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Lauckner C, Krajewski T, Mollan K, Nowotny KM, McLouth CJ, Oser CB, Brinkley-Rubinstein L. Associations Between Sexual Minority Status, Hazardous Drinking, and Discrimination Experiences Among Criminal Legal-Involved Adults in the Southern PrEP Cohort (SPECS) Study. Subst Use Misuse 2024:1-7. [PMID: 38987993 DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2024.2374972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/12/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Separately, individuals with criminal legal involvement (CLI) and those who identify as a sexual minority are at heightened risk for experiencing discrimination and engaging in hazardous alcohol use; however, little is known about the prevalence of these experiences and behaviors among sexual minority individuals who also have a history of CLI. METHOD We examined experiences of discrimination and hazardous alcohol use reported by individuals with CLI and compared prevalence between those who identify as a sexual minority and those who do not. Baseline, cross-sectional data of cisgender sexual minority individuals from a multisite, prospective cohort study examining pre-exposure prophylaxis acceptability and uptake among criminal legal-involved adults were analyzed (N = 362, 14% sexual minority). RESULTS Hazardous alcohol consumption was nearly twice as prevalent among participants who identified as a sexual minority compared to heterosexual participants, and a sexual minority identity was associated with higher discrimination scores. Additionally, hazardous drinking was more prevalent among those with higher discrimination scores. CONCLUSIONS This study suggests that sexual minority individuals with a history of CLI are an especially high-risk group given the elevated rates of discrimination and hazardous alcohol use observed. More research is needed to further investigate the risk behaviors of this population and to develop interventions to intervene on their physical and mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn Lauckner
- Department of Behavioral Science, Center for Health Equity Transformation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Taylor Krajewski
- Department of Biostatistics, Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Katie Mollan
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Medicine, Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kathryn M Nowotny
- Department of Sociology and Criminology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA
| | | | - Carrie B Oser
- Department of Sociology, Center on Drug & Alcohol Research, Center for Health Equity Transformation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Lauren Brinkley-Rubinstein
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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Boyd DT, Sterrett-Hong E, Scott ED, Allen JL, Smith B, Quinn CR. Family as a Pathway to Suicidal Behaviors Through Depression Symptoms and Internalized Homophobia. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2024:10.1007/s40615-024-01956-8. [PMID: 38443741 DOI: 10.1007/s40615-024-01956-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
Research consistently highlights how systemic and social factors can adversely impact mental health, and the potential buffering effects of family support, yet raced sexual minorities are vastly underrepresented among these studies. As rates of suicide increase among Black people and remain high among men and those in gender and sexually diverse communities, this study sought to examine to relationships between family dynamics and suicidality among young Black men who have sex with men (MSM) in young adulthood. We used an online survey to conduct a logistic regression to examine family factors (family support, open family communication, other adult support, and other adult value), depression symptoms, and internalized homophobia on suicide attempts. The conceptualization of the study's design and interpretation of the results were informed by minority stress theory and the phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory. The results indicate that higher levels of family support and open family communication were associated with lower levels of suicidality. Implications for future research and applications for healthcare providers and human services professionals who support young Black MSM in emerging adulthood are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donte T Boyd
- College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA.
- Center for Equitable, Family and Community Wellbeing, Ann Arbor, USA.
| | - Emma Sterrett-Hong
- Raymond A. Kent School of Social Work and Family Science, University of Louisville, Louisville, USA
| | - Edward D Scott
- Graduate College of Social Work, University of Houston, Houston, USA
| | - Junior L Allen
- School of Social Work, Wayne State University, Detroit, USA
| | - Brianna Smith
- College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA
| | - Camille R Quinn
- Center for Equitable, Family and Community Wellbeing, Ann Arbor, USA
- School of Social Work, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
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3
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Savell SM, Niguse M, Caluori N, Brown-Iannuzzi JL, Wilson MN, Lemery-Chalfant K, Shaw DS. Cascading Influences of Caregiver Experiences of Discrimination and Adolescent Antisocial Behavior. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL FOR THE SOCIETY OF CLINICAL CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY, AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, DIVISION 53 2024:1-15. [PMID: 38252485 DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2024.2301770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Although a growing body of work has found that parents' experiences of racial and socioeconomic (SES) based discrimination are directly related to their children's behavior problems , more work is needed to understand possible pathways by which these factors are related and to identify potential targets for prevention and/or intervention. METHOD Using a large (N = 572), longitudinal sample of low-income families from diverse racial backgrounds, the current study explored whether caregivers' experiences of racial and SES discrimination during their children's middle childhood (i.e. ages 7.5-9.5) predicted youth-reported antisocial behavior during adolescence and potential factors mediating these associations (e.g. caregiver depressive symptoms and positive parenting practices). RESULTS We found that higher levels of caregiver experiences of discrimination at child ages 7.5-9.5 predicted higher levels of caregiver depressive symptoms at child age 10.5, which were related to lower levels of caregiver endorsement of positive parenting practices at child age 14.5, which in turn, predicted higher levels of youth-reported antisocial behavior at age 16. CONCLUSION The findings highlight the adverse effects of racism and discrimination in American society. Second, the findings underscore the need to develop interventions which mitigate racism and discrimination among perpetrators and alleviate depressive symptoms among caregivers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nava Caluori
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia
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4
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Miller JL, Chung M, Williams LB, Connell A, Saleh ZT, Alhurani A, Bailey A, Rayens MK, Moser DK. Health Literacy and Perceived Control: Intermediary Factors in the Relationship Between Race and Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Incarcerated Men in the United States. J Cardiovasc Nurs 2023:00005082-990000000-00136. [PMID: 37787727 PMCID: PMC10985046 DOI: 10.1097/jcn.0000000000001022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Black race, inadequate health literacy, and poor perceived control are predictors of increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships among race, health literacy, perceived control, and CVD risk while controlling for known risk factors in incarcerated men. METHODS We included data from 349 incarcerated men to examine race and CVD risk (Framingham Risk Score) using a serial mediation model with health literacy and perceived control using 95% confidence intervals (CIs) from 5000 bootstrap samples. RESULTS Of the participants (age, 36 ± 10; education, 12 ± 2; body mass index, 28.3 ± 5.0), 64.2% were White and 35.8% were Black. Black incarcerated men were younger (P = .047) with lower levels of health literacy (P < .001). All 3 indirect effects of race on CVD were significant, whereas the direct effect of race was not. Black incarcerated men had higher levels of CVD risk through health literacy (a1b1 = 0.3571; 95% CI, 0.0948-0.7162) and lower levels of CVD risk through perceived control (a2b2 = -0.1855; 95% CI, -0.4388 to -0.0077). Black incarcerated men had higher levels of CVD risk through health literacy influenced by perceived control (a1b2d21 = 0.0627; 95% CI, 0.0028-0.1409), indicating that despite the protective effect of higher levels of perceived control in Black incarcerated men, CVD risk remained higher compared with their White counterparts. CONCLUSION Future CVD risk reduction interventions in incarcerated men, specifically Black incarcerated men, should include goals of improving health literacy and perceived control as modifiable risk factors.
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5
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Quinn EB, Ross JD, Boston PQ, Committee HS, Mulligan CJ, Gravlee CC. The social patterning of vicarious discrimination: Implications for health equity. Soc Sci Med 2023; 332:116104. [PMID: 37517313 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Most research on discrimination and health operationalizes discrimination as direct individual experiences. Here, we examine the social patterning of vicarious discrimination, an important but largely overlooked dimension of discrimination. METHODS Drawing on community-based participatory research with a multi-stage probability sample (n = 178) of African Americans in Tallahassee, Florida, we measured vicarious discrimination, or exposure to discrimination through one's family and friends. We used chi-square tests to examine gender differences in the social domains and relational sources of vicarious discrimination. Negative binomial regression models were fit to identify predictors of exposure to vicarious discrimination. RESULTS Vicarious discrimination is more prevalent than direct experiences of discrimination (73 versus 61%) and more than 20% of participants report vicarious discrimination in the absence of direct discrimination. For women, vicarious discrimination most often involved the workplace; for men, police. However, gender differences are smaller for vicarious versus direct discrimination. Close friends and children were top relational sources of vicarious discrimination for men and women, respectively. Middle-aged participants reported the most vicarious discrimination. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our data show that vicarious discrimination is more common than widely understood and associated with individual-level sociodemographic characteristics that index one's position in broader social systems. The prevalence of vicarious discrimination in the absence of direct discrimination suggests that standard approaches, which measure individual exposures in isolation, are subject to misclassification bias. Our results imply that existing research on discrimination and health, which already demonstrates substantial harm, underestimates African Americans' true exposures to salient aspects of discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward B Quinn
- Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; Genetics Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA.
| | - Jessica D Ross
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - P Qasimah Boston
- Tallahassee Food Network, Institute of Public Health, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL 32307, USA
| | | | - Connie J Mulligan
- Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; Genetics Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA
| | - Clarence C Gravlee
- Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; Genetics Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA
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Zilioli S, Jiang Y, Byrd D, Joseph N. Lifetime discrimination, habitual and daily everyday discrimination, and diurnal cortisol among older African Americans adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2023; 152:106089. [PMID: 36965461 PMCID: PMC10164111 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/27/2023]
Abstract
Experiences of discrimination can be major life events or daily chronic hassles that occur in various social contexts (e.g., housing, education, employment) and have been found to predict adverse health outcomes, including dysregulation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis. Previous work on daily cortisol dynamics has generally revealed an association between discrimination and flatter cortisol slopes, particularly among racial minorities. However, most of the existing studies have focused on youth and young adults, with little work among older adults. The current study aimed to investigate the relationship between three measures of discrimination (lifetime discrimination, habitual everyday discrimination, and daily everyday discrimination) and diurnal cortisol secretion in a sample of 203 older African Americans. Study results indicated that individuals reporting higher levels of lifetime discrimination experienced morning hypocortisolism and flatter diurnal cortisol slopes. Exploratory analyses also showed that prior daily everyday discrimination was significantly associated with blunted cortisol awakening response (CAR) the next day. Our findings underline the role of discrimination in modulating daily cortisol dynamics among older African American adults and advance knowledge on how social stressors influence healthy aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuele Zilioli
- Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, United States; Department of Family Medicine and Public Health Sciences, Wayne State University, United States.
| | - Yanping Jiang
- Institute for Health, Health Care Policy and Aging Research, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, United States; Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, United States
| | - DeAnnah Byrd
- Edson College of Nursing and Health Innovative, Arizona State University, United States; Center of Innovative, Healthy, and Resilient Aging, Arizona State University, United States
| | - Nataria Joseph
- Department of Psychology, Pepperdine University, United States
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Philbin MM, Menza TW, Legrand SH, Muessig KE, Hightow-Weidman L. Structural-Level Racial-, Sexual Orientation-, and HIV-Related Discrimination and Subsequent Criminal Justice Involvement Among Young, Black, Men Who Have Sex With Men in North Carolina. STIGMA AND HEALTH 2023; 8:170-178. [PMID: 37456791 PMCID: PMC10348694 DOI: 10.1037/sah0000290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Multiple aspects of Black young men who have sex with men's (YMSM) identities cause them to be differentially targeted for arrest and incarceration. However, limited research has explored structural drivers of Black YMSM' criminal justice involvement, particularly co-occurring forms of discrimination. This article examines the temporal relationship between perceived racial discrimination, perceived sexual orientation discrimination, and community-level HIV discrimination and criminal justice involvement among Black YMSM in North Carolina. The study followed 465 Black YMSM from November 2013 to October 2016 who were recruited for a randomized controlled trial to test an internet-based intervention for Black YMSM living with, and at risk for HIV; participants completed online surveys at baseline, 3, 6, and 12 months. Logistic regression was used to explore the relationship between the three predictors at baseline (i.e., perceived racism and sexual orientation discrimination and community-level HIV discrimination) and criminal justice involvement at follow-up. All three predictor variables were significantly associated with subsequent criminal justice involvement in separate regression models that adjusted for other covariates: HIV discrimination (aOR = 1.06 [1.01-1.11]), perceived sexual orientation discrimination (aOR = 1.12 [1.00-1.27]), and perceived racism (aOR = 1.26 [1.12-1.42]). Perceived racism remained significant in the model with all three predictors (aOR = 1.29 [1.07-1.55]). Racism did not modify the relationship between HIV discrimination and perceived sexual orientation discrimination and criminal justice involvement. This study expands existing research by exploring racism as a structural driver of criminal justice involvement; we subsequently examined whether racism modified the effect of the two other predictors. It also contributes to research on co-occurring discrimination by examining their impact on an underrepresented population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan M Philbin
- Department of Sociomedical Sciences, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health
| | | | | | - Kathryn E Muessig
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - Lisa Hightow-Weidman
- Division of Global Health and Infectious Diseases, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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8
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Wippold GM, Frary SG. Predictors of Health-Related Quality of Life Among African American Men. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2022; 9:2131-2138. [PMID: 34533780 PMCID: PMC8926934 DOI: 10.1007/s40615-021-01151-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
African American men have the lowest life expectancy of any ethnic gender group in the USA. Furthermore, these men endorse having a lower health-related quality of life (HRQoL) than any other group. There have been recent calls from national organizations to improve HRQoL-a multidimensional indicator of health strongly associated with mortality and morbidity. Following these calls, there have been widespread efforts implemented to improve HRQoL among the US population, though no known effort has been implemented that is tailored to the unique experiences of African American men. Health promotion efforts that are not tailored to the unique preferences and experiences of these men are likely to produce limited results. Formative research conducted among African American men is needed in order to design and implement an effective HRQoL-promoting intervention for African American men. The present study constitutes such formative research and was conducted with a sample of 211 African American men. Hierarchical regressions were performed to understand the role of literature-derived predictors of HRQoL among these men. Results found that depression, stress, and physical activity were found to be significant predictors of HRQoL among these men. This is the first known study to examine predictors of HRQoL among African American men-a group that disproportionately experiences health disparities and low HRQoL, though for who few successful health promotions exist. The findings from this study have implications for those seeking to design and implement HRQoL-promoting interventions among African American men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo M Wippold
- Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, 1512 Pendleton Avenue, Barnwell College, Mailbox 38, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA.
| | - Sarah Grace Frary
- Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, 1512 Pendleton Avenue, Barnwell College, Mailbox 38, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
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9
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Dowhower DP, Harvey SM, Oakley LP. Experiences of discrimination and endorsement of HIV/AIDS conspiracy beliefs: exploring difference among a sample of Latino, Black, and White young adults. ETHNICITY & HEALTH 2022; 27:1537-1554. [PMID: 34056960 DOI: 10.1080/13557858.2021.1932765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Racial/ethnic discrimination and HIV/AIDS conspiracy beliefs may contribute to disparities in use and satisfaction with healthcare services. Previous studies that examined racial/ethnic experiences of everyday discrimination (EOD), health care discrimination (HCD), and HIV/AIDS conspiracy beliefs (HCB) focused primarily on African Americans with few studies focusing on Latinos. This study used data from in-person structured interviews with 450 Latino, Black, and White young adults from East Los Angeles, California. Multivariable models, adjusting for all demographic covariates, investigated if race/ethnicity and gender were associated with EOD and HCD and endorsing HCB, and if the associations between race/ethnicity and discriminations and HCB varied by gender. Blacks and Latinos reported more experiences of EOD and HCD in almost all forms and endorsed more HIV/AIDS conspiracy beliefs compared to Whites. Additionally, Black and Latino men reported stronger feelings of EOD than their female counterparts. More reports of experiences of HCD and endorsement of HCB beliefs were found for Blacks, Latinos, and participants with children compared to their counterparts. This study contributes to a growing understanding of how different racial/ethnic groups experience discrimination across various settings and everyday activities and their endorsement of HIV/AIDS conspiracy beliefs. The field of Public Health must address the problems of racism and discrimination similar to any other toxic pathogen. In so doing, Public Health becomes proactive in its efforts to mitigate the effects of racial discriminations on population health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Dowhower
- Division of Community and Exercise Health, Western Oregon University, Monmouth, Oregon, USA
| | - S Marie Harvey
- College of Public Health and Human Sciences, Oregon State University, Monmouth, Oregon, USA
| | - Lisa P Oakley
- College of Public Health and Human Sciences, Oregon State University, Monmouth, Oregon, USA
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10
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Sylvers D, Taylor RJ, Barnes L, Ifatunji MA, Chatters LM. Racial and Ethnic Differences in Major and Everyday Discrimination Among Older Adults: African Americans, Black Caribbeans, and Non-Latino Whites. J Aging Health 2022; 34:460-471. [PMID: 35420508 PMCID: PMC9165708 DOI: 10.1177/08982643221085818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study examined differences in major and everyday discrimination between African Americans, Black Caribbeans, and non-Latino White older adults. METHODS Data are taken from the National Survey of American Life. Measures of major (e.g., unfairly fired and harassed by police) and everyday (e.g., treated with less courtesy, insulted, and followed in stores) discrimination were examined. RESULTS Both African Americans and Black Caribbeans reported more major and everyday discrimination than non-Latino Whites. However, there were no significant differences between African Americans and Whites with regards to being fired, neighbors making life difficult and receiving poor service. There were no significant differences between African Americans and Black Caribbeans in major or everyday discrimination. DISCUSSION The discussion notes the importance of examining racial as well as within group ethnic differences within the Black American population in the types of discrimination. It also notes the importance of examining indicators of both major and everyday discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominque Sylvers
- School of Public Health, 1259University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Lisa Barnes
- Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, 2461Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Mosi Adesina Ifatunji
- Department of Afro American Studies, Department of Sociology, 5229University of Wisconsin at Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Linda M Chatters
- School of Public Health, 1259University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- School of Social Work, 1259University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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11
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Wright D, Tovar‐Murray D, Noel T, Chennault R. A phenomenological analysis of invisibility syndrome in formerly incarcerated Black men. JOURNAL OF MULTICULTURAL COUNSELING AND DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/jmcd.12233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dallas Wright
- Institute for Policy Research Northwestern University Chicago Illinois USA
| | - Darrick Tovar‐Murray
- Department Counseling and Special Education DePaul University Chicago Illinois USA
| | - Thomas Noel
- Department of Leadership, Language and Curriculum DePaul University Chicago Illinois USA
| | - Ronald Chennault
- Department of Teacher Education DePaul University Chicago Illinois USA
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12
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Tavares CD, Bell CN, Zare H, Hudson D, Thorpe RJ. Allostatic Load, Income, and Race Among Black and White Men in the United States. Am J Mens Health 2022; 16:15579883221092290. [PMID: 35466781 PMCID: PMC9036348 DOI: 10.1177/15579883221092290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Research indicates that income is significantly associated with allostatic load (AL) and that this association may differ between White and Black Americans. Most existing income–AL link work focuses on women and less is known about this association among men. Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), we examined whether race moderates the association between income and AL among Black and White men in the United States (n = 5,685). We find that, regardless of income levels, Black men have significantly higher prevalence of being in the high-AL group compared with high-income White men. Our findings suggest that Black men do not receive the same health benefits for increased income relative to their White counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos D Tavares
- Department of Anthropology and Sociology, Lafayette College, Easton, PA, USA
| | - Caryn N Bell
- Department of Social, Behavioral, and Population Sciences, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Hossein Zare
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Global Health Services and Administration, University of Maryland Global Campus, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Darrell Hudson
- Brown School, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Roland J Thorpe
- Department of Health, Behavior, and Society, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
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13
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Quan D, Luna Wong L, Shallal A, Madan R, Hamdan A, Ahdi H, Daneshvar A, Mahajan M, Nasereldin M, Van Harn M, Opara IN, Zervos M. Impact of Race and Socioeconomic Status on Outcomes in Patients Hospitalized with COVID-19. J Gen Intern Med 2021; 36:1302-1309. [PMID: 33506402 PMCID: PMC7840076 DOI: 10.1007/s11606-020-06527-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The impact of race and socioeconomic status on clinical outcomes has not been quantified in patients hospitalized with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). OBJECTIVE To evaluate the association between patient sociodemographics and neighborhood disadvantage with frequencies of death, invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV), and intensive care unit (ICU) admission in patients hospitalized with COVID-19. DESIGN Retrospective cohort study. SETTING Four hospitals in an integrated health system serving southeast Michigan. PARTICIPANTS Adult patients admitted to the hospital with a COVID-19 diagnosis confirmed by polymerase chain reaction. MAIN MEASURES Patient sociodemographics, comorbidities, and clinical outcomes were collected. Neighborhood socioeconomic variables were obtained at the census tract level from the 2018 American Community Survey. Relationships between neighborhood median income and clinical outcomes were evaluated using multivariate logistic regression models, controlling for patient age, sex, race, Charlson Comorbidity Index, obesity, smoking status, and living environment. KEY RESULTS Black patients lived in significantly poorer neighborhoods than White patients (median income: $34,758 (24,531-56,095) vs. $63,317 (49,850-85,776), p < 0.001) and were more likely to have Medicaid insurance (19.4% vs. 11.2%, p < 0.001). Patients from neighborhoods with lower median income were significantly more likely to require IMV (lowest quartile: 25.4%, highest quartile: 16.0%, p < 0.001) and ICU admission (35.2%, 19.9%, p < 0.001). After adjusting for age, sex, race, and comorbidities, higher neighborhood income ($10,000 increase) remained a significant negative predictor for IMV (OR: 0.95 (95% CI 0.91, 0.99), p = 0.02) and ICU admission (OR: 0.92 (95% CI 0.89, 0.96), p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Neighborhood disadvantage, which is closely associated with race, is a predictor of poor clinical outcomes in COVID-19. Measures of neighborhood disadvantage should be used to inform policies that aim to reduce COVID-19 disparities in the Black community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Quan
- Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | | | - Anita Shallal
- Department of Infectious Disease, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Raghav Madan
- Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Abel Hamdan
- Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Heaveen Ahdi
- Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Amir Daneshvar
- Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Manasi Mahajan
- Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | | | - Meredith Van Harn
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Ijeoma Nnodim Opara
- Department of Internal Medicine, Internal Medicine-Pediatrics Section, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Marcus Zervos
- Global Affairs Professor of Medicine, Assistant Dean Wayne State University School of Medicine, MI, Detroit, USA.
- Infectious Diseases, Division Head Henry Ford Health System, MI, Detroit, USA.
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Nolan JES, Coker ES, Ward BR, Williamson YA, Harley KG. "Freedom to Breathe": Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR) to Investigate Air Pollution Inequities in Richmond, CA. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:E554. [PMID: 33440892 PMCID: PMC7826540 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18020554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Air pollution is a major contributor to human morbidity and mortality, potentially exacerbated by COVID-19, and a threat to planetary health. Participatory research, with a structural violence framework, illuminates exposure inequities and refines mitigation strategies. Home to profitable oil and shipping industries, several census tracts in Richmond, CA are among the most heavily impacted by aggregate burdens statewide. Formally trained researchers from the Center for Environmental Research and Children's Health (CERCH) partnered with the RYSE youth justice center to conduct youth participatory action research on air quality justice. Staff engaged five youth researchers in: (1) collaborative research using a network of passive air monitors to quantify neighborhood disparities in nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2), noise pollution and community risk factors; (2) training in environmental health literacy and professional development; and (3) interpretation of findings, community outreach and advocacy. Inequities in ambient NO2, but not SO2, were observed. Census tracts with higher Black populations had the highest NO2. Proximity to railroads and major roadways were associated with higher NO2. Greenspace was associated with lower NO2, suggesting investment may be conducive to improved air quality, among many additional benefits. Youth improved in measures of empowerment, and advanced community education via workshops, Photovoice, video, and "zines".
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Affiliation(s)
- James E. S. Nolan
- Center for Environmental Research and Children’s Health (CERCH), School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA;
| | - Eric S. Coker
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA;
| | - Bailey R. Ward
- RYSE Youth Justice Center, Richmond, CA 94805, USA; (B.R.W.); (Y.A.W.)
| | | | - Kim G. Harley
- Center for Environmental Research and Children’s Health (CERCH), School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA;
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Goodwill JR, Taylor RJ, Watkins DC. Everyday Discrimination, Depressive Symptoms, and Suicide Ideation Among African American Men. Arch Suicide Res 2021; 25:74-93. [PMID: 31597538 DOI: 10.1080/13811118.2019.1660287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Suicide has remained a leading cause of death among African American males, yet empirical investigations that focus on the experiences of this group are limited. Therefore, we aim to interrogate the impact of everyday discrimination as a risk factor for depressive symptoms and suicide ideation among African American men. Data were drawn from the African American male subsample of the National Survey of American Life (n = 1,271). Path analysis and tests for indirect effects were used to examine relationships between everyday discrimination, depressive symptoms, and suicide ideation. Three sources of everyday discrimination were examined (any everyday discrimination, race-based everyday discrimination, and other everyday discrimination). Study findings revealed that race-based everyday discrimination was the only type of discrimination that was significantly associated with both increased rates of depressive symptoms and suicide ideation. Further, the indirect effect from race-based everyday discrimination to suicide ideation via depressive symptoms was also statistically significant. Thus, the impact of daily encounters with discrimination extends beyond depressive symptoms and is related to higher rates of suicide ideation. Moreover, experiences with discrimination do not have to be overt to be harmful toward African American men's mental health. Culturally relevant suicide prevention interventions are needed to account for the role of discrimination in the lives of African American men.
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Mouzon DM, Taylor RJ, Nguyen AW, Ifatunji MA, Chatters LM. Everyday Discrimination Typologies Among Older African Americans: Gender and Socioeconomic Status. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2020; 75:1951-1960. [PMID: 31294454 PMCID: PMC8060986 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gbz088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Discrimination is associated with several negative social, economic, and health consequences. Past research focuses on the impact of discrimination while less is known about both the type and correlates of discrimination, particularly among older adults. METHODS Using the National Survey of American Life, we used latent class analysis to identify discrimination typologies (frequency and type) among African Americans aged 55 and older. We then used multinomial logistic regression to identify demographic correlates of discrimination types, including a statistical interaction between gender and educational attainment. RESULTS We identified three discrimination typologies. Increasing age was associated with lower probability of belonging to the high discrimination and disrespect and condescension subtypes. Men and non-Southern residents were most likely to belong in the high discrimination subtype. Higher levels of education increased the probability of belonging in the high discrimination and disrespect and condescension subtypes for older men, but not women. DISCUSSION Older African American men, particularly those with more education, are vulnerable to both high-frequency discrimination and discrimination characterized by disrespect and condescension. This finding suggests that, for men with more years of education, increased exposure to discrimination reflects efforts to maintain social hierarchies (male target hypothesis).
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawne M Mouzon
- Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick
| | - Robert Joseph Taylor
- School of Social Work, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
- Institute for Social Research, Program for Research on Black Americans, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
| | - Ann W Nguyen
- Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel School of Applied Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Mosi Adesina Ifatunji
- Department of Sociology, Institute for African American Research and Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
| | - Linda M Chatters
- School of Social Work, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
- Institute for Social Research, Program for Research on Black Americans, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
- School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
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Cardel MI, Chi X, Min YI, Sims M, Musani SK, Dulin A, Gravlee CC, Smith SM, DeBoer MD, Gurka MJ. Experiences of Discrimination Are Associated With Worse Metabolic Syndrome Severity Among African Americans in the Jackson Heart Study. Ann Behav Med 2020; 55:266-279. [PMID: 32686818 DOI: 10.1093/abm/kaaa050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Although the development of MetS is attributed to known lifestyle factors, perceived discrimination may also contribute to MetS development and severity. PURPOSE We examined the associations of perceived discrimination with MetS severity among African American adults at baseline and 8-year follow-up. METHODS Three thousand eight hundred and seventy participants (mean age 53.8 ± 13.0; 63.1% female) without diabetes and no missing MetS severity scores at baseline were included. Each self-reported measure of discrimination at baseline (everyday, lifetime, and burden of lifetime) was classified into tertiles (low, medium, high). After adjustment for demographics and MetS risk factors, associations of discrimination were examined with a sex- and race/ethnicity-specific MetS severity Z-score. We employed a mixed model approach that allowed for the assessment of an overall association between reported discrimination at baseline and MetS severity, and for the possible change over time. RESULTS Sex and age differences were observed in experiences with discrimination, such that men reported higher levels of all aspects of discrimination relative to women. Everyday discrimination decreased with age, whereas lifetime discrimination increased with age (p < .05). Independent of lifestyle and demographic factors, everyday and lifetime discrimination were significantly associated with MetS severity (p = .003 and p = .017, respectively) and the associations remained constant over the 8 years (i.e., no interaction with time). CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that, in a large community-based sample of African Americans, discrimination is a salient psychosocial risk factor for severity of MetS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle I Cardel
- Department of Health Outcomes and Biomedical Informatics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Xiaofei Chi
- Department of Health Outcomes and Biomedical Informatics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Yuan-I Min
- Department of Medicine, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA
| | - Mario Sims
- Department of Medicine, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA
| | - Solomon K Musani
- Department of Medicine, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA
| | - Akilah Dulin
- Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University School of Public Health, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Clarence C Gravlee
- Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Turlington Hall, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Steven M Smith
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Mark D DeBoer
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Matthew J Gurka
- Department of Health Outcomes and Biomedical Informatics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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18
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Goreis A, Asbrock F, Nater UM, Mewes R. What Mediates the Relationship Between Ethnic Discrimination and Stress? Coping Strategies and Perceived Social Support of Russian Immigrants in Germany. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:557148. [PMID: 33192672 PMCID: PMC7533615 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.557148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Experiences of ethnic discrimination may constitute major stressors for ethnic minority groups. This study examined the associations between different forms of ethnic discrimination and levels of perceived stress in Russian immigrants living in Germany, taking into account potential moderating (in-group identification) and mediating (coping and social support) factors. METHODS Russian immigrants (N = 308) were assessed using online questionnaires (e.g., perceived stress scale, behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotype treatment scale, and brief COPE). Three forms of ethnic discrimination were examined: active harm (e.g., open aggression), passive harm (e.g., paternalistic behavior), and everyday discrimination (e.g., receiving poor service). Moderation by in-group identification and mediation via coping and social support were tested. RESULTS Passive harm was more prevalent than everyday discrimination and active harm. Passive harm and everyday discrimination were associated with higher perceived stress (rs = .22 and .18, ps <.01), and in-group identification did not moderate these associations (ps >.27). The coping strategy self-blame mediated the association between active harm and stress. Substance use and self-blame mediated the association between passive harm and stress, whereas venting, behavioral disengagement, denial, self-blame, and social support mediated the association between everyday discrimination and stress. A direct effect remained for passive harm and everyday discrimination. CONCLUSION The present study revealed that Russian immigrants encounter different forms of ethnic discrimination, and that this is associated with higher levels of stress. This association was partly explained by coping and social support, illustrating possibilities for interventions aimed at improving the use of adaptive coping strategies and promoting social support-seeking for Russian immigrants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Goreis
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Outpatient Unit for Research, Teaching and Practice, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Frank Asbrock
- Department of Psychology, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Urs M Nater
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ricarda Mewes
- Outpatient Unit for Research, Teaching and Practice, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Taylor RJ, Forsythe-Brown I, Mouzon DM, Keith VM, Chae DH, Chatters LM. Prevalence and correlates of everyday discrimination among black Caribbeans in the United States: the impact of nativity and country of origin. ETHNICITY & HEALTH 2019; 24:463-483. [PMID: 28669197 PMCID: PMC6054561 DOI: 10.1080/13557858.2017.1346785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Black Caribbeans in the United States have been the victims of major discrimination (e.g. unfairly fired, denied a promotion, denied housing). What is not known is the degree to which they also experience more routine forms of everyday discrimination such as receiving poor restaurant service, being perceived as dishonest, and being followed in stores. This paper investigates the distribution and correlates of everyday discrimination among a national sample of black Caribbeans in the U.S. DESIGN This analysis used the black Caribbean sub-sample (n = 1,621) of the National Survey of American Life. Demographic and immigration status correlates of ten items from the Everyday Discrimination Scale were investigated: being treated with less courtesy, treated with less respect, receiving poor restaurant service, being perceived as not smart, being perceived as dishonest, being perceived as not as good as others, and being feared, insulted, harassed, or followed in stores. RESULTS Roughly one out of ten black Caribbeans reported that, on a weekly basis, they were treated with less courtesy and other people acted as if they were better than them, were afraid of them, and as if they were not as smart. Everyday discrimination was more frequent for black Caribbeans who were male, never married, divorced/separated, earned higher incomes, and who were second or third generation immigrants. Black Caribbeans attributed the majority of the discrimination they experienced to their race. CONCLUSION To our knowledge, this is the first study to provide an in-depth investigation of everyday discrimination among the black Caribbean population. It provides the frequency, types and correlates of everyday discrimination reported by black Caribbeans in the United States. Understanding the frequency and types of discrimination is important because of the documented negative impacts of everyday discrimination on physical and mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Joseph Taylor
- a School of Social Work and Institute for Social Research , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , MI , USA
| | - Ivy Forsythe-Brown
- b Department of Behavioral Sciences , University of Michigan , Dearborn , MI , USA
| | - Dawne M Mouzon
- c Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Institute for Health, Health Care Policy, and Aging Research , Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , New Brunswick , NJ , USA
| | - Verna M Keith
- d Department of Sociology, Race and Ethnic Studies Institute , Texas A & M University , College Station , TX , USA
| | - David H Chae
- e Department of Human Development and Family Studies , Auburn University , Auburn , AL , USA
| | - Linda M Chatters
- f School of Social Work, School of Public Health and Institute for Social Research , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , MI , USA
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Wenzel SL, Rhoades H, LaMotte-Kerr W, Duan L. Everyday discrimination among formerly homeless persons in permanent supportive housing. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL DISTRESS AND THE HOMELESS 2019; 28:169-175. [PMID: 32952378 PMCID: PMC7500539 DOI: 10.1080/10530789.2019.1630959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2018] [Revised: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Experiences of discrimination are associated with poor health and are particularly common among persons experiencing homelessness. Permanent supportive housing (PSH) provides a foundation for improved well-being among persons with homelessness histories, but research on discrimination among this population is lacking. We examined changes in experiences of, and perceived reasons for, everyday discrimination when persons moved into PSH. 421 adults in Los Angeles County completed baseline (pre-housing), 3-, 6- or 12-month post-housing structured interviews. Generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) examined change in discrimination outcomes, controlling for demographic characteristics. Everyday discrimination experiences decreased significantly when persons moved from homelessness into PSH, and remained consistently lower across the first year in PSH. Reports of homelessness/poverty, race/ethnicity, and neighborhood as reasons for discrimination also decreased from baseline levels. PSH may offer respite from everyday discrimination, but the persistence of discrimination and particularly racism in society requires structural solutions addressing implicit bias and systemic inequities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne L. Wenzel
- Corresponding author: , 669 West 34 Street, Los Angeles, CA 90089, 213.740.0819
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21
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Assari S, Miller RJ, Taylor RJ, Mouzon D, Keith V, Chatters LM. Discrimination Fully Mediates the Effects of Incarceration History on Depressive Symptoms and Psychological Distress Among African American Men. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2018; 5:243-252. [PMID: 28405962 PMCID: PMC6556396 DOI: 10.1007/s40615-017-0364-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
AIM Using a nationally representative sample of African American men, this study investigated the associations between lifetime history of incarceration, discrimination, and mental health (e.g., depressive symptoms and psychological distress). We hypothesized that discrimination would fully mediate the association between incarceration history and mental health outcomes among African American men. METHODS Using a cross-sectional design, our analysis included 1271 African American men who participated in the National Survey of American Life (NSAL), 2001-2003. Incarceration history was the main independent variable. Depressive symptoms and psychological distress were the dependent variables. Everyday discrimination was the mediator. Age, education, and income were covariates. Structural equation models (SEMs) were used for data analysis. RESULTS Among African American men, incarceration history was positively associated with perceived discrimination, depressive symptoms, and psychological distress. Everyday discrimination fully mediated the associations between incarceration history and both depressive symptoms and psychological distress. CONCLUSION Discrimination may play an important role in the mental health problems of African American men with a history of incarceration. These findings have public policy implications as well as clinical implications for mental health promotion of African American men. Policies that reduce preventable incarceration or at least reduce subsequent discrimination for those who have been incarcerated may enhance mental health of previously incarcerated African American men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shervin Assari
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
- Center for Research on Ethnicity, Culture and Health, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, 4250 Plymouth Road, SPC 5763, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2700, USA.
| | | | - Robert Joseph Taylor
- School of Social Work, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Program for Research on Black Americans, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Dawne Mouzon
- Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Verna Keith
- Race and Ethnic Studies Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Linda M Chatters
- School of Social Work, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Program for Research on Black Americans, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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