A comprehensive study of the academic benefits and practical recommendations to include resistance training programs in institutional education

The connection between physical activity and cognitive function has become a focus of attention in educational research in recent years. Regular exercise has been shown to have significant positive effects on physical health, but it also appears to have a significant impact on cognitive function and academic performance. Of all the exercise modalities, resistance training has drawn interest for its ability to improve cerebral abilities in addition to physical well-being. However, there is limited available knowledge exploring the relationship between resistance training regimens and academic performance. This narrative review aims to investigate the underlying mechanisms linking resistance training to academic performance. Firstly, we will examine the biological mechanisms and psychosocial links that potentially connect resistance training to academic performance to find and describe the different mechanisms by which resistance training improves academic performance. In the next part of the work, we delve into the existing observational and intervention studies that have explored the relationship between resistance training and academic performance. Lastly, we provide practical recommendations for including resistance training in institutional education settings, emphasizing the need of dispelling myths and addressing barriers to increase participation as well as the relevance of considering key training variables and adaptation of protocols to developmental stages, always guided by a properly trained professional. Overall, the available evidence supports that resistance training provides potential benefits to the academic performance of youth students with many biological and psychosocial factors that explain this relationship. However, most of the studies are observational, and broader interventional studies are needed to understand and maximize the benefits of this type of physical exercise.

Recess Policy Implementation: Beliefs and Perceptions of Site-Based Decisions-Makers

METHODS

Using the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen 1991) as a theoretical framework, this study examined what administrators and teachers at a public elementary school located in a district in Northeast Georgia communicated as to their salient behavioral beliefs (attitude), normative beliefs (subjective norms), and control beliefs (perceived behavioral control) relative to the implementation of the district's written recess policy.

RESULTS

The results of this study demonstrated that teachers new to the field and those certified in early childhood education were more supportive of implementing the practice. The results further demonstrated that more experienced teachers and those certified in elementary education were less supportive.

IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOL HEALTH POLICY, PRACTICE, AND EQUITY

The findings in this study revealed that obtaining participant buy-in was critical for the implementation and that targeted professional development would be a suitable vehicle for improving school health for students.

CONCLUSIONS

The most cited reasons for support for the policy were an understanding that an unstructured break was beneficial for students and that participants considered it a non-negotiable. The most cited reasons for a lack of support included more time needed for academics and a need for expanded behavioral consequences.

Associations between measures of physical fitness and cognitive performance in preschool children

BACKGROUND

Given that recent studies report negative secular declines in physical fitness, associations between fitness and cognition in childhood are strongly discussed. The preschool age is characterized by high neuroplasticity which effects motor skill learning, physical fitness, and cognitive development. The aim of this study was to assess the relation of physical fitness and attention (including its individual dimensions (quantitative, qualitative)) as one domain of cognitive performance in preschool children. We hypothesized that fitness components which need precise coordination compared to simple fitness components are stronger related to attention.

METHODS

Physical fitness components like static balance (i.e., single-leg stance), muscle strength (i.e., handgrip strength), muscle power (i.e., standing long jump), and coordination (i.e., hopping on one leg) were assessed in 61 healthy children (mean age 4.5 ± 0.6 years; girls n = 30). Attention was measured with the "Konzentrations-Handlungsverfahren für Vorschulkinder" [concentration-action procedure for preschoolers]). Analyses were adjusted for age, body height, and body mass.

RESULTS

Results from single linear regression analysis revealed a significant (p < 0.05) association between physical fitness (composite score) and attention (composite score) (standardized ß = 0.40), showing a small to medium effect (F² = 0.14). Further, coordination had a significant relation with the composite score and the quantitative dimension of attention (standardized ß = 0.35; p < 0.01; standardized ß =  - 0.33; p < 0.05). Coordination explained about 11% (composite score) and 9% (quantitative dimension) of the variance in the stepwise multiple regression model.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that performance in physical fitness, particularly coordination, is related to attention in preschool children. Thus, high performance in complex fitness components (i.e., hopping on one leg) tends to predict attention in preschool children. Further longitudinal studies should focus on the effectiveness of physical activity programs implementing coordination and complex exercises at preschool age to examine cause-effect relationships between physical fitness and attention precisely.

The Impact of an 8-Weeks At-Home Physical Activity Plan on Academic Achievement at the Time of COVID-19 Lock-Down in Italian School

The purpose of this randomized controlled study was to investigate the efficacy of an 8-week exercise programme conducted in e-learning mode on high school students’ academic performance. The aim was to examine the changes in physical fitness and learning outcomes during the enforced period of lockdown caused by outbreak of the second wave of COVID-19 pandemic and the closure of schools in Italy. Thirty high-school students (14–15 years) were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 15) that performed an at-home workout programme (~60 min., twice a week), or a control group (n = 15) who received only a regular programme of theoretical lessons where no practice takes place. Both groups were synchronized in real-time with the physical education teacher. In order to assess students’ starting level and significant changes reached, at baseline and after training, a battery of standardized assessment motor tests (Standing long jump test, Harvard step test, sit and reach test, and butt kicks test), and an academic achievement test (Amos 8–15) were administered. In comparison to the control group at baseline and the end of the programme, the experimental group reported considerable improvements in motivation and concentration, significant anxiety reduction, and an increase in capacity to organize studying and to be more flexible. Moreover, it was possible to observe the efficacy of the workout to improve learning ability among practicing students (p < 0.001). No significant changes were found in the control group. The results suggest that a school-based exercise programme conducted online could be a powerful approach in order to achieve the best academic outcomes and for improving students’ physical fitness as well as their cognitive health.

Examining Rural Food-Insecure Families' Perceptions of the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program: A Qualitative Study

The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) is a critical program that helps reduce the risk of food insecurity, yet little is known about how SNAP addresses the needs of rural, food-insecure residents in the United States (U.S.). This study examines how rural, food-insecure residents perceive SNAP. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 153 individuals living in six diverse rural regions of Arkansas, Montana, North Carolina, Oregon, Texas, and West Virginia. SNAP was described as a crucial stop-gap program, keeping families from experiencing persistent food insecurity, making food dollars stretch when the family budget is tight, and helping them purchase healthier foods. For many rural residents interviewed, SNAP was viewed in a largely positive light. In efforts to continue improving SNAP, particularly in light of its relevance during and post-coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, policymakers must be aware of rural families' perceptions of SNAP. Specific improvements may include increased transparency regarding funding formulas, budgeting and nutrition education for recipients, effective training to improve customer service, connections among social service agencies within a community, and increased availability of automation to streamline application processes.

Associations among Body Mass Index, sedentary behavior, physical activity, and academic performance in schoolchildren

BACKGROUND

Physical inactivity and sedentary behavior are common among middle and high school grade children. This study aimed to determine the relationship among Body Mass Index (BMI), sedentary behavior, physical activity (PA), and overall academic performance of students.

METHODS

This is a cross sectional study; 357 students of mean age 12.65±1.68 years were enrolled. PA was subjectively assessed using the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children (PAQ-C) and Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire (GLTEQ). Sedentary behavior was assessed as hours spent on watching television, playing video games, computer use, and homework. Grade point average (GPA) was calculated to determine their overall academic performance. Participants were divided into two groups based on their GPA. Independent t-test was used to analyze BMI, sedentary time, and PA between the groups. Correlation analysis was performed to determine the associations among BMI, sedentary time, physical activity, and academic grades.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in BMI and the level of PA between the two groups. However, significant differences were observed in sedentary time (ST) spent watching television (P=0.04), total screen time (P=0.02), and total ST (P=0.002). There were weak negative correlations among BMI (r=-0.14, P<0.05), total screen time (r=-0.12, P<0.05), and academic scores; however, there was no association with any PA measures.

CONCLUSIONS

A weak correlation was noted between BMI and sedentary characteristics, with respect to academic performance. As academic performance is negatively associated with body mass index and screen time, public health interventions are needed to reduce their time spent on leisure time sedentary activity, watching television, and computer use.

The Mediating Role of Self-Concept between Sports-Related Physical Activity and Mathematical Achievement in Fourth Graders

Being physically active has many benefits for children and adolescents. It is essential for various aspects of physical and mental health, and also positively influences academic performance and school achievement. In addressing the still incomplete understanding of the link between physical activity (PA) and academic achievement, the present study scrutinized the open issues regarding different roles of PA type and PA duration within the relation between self-reported PA and objectively measured mathematical achievement in fourth graders. As to the type of PA, the current study distinguished between structured and unstructured sports activities children perform in their leisure time. Moreover, the current study investigated the indirect effect of PA on mathematical achievement by controlling for the mathematical self-concept as a mediating variable. Results showed PA to be positively related to mathematical outcomes if implemented in a structured setting and pursued for at least two hours per week. As to the mediation, the results revealed a full mediation, indicating PA to improve mathematical self-concept, which, in turn, positively affected mathematical achievement. Thus, engaging in structured PA for two hours or more a week may have additional benefits for children’s and adolescents’ self-concept in a way that is favorable and encouraging for promoting their academic achievement.

The relationship between motor proficiency and reading ability in Year 1 children: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Movement and physical activity is crucial to brain development and has a positive impact on the ability to learn. With children spending a large portion of their time in the school setting, physical activity and the development of motor skills in this environment may not only impact their overall development but may also influence their learning. The aim of this study was to investigate relationships between motor proficiency and reading skills in Year-1 children.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study with a single class of Year-1 students (n = 24: mean age = 6.07 ± 0.35 years). Assessments included; a) Process Assessment of the Learner (PAL-II) - Diagnostics for Reading and Writing (reading components only); b) Bruininks-Oseretsky-Test-of-Motor-Proficiency (BOT2); c) parent-reported height/weight and; d) Preparatory Year academic reports. The PAL-II was individually administered. The BOT2 was administered in small groups. Parent-reported height and weight measurements as well as Preparatory Year reports provided by the school Principal were obtained for each participant.

RESULTS

Significant negative relationships were obtained between Year-1 children's total motor proficiency and silent reading ability (r = -.53 to -.59, p ≤ .01). While not significant for female students, the relationships were significant and strongly correlated for male students (r = -.738 to -.810, p ≤ .001). Children with low-average English grades demonstrated a strong positive relationship between motor proficiency and pre-reading skills, essential to functional reading (r = .664., p = .04 to r = .716, p = .04).

CONCLUSION

For children with low-average English grades, the strong, positive relationship between motor proficiency and pre-reading skills suggests that this population may benefit from additional motor proficiency skills. Blending of motor skills within the English curriculum may benefit both of these sub-groups within a classroom environment.

Does Physical Fitness Affect Academic Achievement among Japanese Adolescents? A Hybrid Approach for Decomposing Within-Person and Between-Persons Effects

Positive association between physical fitness and academic achievement in adolescents has been suggested yet the causal effect of physical fitness on academic achievement remains unclear. This study examined if longitudinal changes in physical fitness were associated with changes in academic achievement among junior high school students. Analyses were based on a two-year with three time-point data of 567 students (aged 12–13 years old at the baseline-point; 303 boys) who entered in five Japanese junior high schools in 2015. Academic achievement was evaluated using the student’s overall grade point average. Comprehensive physical fitness score was summed up from eight fitness tests: 50-m sprint, standing broad jump, repeated side-steps, sit and reach, sit-ups, hand-grip strength, handball throw, and 20-m shuttle run or endurance run. The hybrid regression model was applied to examine the impact of change in physical fitness on change in academic achievement using multiple imputation to account for non-response at follow-up. The changes in fitness score within-person and the differences in average of fitness score of three-time points between-person were associated with change in overall grade point average for boys. No significant association between fitness score and overall grade point average was observed in girls. Opportunities for increased physical fitness may be important to support academic achievement, particularly in junior high school boys.

Relationships Between Motor Proficiency and Academic Performance in Mathematics and Reading in School-Aged Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review

Positive associations exist between physical activity, cognition, and academic performance in children and adolescents. Further research is required to examine which factors underpin the relationships between physical activity and academic performance. This systematic review aimed to identify, critically appraise, and synthesize findings of studies examining relationships between motor proficiency and academic performance in mathematics and reading in typically developing school-aged children and adolescents. A systematic search of electronic databases was performed to identify relevant studies. Fifty-five eligible articles were critically appraised and key data was extracted and synthesized. Findings support associations between several components of motor proficiency and academic performance in mathematics and reading. There was evidence that fine motor proficiency was significantly and positively associated with academic performance in mathematics and reading, particularly during the early years of school. Significant positive associations were also evident between academic performance and components of gross motor proficiency, specifically speed and agility, upper-limb coordination, and total gross motor scores. Preliminary evidence from a small number of experimental studies suggests motor skill interventions in primary school settings may have a positive impact on academic performance in mathematics and/or reading. Future research should include more robust study designs to explore more extensively the impact of motor skill interventions on academic performance.

Effects of a Sports-Oriented Primary School on Students' Physical Literacy and Cognitive Performance

As only a small group of children fulfil the guidelines for physical activity, interventions are necessary to promote active lifestyles. We examined the effects of a sports-oriented primary school (N = 79) in comparison to a regular primary school (N = 90) on students' physical literacy and cognitive performance. To evaluate the implementation of the sports-oriented school curriculum a process evaluation was conducted, in which the school curriculum was analysed and guideline-based interviews were carried out with the schoolteachers and the school director. To measure students' physical literacy and cognitive performance several tests were used. Small positive effects of the sports-oriented primary school on students' physical literacy were shown in standing long jump and attitudes towards physical activity. There were no differences between the groups regarding cognitive performance. This study provides the first insights on how a sports-oriented school can promote students' physical literacy in the future. The results are in line with previous research that shows that when children spend more time in physical education and overall physical activities at school, no negative consequences result for their cognitive performance. In future, long-term evaluations of the effects of sports-oriented schools are required to receive valid results on the effects on students.

The Link Between Nutrition and Physical Activity in Increasing Academic Achievement

BACKGROUND

Research demonstrates a link between decreased cognitive function in overweight school-aged children and improved cognitive function among students with high fitness levels and children engaging in regular physical activity (PA). The purpose of this study was to examine whether regular PA and proper nutrition together had a significant effect on academic achievement.

METHODS

Using the seventh wave of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class 1998-99 (ECLS-K) dataset, linear regression analysis with a Jackknife resampling correction was conducted to analyze the relationship among nutrition, PA, and academic achievement, while controlling for socioeconomic status, age, and sex. A nonactive, unhealthy nutrition group and a physically active, healthy nutrition group were compared on standardized tests of academic achievement.

RESULTS

Findings indicated that PA levels and proper nutrition significantly predicted achievement scores. Thus, the active, healthy nutrition group scored higher on reading, math, and science standardized achievement tests scores.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a strong connection between healthy nutrition and adequate PA, and the average performance within the population. Thus, results from this study suggest a supporting relationship between students' health and academic achievement. Findings also provide implications for school and district policy changes.

Impact of Coordinated-Bilateral Physical Activities on Attention and Concentration in School-Aged Children

Purpose

This study examined the effects of 4-week, daily 6-minute coordinated-bilateral physical activity (CBPA) breaks in classroom on attention and concentration in school-aged children.

Methods

Participants (n=116) in fifth grade from two elementary schools were assigned to three groups: two intervention groups (n= 60) and one control group (n = 56). All three groups were pre- and post-tested with the d2 Test of Attention (d2 test). One intervention group (n = 31) took part in six minutes of daily classroom-based coordinated-bilateral physical activity (CBPA) break for four weeks. Another intervention group (n = 29), the Fitbit Only (Fitbit-O), wore Fitbits per day during a school, five days per week for four weeks without CBPA breaks. A 2 × 3 ANOVA was conducted, followed by the post hoc comparisons.

Results

The CBPA showed significant increases in processing speed (F₁ = 6.876, p = .010), focused attention (F₁ = 10.688, p = .002), concentration performance (F₁ = 26.46, p = .000), and attention span (F₁ = 14.090, p = .000) over the control, but not in accuracy (Error %). The CBPA showed significant improvement in concentration performance (F₁ = 24.162, p = .000) and attention span (F₁ = 6.891, p = .011), compared to the Fitbit-O. No significant changes in all five attention parameters were found between the Fitbit-O and the control.

Conclusion

It was concluded that daily brief coordinated-bilateral activities can improve attention and concentration in fifth-grade students over the course of four weeks.

Academic Achievement and Physical Activity: A Meta-analysis

CONTEXT

The effect of physical activity (PA) on different areas of academic achievement and classroom behaviors and how different characteristics of PA interventions could modify the effect remain unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The objective was twofold: (1) to assess the effect of PA interventions on academic achievement and classroom behaviors in childhood and (2) to determine the characteristics of individuals and PA programs that enhance academic performance.

DATA SOURCES

We identified studies from the database inception to October 16, 2016.

STUDY SELECTION

We selected intervention studies aimed at examining the effect of exercise on academic achievement and classroom behaviors at developmental age.

DATA EXTRACTION

Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled effect size for all primary outcomes (language- and mathematics-related skills, reading, composite score, and time in on-task behavior). Positive values represent a direct relationship between PA programs and academic achievement scores or on-task behaviors.

RESULTS

A total of 26 studies (10 205 children, aged from 4 to 13) were included. Pooled effect size (95% confidence interval) estimates were as follows: (1) 0.16 (-0.06 to 0.37) for language-related skills; (2) 0.21 (0.09 to 0.33) for mathematics-related skills; (3) 0.13 (0.02 to 0.24) for reading; (4) 0.26 (0.07 to 0.45) for composite scores; and (5) 0.77 (0.22 to 1.32) for time in on-task behaviors.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations included the variety of tools used to measure academic achievement and the limited number of studies that reported the effect of after-school PA interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

PA, especially physical education, improves classroom behaviors and benefits several aspects of academic achievement, especially mathematics-related skills, reading, and composite scores in youth.

A Multicomponent Schoolyard Intervention Targeting Children's Recess Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior: Effects After 1 Year

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study was to test the 12-month effects of a multicomponent physical activity (PA) intervention at schoolyards on morning recess PA levels of sixth- and seventh-grade children in primary schools, using accelerometry and additional global positioning system data.

METHODS

A quasi-experimental study design was used with 20 paired intervention and control schools. Global positioning system confirmatory analyses were applied to validate attendance at schoolyards during recess. Accelerometer data from 376 children from 7 pairs of schools were included in the final analyses. Pooled intervention effectiveness was tested by multilevel linear regression analyses, whereas effectiveness of intervention components was tested by multivariate linear regression analyses.

RESULTS

Children exposed to the multicomponent intervention increased their time spent in light PA (+5.9%) during recess. No pooled effects on moderate to vigorous PA were found. In-depth analyses of intervention components showed that physical schoolyard interventions particularly predicted a decrease in time spent in sedentary behavior during recess at follow-up. Intervention intensity and the school's commitment to the project strengthened this effect.

CONCLUSIONS

The multicomponent schoolyard PA intervention was effective in making children spend a larger proportion of recess time in light PA, which was most likely the result of a shift from sedentary behavior to light PA.

Physically active Chilean school kids perform better in language and mathematics

We examined the association between the engagement in regular physical activity (PA) and the academic performance (AP) of school-age children from Santiago Metropolitan Region. In a random sample of 1271 students (13.3 ± 2.3 years old) we measured regular PA, accounting for hours of weekly scheduled exercise, and AP, using national standardized tests scores in Language and Mathematics. Bivariate and multivariate regression analyses were used to model the relation between academic and health-related behaviors. Two outcomes were considered: (i) sufficiency according to the Ministry of Education and (ii) discretionary sufficiency (tests z-scores ≥50th percentile). About 80% of students were poorly engaged in scheduled exercise (<2 h per week). Devoting more than 4 h per week to scheduled exercise significantly increased the odds of reaching the official and discretionary sufficiency in both Language and Mathematics. Moderate engagement (2-4 h per week) just improved the odds of reaching the discretionary sufficiency standard. These results confirm the poor engagement in regular exercise at the school level. School kids with the highest allocation of time to scheduled exercise have better AP in Language and Mathematics. Our findings support the notion that academic and health-related behaviors are linked and, similarly, that school health programs may have positive effects on educational outcomes.

Examining How Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status, Geographic Accessibility, and Informational Accessibility Influence the Uptake of a Free Population-Level Physical Activity Intervention for Children

PURPOSE

To evaluate the uptake of ACT-i-Pass (G5AP), a physical activity (PA) intervention that provides free access to PA opportunities, and to understand the extent to which the intervention provides equitable access to children.

DESIGN

This study evaluates the differences in uptake (ie, enrollment) by comparing postal codes of registrants with the postal codes of all eligible children.

SETTING

Children were provided the opportunity to register for the G5AP during the 2014 to 2015 school year in London, Canada.

PARTICIPANTS

The population of grade 5 students in London who registered for the G5AP (n = 1484) and did not register (n = 1589).

INTERVENTION

The G5AP offered grade 5 students free access to select PA facilities/programs during 2014 to 2015 school year.

MEASURES

Measures included G5AP registration status, method of recruitment, distance between home and the nearest facility, and neighborhood socioeconomic status.

ANALYSIS

Getis-Ord Gi* and multilevel logistic regression were used to analyze these data.

RESULTS

There were significant differences in the uptake of the G5AP: residing in neighborhoods of high income (odds ratio [OR] = 1.062, P = .029) and high proportion of recent immigrants (OR = 1.036, P = .001) increased the likelihood of G5AP registration. Children who were recruited actively were significantly more likely to register for the G5AP (OR = 2.444, P < .001).

CONCLUSION

To increase the uptake of a PA intervention, children need to be actively recruited. Interactive presentations provide children with increased access to information about both the program and its nuances that cannot be communicated as effectively through passive methods.

Organized leisure-time sport participation and academic achievement in preadolescents

AIMS

The aims of this study were to study the correlation between lifestyle-related factors, such as organized leisure-time sport participation (OLSP), cardiorespiratory fitness, and adiposity, and academic achievement among preadolescents.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study involving 248 nine-year-old school children was carried out. OLSP was self-reported with parental assistance, categorized as ≤ 1× a week, 2-3× a week, and ≥ 4× times a week or more. Academic achievement was estimated with results from standardized test scores in Icelandic and math. Cardiorespiratory fitness was estimated using a maximal cycle ergometer test. The sum of four skinfolds was used to estimate adiposity.

RESULTS

Tests of between-subjects effect indicated that OLSP significantly correlated with achievement in math only (F(2,235) = 3.81, p = 0.024). Further analysis showed that the two less active groups had significantly lower scores in math compared to the most active group with OLSP ≥ 4× times a week or more (2-3× times a week, unstandardized coefficient (b) = -4.08, 95% confidence interval (CI) [-7.09, -1.07]; ≤ 1× a week, b = -3.84, 95% CI [-7.59, -0.08]), independent of sex, age, maturity level (age to/from peak height velocity), family structure, and parental education. Neither cardiorespiratory fitness nor adiposity significantly correlated with academic achievements.

CONCLUSIONS

The study's result indicates that frequent (four times per week or more often) sport participation is not harmful but may be beneficial to learning. However, further intervention-based study of this topic is needed to determine if this relationship is causal.

It takes biking to learn: Physical activity improves learning a second language

Recent studies have shown that concurrent physical activity enhances learning a completely unfamiliar L2 vocabulary as compared to learning it in a static condition. In this paper we report a study whose aim is twofold: to test for possible positive effects of physical activity when L2 learning has already reached some level of proficiency, and to test whether the assumed better performance when engaged in physical activity is limited to the linguistic level probed at training (i.e. L2 vocabulary tested by means of a Word-Picture Verification task), or whether it extends also to the sentence level (which was tested by means of a Sentence Semantic Judgment Task). The results show that Chinese speakers with basic knowledge of English benefited from physical activity while learning a set of new words. Furthermore, their better performance emerged also at the sentential level, as shown by their performance in a Semantic Judgment task. Finally, an interesting temporal asymmetry between the lexical and the sentential level emerges, with the difference between the experimental and control group emerging from the 1^st testing session at the lexical level but after several weeks at the sentential level.

Three Effective Ways to Nurture Our Brain

Abstract. A growing body of research suggests that physical activity, healthy eating, and music can, either directly or indirectly, have positive effects on our brain and cognition. More specifically, exercising and eating seem to enhance cognitive abilities, such as memory, creativity, and perception. They also improve academic performance and play a protective role from many degenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease. Concerning music, research has shown that there exists a general positive relation between music aptitude and cognitive functioning. Furthermore, the presence of music seems to create a positive mood and a higher arousal, which translates into better performance in many cognitive tasks. This literature review provides an overview of the major empirical findings in this domain. Studies on both healthy and clinical individuals are reviewed and discussed. We conclude with suggestions for educators, policymakers, people in helping professions, and any others interested in making informed decisions about possible ways to nurture their own brain or the brain of the people they are trying to help. We also provide suggestions for additional research on this important topic.

Objectively measured sedentary time and academic achievement in schoolchildren

This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between objectively measured total sedentary time and academic achievement (AA) in Portuguese children. The sample comprised of 213 children (51.6% girls) aged 9.46 ± 0.43 years, from the north of Portugal. Sedentary time was measured with accelerometry, and AA was assessed using the Portuguese Language and Mathematics National Exams results. Multilevel linear regression models were fitted to assess regression coefficients predicting AA. The results showed that objectively measured total sedentary time was not associated with AA, after adjusting for potential confounders.

The ACT-i-Pass study protocol: How does free access to recreation opportunities impact children's physical activity levels?

BACKGROUND

Physical activity during childhood is associated with a multitude of physical, behavioural, and psychological health benefits. Identification of effective population level strategies for increasing children's physical activity levels is critical for improving the overall health of Canadians. The overall objective of this study is to assess how a naturally-occurring, community-level intervention which offers Grade 5 children in London, Canada a free access pass to physical activity opportunities (facilities and programs) for an entire school year can lead to increased physical activity among recipients.

METHODS/DESIGN

This study adopts a longitudinal cohort study design to assess the effectiveness of improving children's access to physical activity opportunities for increasing their physical activity levels. To meet our overall objective we have three aims: (1) to assess whether the provision of free access increases children's physical activity levels during and after the intervention compared to a control group; (2) to assess how and why child-specific trajectories of physical activity (between-children differences in level of physical activity measured across time) in the intervention group differ according to children's individual and household characteristics; and (3) to explore additional factors that are unaccounted for in the theoretical model to gain a further understanding of why the free access intervention had varying effects on changing physical activity levels. We will be addressing these aims using a mixed methods approach, including: a series of youth surveys conducted before, during, immediately after, and 4-months after the intervention; parent surveys before, during, and post-intervention; real-time tracking of the access pass use during the intervention; and focus groups at the conclusion of the intervention. Data compiled from the youth surveys will provide a subjective measure of physical activity to be used as our outcome measure to address our primary aims.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study can inform policy- and decision-makers about the sub-groups of the population that benefitted the most (or least) from the intervention to provide more specific information on how to develop and target future interventions to have a greater impact on the physical activity levels and overall health of children.

Better Movers and Thinkers (BMT): An Exploratory Study of an Innovative Approach to Physical Education

Recent research has confirmed a positive relationship between levels of physical activity and academic achievement. Some of these studies have been informed by neurological models of Executive Functioning (EF). There is a general consensus within the literature that the three core EF skills are; working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. The development of these core EF skills has been linked with learning and academic achievement and is an essential component in the delivery of PE using a new and innovative approach called ‘Better Movers and Thinkers (BMT).’ A mixed methods design was used to investigate the effectiveness and feasibility of a 16-week intervention programme using BMT where 46 children were tested on two separate occasions for coordination and balance control, academic skills, working memory and non-verbal reasoning skills. One school acted as the control condition (21 students, aged 9 – 10 years) and another school acted as the intervention condition (25 students, aged 9 – 10 years). Quantitative data revealed an effect between pre and post-test conditions in the areas of phonological skills (p = .042), segmentation skills (p = .014) and working memory (p = .040) in favour of the intervention condition. Further analysis identified a gender-interaction with male students in the intervention condition making significant gains in phonological skills (p = .005) segmentation skills (p = .014) and spelling (p = .007) compared to boys in the control condition. Analysis of qualitative data from a sample of students from the intervention condition and their class teacher indicated good acceptability of BMT as an alternative approach to PE.

Four minutes of in-class high-intensity interval activity improves selective attention in 9- to 11-year olds

The amount of time allocated to physical activity in schools is declining. Time-efficient physical activity solutions that demonstrate their impact on academic achievement-related outcomes are needed to prioritize physical activity within the school curricula. "FUNtervals" are 4-min, high-intensity interval activities that use whole-body actions to complement a storyline. The purpose of this study was to (i) explore whether FUNtervals can improve selective attention, an executive function posited to be essential for learning and academic success; and (ii) examine whether this relationship is predicted by students' classroom off-task behaviour. Seven grade 3-5 classes (n = 88) were exposed to a single-group, repeated cross-over design where each student's selective attention was compared between no-activity and FUNtervals days. In week 1, students were familiarized with the d2 test of attention and FUNterval activities, and baseline off-task behaviour was observed. In both weeks 2 and 3 students completed the d2 test of attention following either a FUNterval break or a no-activity break. The order of these breaks was randomized and counterbalanced between weeks. Neither motor nor passive off-task behaviour predicted changes in selective attention following FUNtervals; however, a weak relationship was observed for verbal off-task behaviour and improvements in d2 test performance. More importantly, students made fewer errors during the d2 test following FUNtervals. In supporting the priority of physical activity inclusion within schools, FUNtervals, a time efficient and easily implemented physical activity break, can improve selective attention in 9- to 11-year olds.

Healthy body, healthy mind?: the effectiveness of physical activity to treat ADHD in children

Data from animal studies provide convincing evidence that physical exercise enhances brain development and neurobehavioral functioning in areas believed to be impaired in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). To a lesser but still compelling extent, results from studies in typically developing children and adults indicate beneficial effects of exercise on many of the neurocognitive functions that have been shown to be impaired in children with ADHD. Together, these data provide a strong rationale for why a program of structured physical exercise might serve as an effective intervention for children with ADHD.

Associations of physical activity and sedentary behavior with academic skills--a follow-up study among primary school children

Background

There are no prospective studies that would have compared the relationships of different types of physical activity (PA) and sedentary behavior (SB) with academic skills among children. We therefore investigated the associations of different types of PA and SB with reading and arithmetic skills in a follow-up study among children.

Methods

The participants were 186 children (107 boys, 79 girls, 6–8 yr) who were followed-up in Grades 1–3. PA and SB were assessed using a questionnaire in Grade 1. Reading fluency, reading comprehension and arithmetic skills were assessed using standardized tests at the end of Grades 1–3.

Results

Among all children more recess PA and more time spent in SB related to academic skills were associated with a better reading fluency across Grades 1–3. In boys, higher levels of total PA, physically active school transportation and more time spent in SB related to academic skills were associated with a better reading fluency across the Grades 1–3. Among girls, higher levels of total PA were related to worse arithmetic skills across Grades 1–3. Moreover, total PA was directly associated with reading fluency and arithmetic skills in Grades 1–3 among girls whose parents had a university degree, whereas these relationships were inverse in girls of less educated parents.

Conclusions

Total PA, physically active school transportation and SB related to academic skills may be beneficial for the development of reading skills in boys, whereas factors that are independent of PA or SB may be more important for academic skills in girls.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01803776

Classroom-based high-intensity interval activity improves off-task behaviour in primary school students

This study examined the effects of an acute bout of brief, high-intensity interval exercise on off-task classroom behaviour in primary school students. A grade 4 class (n = 24) and a grade 2 class (n = 20) were exposed to either a no-activity break or an active break that consisted of "FUNtervals", a high-intensity interval protocol, on alternating days for 3 weeks. No-activity days consisted of a 10-min inactive break while FUNterval days consisted of a 4-min FUNterval completed within a 10-min break from regular class activities. Off-task behaviour was observed for 50 min after each no-activity/FUNterval break, with the amount of time students spent off-task (motor, passive, and verbal behaviour) being recorded. When comparing no-activity breaks with FUNtervals the grade 4 class demonstrated reductions in both passive (no activity = 29% ± 13% vs. FUNterval = 25% ± 13%, p < 0.05, effect size (ES) = 0.31) and motor (no activity = 31% ± 16% vs. FUNterval = 24% ± 13%, p < 0.01, ES = 0.48) off-task behaviour following FUNtervals. Similarly, in the grade 2 class, passive (no activity = 23% ± 14% vs. FUNterval = 14% ± 10%, p < 0.01, ES = 0.74), verbal (no activity = 8% ± 8% vs. FUNterval = 5% ± 5%, p < 0.05, ES = 0.45), and motor (no activity = 29% ± 17% vs. FUNterval = 14% ± 10%, p < 0.01, ES = 1.076) off-task behaviours were reduced following FUNtervals. In both classrooms the effects of physical activity were greatest in those students demonstrating the highest rates of off-task behaviour on no-activity days. These data demonstrate that very brief high-intensity bouts of exercise can improve off-task behaviour in grade 2 and 4 students, particularly in students with high rates of such behaviour.

Effects of daily energy expenditure on academic performance of elementary students in Taiwan

AIM

The objective of the study was to investigate the potential effects of daily energy expenditure on the academic performance (AP) of elementary schoolchildren, the results of which will be used as the basis of planning physical activity (PA) for children in the future.

METHODS

Participants were collected from 4th to 6th grade children at an elementary school in southern Taiwan. The effective sample data size was 1065 (79.8%; 528 boys and 537 girls). Daily mean energy expenditure was obtained using the 3 Day Physical Activity Recall (3-DPAR), and the intensive activities degrees of physical activity were categorized into lowest PA, middle PA, and highest PA group, and academic performance assessed with weighted academic score.

RESULTS

The significant effect on the academic performance of schoolchildren was only in energy expenditure but not for sexes and tutorials attended. All students in the middle PA group performed better academically than those in the highest PA group. After controlling sexes, male students in the middle PA group performed better than other groups; female students in the lowest PA group performed better than other groups.

CONCLUSION

These results may be consulted by schools, academic faculties, and parents in setting up exercise plans for children.

Emerging support for a role of exercise in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder intervention planning

Recent years have seen an expansion of interest in non-pharmacological interventions for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Although considerable treatment development has focused on cognitive training programs, compelling evidence indicates that intense aerobic exercise enhances brain structure and function, and as such, might be beneficial to children with ADHD. This paper reviews evidence for a direct impact of exercise on neural functioning and preliminary evidence that exercise may have positive effects on children with ADHD. At present, data are promising and support the need for further study, but are insufficient to recommend widespread use of such interventions for children with ADHD.

Effects of a Culturally Tailored Physical Activity Promotion Program on Selected Self-Regulation Skills and Attitudes in Adolescents of an Underserved, Multiethnic Milieu

Purpose.

To implement a culturally tailored physical activity (PA) promotion program (FunAction) and to assess its impact on five self-regulation skills and attitudes in adolescents.

Design.

The design and implementation of the FunAction program were informed by social marketing principles. The study used a quasi-experimental approach to assess the impact of the program on specific outcome variables.

Setting.

A multiethnic, underserved middle school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Subjects.

The intervention group was made up of grade 8 students (n = 165) and the control group was made up of grade 7 students (n = 137).

Intervention.

During the 16-week intervention, adolescents were able to choose from a variety of 45-minute cardiovascular PAs offered daily during their school lunch period. Adolescents participated in the activities on a voluntary basis.

Measures.

A self-report questionnaire was administered preintervention and postintervention to measure adolescents' scores on the following self-regulation skills and attitudes: self control, self-esteem, attention/concentration, social competence, and interethnic relationships.

Analysis.

Three-way repeated measures analyses of variance and correlational analyses were used.

Results.

A significant improvement was observed only in attention/concentration. Girls' attention/concentration scores improved significantly in the intervention group compared to the control group (F1,127 = 16.26, p < .001). The improvement in attention/concentration scores for boys in the intervention group was correlated with their frequency of participation in the program PAs (r = .24, p = .008).

Conclusion.

Using social marketing principles can help encourage adolescents from underserved, multiethnic milieus to participate in PA during their school lunch hour. Furthermore, voluntary participation in a culturally tailored PA program can improve youths' attention/concentration.

The effects of physical activity and physical fitness on children's achievement and cognitive outcomes: a meta-analysis

It is common knowledge that physical activity leads to numerous health and psychological benefits. However; the relationship between children's physical activity and academic achievement has been debated in the literature. Some studies have found strong, positive relationships between physical activity and cognitive outcomes, while other studies have reported small, negative associations. This study was a comprehensive, quantitative synthesis of the literature, using a total of 59 studies from 1947 to 2009 for analysis. Results indicated a significant and positive effect of physical activity on children's achievement and cognitive outcomes, with aerobic exercise having the greatest effect. A number of moderator variables were also found to play a significant role in this relationship. Findings are discussed in light of improving children's academic performance and changing school-based policy.

Fitness, fatness, cognition, behavior, and academic achievement among overweight children: do cross-sectional associations correspond to exercise trial outcomes?

BACKGROUND

This study examined associations of fitness and fatness with cognitive processes, academic achievement, and behavior, independent of demographic factors, at the baseline of an exercise trial.

METHODS

Overweight, sedentary but otherwise healthy 7-11 year olds (N=170) participated in a study of health, cognition and achievement in the Augusta, GA area from 2003-2006. Children underwent evaluations of fatness and fitness, psychological assessments of cognition and academic achievement, and behavior ratings by parents and teachers. Partial correlations examined associations of fitness and fatness with cognitive and achievement scores and behavior ratings, controlling for demographic factors.

RESULTS

Fitness was associated with better cognition, achievement and behavior, and fatness with worse scores. Specifically, executive function, mathematics and reading achievement, and parent ratings of child behavior were related to fitness and fatness. Teacher ratings were related to fitness.

CONCLUSION

These results extend prior studies by providing reliable, standardized measures of cognitive processes, achievement, and behavior in relation to detailed measures of fitness and fatness. However, cross-sectional associations do not necessarily indicate that improving one factor, such as fatness or fitness, will result in improvements in factors that were associated with it. Thus, randomized clinical trials are necessary to determine the effects of interventions.

The association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance: a systematic review of the literature

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this review is to synthesize the scientific literature that has examined the association between school-based physical activity (including physical education) and academic performance (including indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic achievement).

METHOD

Relevant research was identified through a search of nine electronic databases using both physical activity and academic-related search terms. Forty-three articles (reporting a total of 50 unique studies) met the inclusion criteria and were read, abstracted, and coded for this synthesis. Findings of the 50 studies were then summarized.

RESULTS

Across all the studies, there were a total of 251 associations between physical activity and academic performance, representing measures of academic achievement, academic behavior, and cognitive skills and attitudes. Slightly more than half (50.5%) of all associations examined were positive, 48% were not significant, and 1.5% were negative. Examination of the findings by each physical activity context provides insights regarding specific relationships.

CONCLUSION

Results suggest physical activity is either positively related to academic performance or that there is not a demonstrated relationship between physical activity and academic performance. Results have important implications for both policy and schools.