Childhood Socioeconomic Status and Stress in Late Adulthood: A Longitudinal Approach to Measuring Allostatic Load

Allostatic load and cognitive recall among young adults: Racial, ethnic, and sex-specific variations

INTRODUCTION

While factors such as age and education have been associated with persistent differences in functional cognitive decline, they do not fully explain observed variations particularly those between different racial/ethnic and sex groups. The aim of this study was to explore the association between allostatic load (AL) and cognition in a racially diverse cohort of young adults.

METHODS

Utilizing Wave V of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health - a nationally representative, longitudinal survey of adults aged 34-44, this study utilized primary data from 10 immune, cardiovascular, and metabolic biomarkers to derive an AL Index. Cognition was previously recorded through word and number recall scores. Regression analysis evaluated the association between cognitive recall, AL, age, sex, and race/ethnicity.

RESULTS

Regression results indicated statistically higher AL scores among Blacks (IRR = 1.09, CI = 1.01, 1.19) compared to Whites and lower AL score among females compared to males (IRR = 0.76, CI = 0.72, 0.81). At zero AL, Blacks (IRR = 1.2399, CI = 1.2398, 1.24) and Other races (IRR = 1.4523, CI = 1.452, 1.4525) had higher recall while Hispanics (IRR = 0.808, CI = 0.8079, 0.8081) had lower recall compared to Whites. Relative to males, females had higher number recall (IRR = 1.1976, CI = 1.1976, 1.1977). However, at higher, positive levels of AL, Blacks (IRR = 0.9554, CI = 0.9553, 0.9554), Other races (IRR = 0.9479, CI = 0.9479, 0.9479) and females (IRR = 0.9655, CI = 0.9655, 0.9655) had significantly lower number recall than Whites and males respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Race and sex differences were observed in recall at different levels of AL. Findings demonstrate the need for further exploration of cognition in young adults across diverse populations that includes examination of AL.

Race, Educational Attainment, and Sustained High Body Mass Index over 24 Years of Follow-up in Middle-Aged and Older Adults

BACKGROUND

Educational attainment has been linked to reduced risk of health problems such as obesity, but research suggests that this effect may be weaker for non-Hispanic Black individuals compared to non-Hispanic White individuals, a pattern known as minorities' diminished returns (MDRs).

OBJECTIVES

This study is aimed at examining the differential association between educational attainment and sustained high body mass index (BMI) among non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic White middle-aged and older adults in the USA.

METHODS

Using data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) spanning 1992-2016, we analyzed a national sample of 35,110 individuals, including 7766 non-Hispanic Black and 27,344 non-Hispanic White individuals. We used logistic regression models to examine the relationship between educational attainment, race, and sustained high BMI, while controlling for age, sex, and marital status at baseline.

RESULTS

Approximately 30.6% of the sample (n = 10,727) had sustained high BMI, while 69.4% (n = 24,383) had sustained low BMI over the period of follow-up. Higher levels of educational attainment were associated with a lower risk of sustained high BMI. We also found, however, that the protective effects of education against sustained high BMI were weaker for non-Hispanic Blacks compared to non-Hispanic Whites.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that the protective effects of educational attainment against sustained high BMI may be more robust for non-Hispanic Whites than for non-Hispanic Blacks. Further research should explore whether these results are found in other racial and ethnic minorities and whether potential life history experiences may contribute to these disparities.

Does it add up? Educational achievement mediates child maltreatment subtypes to allostatic load

BACKGROUND

Childhood maltreatment (CM) has been linked to higher levels of allostatic load (AL) and educational achievement is a possible pathway and may differ across gender. It is also critical to determine if CM severity or specific subtypes of CM are more or less influential.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined educational achievement as a mediator linking cumulative and individual types of CM to AL and examined gender as a moderator.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Using two waves of data, 897 adults from the study Midlife in the United States were analyzed.

METHODS

Multiple group structural equation models stratified across gender to test were used cumulative maltreatment and maltreatment subtypes to AL and test gender as a moderator.

RESULTS

Overall CM was associated with educational achievement (β = -0.12, p < .01) and AL (β = 0.11, p < .05) and education was inversely associated with AL (β = -0.17, p < .001) in men but not women. The subtypes model revealed that physical abuse predicted lower level of education achievement (β = -0.20, p < .001) and among men. Educational achievement, in turn, was associated with lower levels of AL (β = -0.02, p = .002). Educational achievement was a possible pathway linking physical abuse to AL (β = 0.02, 95 % CI [0.001, 0.040]) among men but was non-significant in women. Gender did not moderate any of the pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Educational achievement is a potentially modifiable social determinant of health that can be a focus of prevention and intervention efforts among men who were maltreated, particularly for those who experienced physical abuse.

Allostatic load and chronic pain: a prospective finding from the national survey of midlife development in the United States, 2004-2014

BACKGROUND

Previous research has demonstrated a correlation between chronic stress and chronic pain (CP). However, there have been few studies examining the prospective association of allostatic load (AL)-the biological processes related to stress-with CP.

METHODS

We firstly conducted latent class analysis to identify phenotypes of AL using a community-dwelling sample, the Midlife in the United States. Multinomial logistic regression models were used to examine the prospective association between phenotypes of AL at MIDUS 2 biomarker project and the presence of CP, CP interference and the number of CP sites at MIDUS 3.

RESULTS

Three phenotypes of AL, low biological dysregulation, parasympathetic dysregulation and metabolic dysregulation, were identified. Compared to low biological dysregulation group, participants experiencing metabolic dysregulation phenotype of AL at MIDUS 2 had higher risks of having high-interference CP (RRR = 2.00, 95% CI: 1.06, 3.79, P < 0.05) and 3 or more CP sites (RRR = 2.03, 95% CI: 1.08, 3.83, P < 0.05) at MIDUS 3.

CONCLUSION

The findings indicate that focusing on mitigating the metabolic dysfunction phenotype of AL has the potential to be an efficacious strategy for alleviating future CP bodily widespreadness and high CP interference.

Do compassion and self-compassion moderate the relationship between childhood socioeconomic position and adulthood body composition?

The study aims to investigate the associations of compassion and self-compassion with body composition, and whether adulthood compassion and self-compassion moderate the relationship between childhood SEP and adulthood body composition. The participants came from the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1986 Study (n = 789, 52.1% women), with a mean age of 34.0 years. Compassion and self-compassion were measured with the Dispositional Positive Emotions Scale and Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form, respectively. Body composition was assessed using anthropometric and body fat measurements at a clinic. Childhood SEP included parental occupation, education, and employment. The results showed that high compassion was associated with three out of the five body composition measurements, namely lower waist circumference (B = -0.960, p = 0.039, 95% CI: -1.870; -0.498), body fat percentage (B = -0.693, p = 0.030, 95% CI: -1.317; -0.069), and fat mass index (B = -0.325, p = 0.023, 95% CI: -0.605; -0.044) (adjusted for sex, and childhood and adulthood SEP) but not with body mass index or waist-to-hip ratio. Self-compassion was not associated with body composition. Neither compassion nor self-compassion moderated the association between childhood SEP and adulthood body composition, as the interaction effects were not significant. Therefore, the dispositions did not protect against the negative effects of childhood SEP on adulthood body composition. High other-directed compassion may be, however, associated with healthier body composition.

Social Support Coping for African American Adolescents: Effect of a Culturally Grounded Randomized Controlled Trial Intervention

The effect of the Adapted-Coping with Stress (A-CWS) intervention on social support coping was examined, using a randomized controlled trial design. The participants were 410 ninth-grade students (ages 14 to 16 years and mostly African American) living in low-resourced neighborhoods. Participants were randomly assigned 1:1 to either the A-CWS intervention or a standard care control condition. All participants were assessed at their schools before implementation of the intervention, at intervention completion, and again at 6- and 12-month post-intervention. Engagement in social support coping was examined in both intention-to-treat and treatment-as-received samples (i.e., intervention participants who attended at least 12 A-CWS treatment sessions and participants in the standard care control condition), using latent growth models. In intention-to-treat analyses, no significant treatment effects were identified. In treatment-as-received analyses, results revealed a significant association between social support coping and treatment condition; levels of social support coping decreased over time in the control condition, but they remained relatively stable in the treatment condition. The results indicate adequate intervention adherence and efficacy of the A-CWS to sustain social support coping within a sample of youth at high risk for stress exposure and associated disorders.Clinical Trial Registration: clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT0395445.

Midlife perceived stress is associated with cognitive decline across three decades

BACKGROUND

Research indicates detrimental effects of stress on brain health and cognitive functioning, but population-based studies using comprehensive measures of cognitive decline is lacking. The present study examined the association of midlife perceived stress with cognitive decline from young adulthood to late midlife, controlling for early life circumstances, education and trait stress (neuroticism).

METHODS

The sample consisted of 292 members of the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort (1959-1961) with continued participation in two subsequent follow-up studies. Cognitive ability was assessed in young adulthood (mean age 27 years) and midlife (mean age 56 years) using the full Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), and perceived stress was measured at midlife using the Perceived Stress Scale. The association of midlife perceived stress with decline in Verbal, Performance and Full-Scale IQ was assessed in multiple regression models based on Full Information Maximum Likelihood estimation.

RESULTS

Over a mean retest interval of 29 years, average decline in IQ score was 2.42 (SD 7.98) in Verbal IQ and 8.87 (SD 9.37) in Performance IQ. Mean decline in Full-scale IQ was 5.63 (SD 7.48), with a retest correlation of 0.83. Controlling for parental socio-economic position, education and young adult IQ, higher perceived stress at midlife was significantly associated with greater decline in Verbal (β = - 0.012), Performance (β = - 0.025), and Full-scale IQ (β = - 0.021), all p < .05. Across IQ scales, additionally controlling for neuroticism in young adulthood and change in neuroticism had only minor effects on the association of midlife perceived stress with decline.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite very high retest correlations, decline was observed on all WAIS IQ scales. In fully adjusted models, higher midlife perceived stress was associated with greater decline on all scales, indicating a negative association of stress with cognitive ability. The association was strongest for Performance and Full-scale IQ, perhaps reflecting the greater decline on these IQ scales compared to Verbal IQ.

Retrospective reports of socioeconomic disadvantage in childhood and mortality risk: are associations consistent across measures and sex?

Although prior research has established associations between childhood socioeconomic disadvantage and all-cause mortality, there is still limited research investigating (1) the consistency between subjective and objective reports of childhood socioeconomic status, (2) sex differences in the associations between childhood socioeconomic disadvantage and all-cause mortality, and (3) potential mediators within these associations. Drawing on data from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) cohort (N = 7425), we examined the associations between three distinct indicators of childhood socioeconomic disadvantage and all-cause mortality risk, and whether these associations differ for males and females. Among males only, lower perceived relative childhood financial status, lower levels of parents' education, and receipt of welfare during childhood were associated with excess mortality risk, adjusted for age and minority status, with adjusted hazard ratios ranging from 1.24 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02, 1.51) for perceived childhood financial status to 1.28 (95% CI: 1.11, 1.47) for welfare in childhood. When additionally adjusted for education, substance use, depression, and underlying health conditions, only childhood welfare status maintained an association with mortality (AHR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.02-1.35). Mediation analyses among males revealed that education, substance use, depression, and underlying health conditions accounted for substantial proportions of these associations, ranging from 31.03 to 57.63%, across indicators of childhood socioeconomic disadvantage. Future research is needed to clarify the developmental mechanisms that lead to sex differences and identify effective strategies to intervene on the relation between childhood socioeconomic position and excess mortality risk among males.

Discrimination, social support, and health-related quality of life among individuals with criminal records

Several studies have found an association between social identity-based discrimination and reduced physical health. Research also indicates that social support may sometimes protectively moderate this relationship. This study addresses the lack of sufficient research regarding these connections among individuals facing criminal record discrimination. The authors analyzed the responses of 168 people with felony records who completed a nationwide, online survey. While controlling for several other potentially impactful variables, the authors used regression analyses to explore the relationship between criminal record discrimination and reported healthy days per month and whether social support protectively moderated this relationship. There was a significant negative association between criminal record discrimination and healthy days among those with notably low social support. Meanwhile, moderate levels of social support appeared to protectively extinguish this relationship. This study suggests that social support may influence whether criminal record discrimination negatively impacts health.

Sex differences in autonomic responses to stress: implications for cardiometabolic physiology

Chronic stress is a significant risk factor for negative health outcomes. Furthermore, imbalance of autonomic nervous system control leads to dysregulation of physiological responses to stress and contributes to the pathogenesis of cardiometabolic and psychiatric disorders. However, research on autonomic stress responses has historically focused on males, despite evidence that females are disproportionality affected by stress-related disorders. Accordingly, this mini-review focuses on the influence of biological sex on autonomic responses to stress in humans and rodent models. The reviewed literature points to sex differences in the consequences of chronic stress, including cardiovascular and metabolic disease. We also explore basic rodent studies of sex-specific autonomic responses to stress with a focus on sex hormones and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis regulation of cardiovascular and metabolic physiology. Ultimately, emerging evidence of sex differences in autonomic-endocrine integration highlights the importance of sex-specific studies to understand and treat cardiometabolic dysfunction.

Psychological Factors That Suppress Help-Seeking among Middle-Aged and Older Adults Living Alone

Help-seeking among destitute adults has not been adequately investigated. Therefore, this study clarifies the mechanisms that suppress help-seeking in middle-aged and older adults living alone. Data were collected from 1274 individuals (aged 50-79 years) who were living alone, using a survey that measured future time perspective, barriers to help-seeking, help-seeking intentions, and current and childhood economic statuses. Men living alone experienced lower help-seeking intention than women, were more likely to try to solve problems by themselves, and experienced greater distrust in others. No sex differences were observed in "future anxiety" and "resignation to the future." Poor economic status was associated with high "resignation to the future," "future anxiety," and "distrust of others" for both sexes. "Resignation to the future" was particularly higher among men with a poorer current economic status, which suppressed help-seeking. Abandoning hope for the future, which is characteristic of middle-aged and older men living alone, may inhibit help-seeking behavior.

Potential Socioeconomic Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Neural Development, Mental Health, and K-12 Educational Achievement

The Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic can affect more than a child's biological health. Lack of in-person schooling and increased stress can affect neurodevelopment, mental health, and later life outcomes, especially for students who are from low socioeconomic status (SES) households. Insights from neuroscience on child development reveal potential neural mechanisms and educational outcomes likely disrupted by the pandemic-and how this will disproportionally affect low-SES children. Three policies can combat these educational and emotional effects: increased access to online resources, investments in social-emotional health, and increased access to summer/out-of-school learning. Integrating the traditionally separate fields of neuroscience and educational research will be critical for developing and assessing the most impactful policies to improve the well-being and educational achievement of our most disadvantaged children.

Skin Tone, Discrimination, and Allostatic Load in Middle-Aged and Older Puerto Ricans

OBJECTIVE

A growing body of research suggests that skin tone may be a health risk indicator for Hispanics. Black and darker-skinned Hispanics have worse mental and physical outcomes than White and lighter-skinned Hispanics. Discrimination exposure has been implicated as a risk factor that may explain the association between skin tone and health. However, there is scant research examining the interrelationship between skin tone, discrimination, and health, particularly among Puerto Ricans. We examine the interrelationships between two measures of skin tone, two measures of discrimination, and allostatic load (AL) among Puerto Rican adults.

METHODS

Using cross-sectional data from wave 3 of the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study (n = 882), we examined the indirect association (IA) of skin tone on physiological dysregulated systems, also known as AL, through major discrimination and everyday discrimination. We tested these associations using two distinct measures of skin tone: interviewer-ascribed skin tone and spectrophotometer-measured skin tone.

RESULTS

Interviewer-ascribed skin tone was indirectly associated with AL through major discrimination (IA = 0.03, 95% confidence interval = 0.004 to 0.06). However, there was no evidence of an IA of interviewer-ascribed skin tone on AL through everyday discrimination (IA = -0.01, 95% confidence interval = -0.03 to 0.01). In addition, there was no evidence that spectrophotometer-measured skin tone was indirectly associated with AL through major discrimination or everyday discrimination.

CONCLUSIONS

The sociocultural significance of skin tone may affect how Puerto Ricans are perceived and treated by others, which can, in turn, have physiological health consequences. Future research is needed to replicate these findings and examine the interrelationship between skin tone, discrimination, and other health outcomes.

Social status differences in allostatic load among young adults in the United States

Allostatic load refers to wear and tear on the body due to repeated activation of the stress response and, thus, may be an early subclinical indicator of future disease and mortality risk. To date, few studies of allostatic load have focused on young adults, racial/ethnic comparisons that include Mexican Americans, or the interplay between race/ethnicity, gender, and educational attainment. To fill these gaps, we used data on non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic White, and Mexican-origin respondents from Waves I (1994-1995) and IV (2007-2008) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health; N = 11,807). We calculated allostatic load scores based on respondents' values for 10 metabolic, cardiovascular, and inflammatory biomarkers measured at Wave IV, when respondents were 24-34 years old. We then used negative binomial regression models to assess the combined effects of race/ethnicity, gender, and educational attainment on allostatic load, while controlling for key covariates. We found that Black women had significantly higher allostatic load scores than White women and Black men, net of educational attainment and other covariates. Yet, education modified the relationship between race/ethnicity, gender, and allostatic load. Obtaining a college education was protective for White males and females but no more or less protective for other women and deleterious for Black males. In other words, by the time they reach young adulthood, the cumulative physiological burden of stress on Black women and college-educated Black men is already greater than it is among their similarly or less educated White counterparts. These findings provide important information about the intermediate physiological dysregulation that underlies social inequalities in stress-related health outcomes, especially those that occur at the intersections of race/ethnicity, gender, and educational attainment. They also suggest that research on its antecedents should focus on earlier life periods.

Socioeconomic Mobility and Psychological and Cognitive Functioning in a Diverse Sample of Adults With and Without HIV

OBJECTIVE

This cross-sectional study examined the effects of socioeconomic status (SES) mobility from childhood to adulthood on psychological and cognitive well-being in African American and non-Hispanic White HIV-positive (HIV+) and HIV-seronegative (HIV-) adults who are part of an ongoing study investigating psychosocial and neurobehavioral effects of HIV.

METHODS

Participants (N = 174, 24.1% female, 59.2% African American, 67.8% HIV+) were categorized into four groups (upward mobility, downward mobility, stable-not-poor, chronic-poverty) based on self-reported childhood and current community SES (which were correlated with objective measures of SES and proxies of childhood SES). SES groups were compared on self-report measures of psychological well-being, subjective executive functioning ratings, and performance across six cognitive domains. Primary analyses were stratified by HIV status.

RESULTS

For the HIV+ group, SES mobility was associated with psychological well-being (chronic burden of stress: F(7,101) = 3.17, mean squared error [MSE] = 49.42, p = .030, η2 = 0.14; depressive symptoms: F(7,101) = 4.46, MSE = 70.49, p = .006,η2 = 0.14), subjective ratings of executive dysfunction (F(7,101) = 6.11, MSE = 114.29, p = .001,η2 = 0.18), and objective performance in executive functioning (F(9,99) = 3.22, MSE = 249.52, p = .030, η2 = 0.15) and learning (F(9,99) = 3.01, MSE = 220.52, p = .034, η2 = 0.13). In the control group, SES mobility was associated with chronic stress burden (F(5,49) = 4.677, p = .025, η2 = 0.15); however, no other relationships between SES mobility and outcomes of interest were observed (all p values > .20). In general, downward mobility and chronic poverty were associated with worse ratings across psychological well-being measures and cognitive performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings within the HIV+ group are consistent with previous studies that report downward mobility to be associated with poor psychological outcomes. People living with HIV may be particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of socioeconomic instability.

Addressing educational inequalities and promoting learning through studies of stress physiology in elementary school students

To be ready to learn, children need to be focused, engaged, and able to bounce back from setbacks. However, many children come to school with heightened or diminished physiological arousal due to exposure to poverty-related risks. While stress physiology plays a role in explaining how adversity relates to processes that support students' cognitive development, there is a lack of studies of physiological stress response in educational settings. This review integrates relevant studies and offers future directions for research on the role of stress physiology in the school adaptation of elementary school students, focusing on these important questions: (a) What are the links between physiological stress response and learning-related skills and behaviors, and do they vary as a function of proximal and distal experiences outside of school? (b) How are school experiences associated with students' physiological stress response and related cognitive and behavioral adaptations? (c) How can we leverage measures of students' physiological stress response in evaluations of school-based interventions to better support the school success of every student? We hope to stimulate a new wave of research that will advance the science of developmental stress physiology, as well as improve the application of these findings in educational policy and practice.

Family Socioeconomic Status and Social Media Addiction in Female College Students: The Mediating Role of Impulsiveness and Inhibitory Control

There is increasing evidence that low family socioeconomic status (SES) not only is a social issue, but also is a precursor to addiction to social media and other technologies. The authors investigated the relationship between family SES, stress, impulsiveness and inhibitory control, and social media addiction among Chinese female college students. The findings revealed that in lower-SES families, increased social media addiction was associated with reduced inhibitory control and increased stress and impulsiveness. A structural equation model was used to examine the mediation model hypothesis, and the results confirmed the mediating role of no-planning impulsiveness and inhibitory control between family educational level and social media addiction among Chinese female college students. These findings demonstrate the importance of reducing impulsiveness and improving inhibitory control for preventing social media addiction in female college students of low SES. Future studies are required to confirm precursors to social media addiction, elucidate causal mechanisms, and support the explanatory model of social media addiction.

Association of Allostatic Load with All-Cause andCancer Mortality by Race and Body Mass Index in theREGARDS Cohort

Among 29,701 Black and White participants aged 45 years and older in the Reasons for Geographic and Racial Difference in Stroke (REGARDS) study, allostatic load (AL) was defined as the sum score of established baseline risk-associated biomarkers for which participants exceeded a set cutoff point. Cox proportional hazard regression was utilized to determine the association of AL score with all-cause and cancer-specific mortality, with analyses stratified by body-mass index, age group, and race. At baseline, Blacks had a higher AL score compared with Whites (Black mean AL score: 2.42, SD: 1.50; White mean AL score: 1.99, SD: 1.39; p < 0.001). Over the follow-up period, there were 4622 all-cause and 1237 cancer-specific deaths observed. Every unit increase in baseline AL score was associated with a 24% higher risk of all-cause (HR: 1.24, 95% CI: 1.22, 1.27) and a 7% higher risk of cancer-specific mortality (HR: 1.07, 95% CI: 1.03, 1.12). The association of AL with overall- and cancer-specific mortality was similar among Blacks and Whites and across age-groups, however the risk of cancer-specific mortality was higher among normal BMI than overweight or obese participants. In conclusion, a higher baseline AL score was associated with increased risk of all-cause and cancer-specific mortality among both Black and White participants. Targeted interventions to patient groups with higher AL scores, regardless of race, may be beneficial as a strategy to reduce all-cause and cancer-specific mortality.

Environmental exposures, stem cells, and cancer

An estimated 70-90% of all cancers are linked to exposure to environmental risk factors. In parallel, the number of stem cells in a tissue has been shown to be a strong predictor of risk of developing cancer in that tissue. Tumors themselves are characterized by an acquisition of "stem cell" characteristics, and a growing body of evidence points to tumors themselves being sustained and propagated by a stem cell-like population. Here, we review our understanding of the interplay between environmental exposures, stem cell biology, and cancer. We provide an overview of the role of stem cells in development, tissue homeostasis, and wound repair. We discuss the pathways and mechanisms governing stem cell plasticity and regulation of the stem cell state, and describe experimental methods for assessment of stem cells. We then review the current understanding of how environmental exposures impact stem cell function relevant to carcinogenesis and cancer prevention, with a focus on environmental and occupational exposures to chemical, physical, and biological hazards. We also highlight key areas for future research in this area, including defining whether the biological basis for cancer disparities is related to effects of complex exposure mixtures on stem cell biology.

Objective and subjective stress, personality, and allostatic load

INTRODUCTION

Despite the understanding of allostatic load (AL) as a consequence of ongoing adaptation to stress, studies of the stress-AL association generally focus on a narrow conceptualization of stress and have thus far overlooked potential confounding by personality. The present study examined the cross-sectional association of objective and subjective stress with AL, controlling for Big Five personality traits.

METHODS

Participants comprised 5,512 members of the Copenhagen Aging and Midlife Biobank aged 49-63 years (69% men). AL was measured as a summary index of 14 biomarkers of the inflammatory, cardiovascular, and metabolic system. Objective stress was assessed as self-reported major life events in adult life. Subjective stress was assessed as perceived stress within the past four weeks.

RESULTS

Both stress measures were positively associated with AL, with a slightly stronger association for objective stress. Adjusting for personality traits did not significantly change these associations.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest measures of objective and subjective stress to have independent predictive validity in the context of personality. Further, it is discussed how different operationalizations of stress and AL may account for some of the differences in observed stress-AL associations.

The Association Between Perceived Discrimination and Allostatic Load in the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study

OBJECTIVE

Perceived discrimination is a risk factor for poor health among ethnic and racial minority groups. However, few studies have examined the association between major lifetime and everyday perceived discrimination and allostatic load (AL), a preclinical indicator of disease. We examine the association between two measures of discrimination and AL among Puerto Rican adults.

METHODS

Using primarily wave 3 data from the longitudinal Boston Puerto Rican Health Study, we examined the association between major lifetime and everyday perceived discrimination and AL (multisystem dysregulation of 11 physiological components) among Puerto Rican adults residing in the Boston metro area (N = 882). Five models were tested using multivariable regression. The final model adjusted for demographic factors, migration factors, socioeconomic status and work history, health behaviors/risk factors, and depressive symptom.

RESULTS

Respondents had a M (SD) AL score of 5.11 (1.76; range = 0-11). They had an average score of 0.21 (0.42) for major lifetime perceived discrimination (0-3) and 0.29 (0.49) for everyday perceived discrimination (0-3). In a fully adjusted model, major lifetime perceived discrimination was associated with greater AL (b = 0.56; 95% CI = 0.19 to 0.92), whereas greater everyday perceived discrimination was marginally, but not significantly, associated with lower AL (b = -0.42; 95% CI = -0.87 to 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Perceived discrimination remains a common stressor and may be a determinant of AL for Puerto Ricans, although the type of perceived discrimination may have differing effects. Further research is needed to better understand the ways in which major lifetime and everyday perceived discrimination operate to effect physiological systems among Puerto Ricans.

Parental socioeconomic position and midlife allostatic load: a study of potential mediators

BACKGROUND

The mechanisms underlying the association of parental socioeconomic position with later life allostatic load remain unclear. The present study aims to examine potential pathways underlying this association: personality, social relations, intelligence and education.

METHODS

The study comprised 361 members of the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort who participated in two subsequent follow-ups: the Prenatal Development Project (mean age 27 years) and the Copenhagen Aging and Midlife Biobank study (mean age 50 years). Allostatic load was based on 14 biomarkers representing the inflammatory, metabolic and cardiovascular system measured at midlife. Information on potential mediators was collected in young adulthood, and their role in the association of parental socioeconomic position with midlife allostatic load were examined in linear regression path analyses.

RESULTS

Parental socioeconomic position at one year was inversely associated with midlife allostatic load (β = - 0.238, p < .001). No mediation effects were found for personality or social relations. In a model including intelligence and education, a significant indirect effect was found for education (β = - 0.151, p < .001). A significant direct effect remained (β = - 0.111, p = .040).

CONCLUSIONS

Parental socioeconomic position was inversely associated with allostatic load in midlife. Results suggest that part of this association was mediated by education. A better understanding of the non-cognitive pathways related to education is an important prerequisite for the development of effective intervention strategies.