural implications behind these challenges and suggest grassroots level initiatives that can be implemented within schools to reduce the barriers to service provision without the need for legislative changes at a national level.

Cultural differences in stress and affection following social support receipt

Culturally appropriate social support predicts better psychological outcomes. Motivation for providing social support may vary cross-culturally, with more independent cultures valuing self-esteem and more interdependent cultures valuing closeness. Participants in the U.S. (N = 85) and Singapore (N = 78) reported on emotions and social support receipt using the Day Reconstruction Method. We examined cultural differences in stress and affection, and tested country as a moderator of the associations between both social support receipt and social support motivation, and next-episode emotions. Multilevel modeling analyses showed that not only did the emotional correlates of social support receipt vary by country, but that recipient perceptions of esteem-building and closeness-fostering SS also differentially correlated with subsequent emotion. For example, esteem-building SS predicted greater next-episode stress for Singaporean participants, but less stress in the U.S. Esteem-building SS predicted more next-episode affection only in the U.S. Culturally appropriate social support predicts positive psychological outcomes. This research highlights the importance of considering culture when examining the dynamic emotional correlates of social support receipt.

Harmonious personality and work-family conflicts: The multiple mediating roles of social support and self-control

This study aimed to examine the multiple mediating roles of social support and self-control in the relationship between harmonious personality and work-family conflict. A total of 143 Chinese adults (137 male, 95.8%; aged 30.25 ± 7.85 years) participated in this longitudinal study. Data were collected at three time points, at intervals of 1 month. Self-report questionnaires measuring social demographics and harmonious personality (Time 1), self-control and social support (Time 2), and work-family conflict (Time 3) were administered. Self-control and work-family conflict were negatively correlated. The relationship between harmony and work-family conflict was mediated by self-control and social support. Possible paths were self-control and multiple mediation by social support and self-control. Our results confirmed the multiple mediating roles of social support and self-control in the relationship between harmonious personality and work-family conflict. To achieve a better work-family balance, it is important not only to establish a harmonious interpersonal perspective and to enhance the social support from employers, colleagues, and family but also to ensure adequate self-control resources.

Motivated to express: Salience of oppression toward other women encourages women’s self-expression

Women’s oppression undermines and inhibits women but may also prompt an enterprising reaction. In this paper, three studies explored the extent to which women respond to awareness of the oppression of other women with an increased desire for self-expression, a reactive but constructive response. Study 1 explored reactions to two forms of other women’s oppression: restricted self-expression and restricted economic opportunities. Women reported an increased desire to self-express after exposure to either form of oppression, as compared to a control group. Study 2 compared British women’s reactions to stories of a woman versus a man being oppressed, finding the former group wrote more words about an unrelated, but timely and consequential topic (Brexit). Finally, Study 3 replicated the effect of greater self-expression after being exposed to women’s oppression, and furthermore identified an indirect effect through reactance. Findings are discussed in relation to identity, constructive forms of reactance, and implications for current women’s rights movements.

An Examination of the Conceptual Structure of Long-Term Goal Striving

Long-term goal striving has been recognized as an important stage in goal achievement. Compared with the development of measurements of goal setting, researchers tended to measure goal striving in different manners. This study examined the conceptual structure of goal striving and validated a new scale to operationalize the construct within academic learning contexts. A 25-item scale was validated with 522 Chinese university students to assess its factor structure, reliability, gender invariance, criterion-related validity, and incremental validity. Confirmatory factor analysis results supported both the first-order and second-order model. Overall, the scale showed good reliability, validity, and invariance across gender. We suggested that this new scale could be used as an effective measure to assess the level of goal striving among university students in a Chinese context.

The Developmental Process of Peer Support Networks: The Role of Friendship

This study investigated the characteristics and development of peer support networks in an effort to unravel the role of friendship in this developmental process. The relationships between friendship networks and peer support networks were explored, and the influence of dyadic and triadic friendships on the development of peer support relationships was examined. Two waves of data were collected among a sample of adolescents in six Chinese junior high schools (n = 913 students from 28 classrooms; mean age = 14.13 years; 50.49% boys), and classroom friendship networks and peer support networks were analyzed. The results showed that peer support networks were sparse, hierarchical, and sex-segregated. Furthermore, peer support networks and friendship networks partially overlapped. Friends tended to have similar support-seeking and support-providing ties. Longitudinal multiplex social network analysis revealed that peer support networks changed moderately over time, and friendships played various roles in the development of peer support networks. Dyadic friendships improved the formation of peer support ties. A mutual friend improved the formation of support relationships between two students when the mutual friend chose the two students as friends, but a mutual friend also hindered or had no effects on the formation of support relationships in other cases. The implications for educators to improve peer support networks are presented, and directions for future research are discussed.

Testing of a Dual Process Model to Resolve the Socioeconomic Health Disparities: A Tale of Two Asian Countries

A wealth of past studies documented that individuals of lower socioeconomic status (SES) are more susceptible to both acute and chronic life stress than those of higher SES, but some recent evidence documents that not all individuals from the lower SES group experience immense stress. The present study was grounded in theories of coping and psychological adjustment, and a dual process model was formulated to address some resolved issues regarding socioeconomic disparities in health. For a robust test of the proposed dual process model, data were collected from two Asian countries—Hong Kong and Indonesia—with different socioeconomic heritage and conditions. Consistent with the predictions of our model, the present findings revealed that coping flexibility was a psychological mechanism underlying the positive association between social capital and health for the lower SES group, whereas active coping was a psychological mechanism underlying this positive association for the higher SES group. These patterns of results were largely replicable in both Asian samples, providing robust empirical support for the proposed dual process model.

The Mediating Role of Social Support in the Relationship Between Parenting Stress and Resilience Among Chinese Parents of Children with Disability

Few studies have examined the relationships among parents' resilience, parenting stress, and social support. This study surveyed 486 parents of children with disability in China to understand the role of social support between parenting stress and parents' resilience. The results indicated that the resilience of Chinese parents of children with disabilities was at a high level. Additionally, parenting stress, social support and resilience were significantly associated, and the mediating effect of social support between parenting stress and parents' resilience were proved by mediation analyses. The findings suggested that reducing parental stress and improving social support may predict (or be associated with) improved parent resilience. The authors discussed the implications for the improvement the resilience of Chinese parents of children with disabilities.