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Buka RJ, Pavord S. Anti-platelet factor 4 immunothrombotic syndromes. Br J Haematol 2024. [PMID: 39058578 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.19663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Anti-platelet factor 4 immunothrombotic syndromes comprise a group of disorders that include heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and vaccine-induced immune thrombocytopenia and thrombosis. These are highly prothrombotic, immunological disorders characterised by specific clinical and pathological criteria which include thrombocytopenia and thrombosis. While they are predominantly triggered by heparin and the adenoviral vector vaccines, respectively, other provoking factors have been described, as well as spontaneous forms. The unexplained co-occurrence of thrombocytopenia with thrombosis should raise suspicion and prompt testing. This nutshell review discusses the pathophysiology, presenting features and diagnostic criteria for these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Buka
- Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Sue Pavord
- Department of Haematology, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, UK
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2
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Li N, Hao R, Ren P, Wang J, Dong J, Ye T, Zhao D, Qiao X, Meng Z, Gan H, Liu S, Sun Y, Dou G, Gu R. Glycosaminoglycans: Participants in Microvascular Coagulation of Sepsis. Thromb Haemost 2024; 124:599-612. [PMID: 38242171 PMCID: PMC11199054 DOI: 10.1055/a-2250-3166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2024]
Abstract
Sepsis represents a syndromic response to infection and frequently acts as a common pathway leading to fatality in the context of various infectious diseases globally. The pathology of severe sepsis is marked by an excess of inflammation and activated coagulation. A substantial contributor to mortality in sepsis patients is widespread microvascular thrombosis-induced organ dysfunction. Multiple lines of evidence support the notion that sepsis induces endothelial damage, leading to the release of glycosaminoglycans, potentially causing microvascular dysfunction. This review aims to initially elucidate the relationship among endothelial damage, excessive inflammation, and thrombosis in sepsis. Following this, we present a summary of the involvement of glycosaminoglycans in coagulation, elucidating interactions among glycosaminoglycans, platelets, and inflammatory cells. In this section, we also introduce a reasoned generalization of potential signal pathways wherein glycosaminoglycans play a role in clotting. Finally, we discuss current methods for detecting microvascular conditions in sepsis patients from the perspective of glycosaminoglycans. In conclusion, it is imperative to pay closer attention to the role of glycosaminoglycans in the mechanism of microvascular thrombosis in sepsis. Dynamically assessing glycosaminoglycan levels in patients may aid in predicting microvascular conditions, enabling the monitoring of disease progression, adjustment of clinical treatment schemes, and mitigation of both acute and long-term adverse outcomes associated with sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanxi Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Ruolin Hao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Peng Ren
- Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Jingya Wang
- Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Jiahui Dong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Tong Ye
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Danyang Zhao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Xuan Qiao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Zhiyun Meng
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Hui Gan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Shuchen Liu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Yunbo Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Guifang Dou
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, People Republic of China
| | - Ruolan Gu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, Beijing, People Republic of China
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3
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Schönborn L, Pavord S, Chen VMY, Pai M, Gwarzo DH, Buttery J, Munoz FM, Tran H, Greinacher A, Law B. Thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS) and vaccine-induced immune thrombocytopenia and thrombosis (VITT): Brighton Collaboration case definitions and guidelines for data collection, analysis, and presentation of immunisation safety data. Vaccine 2024; 42:1799-1811. [PMID: 38302339 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.01.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
This is a revision of the online November 2021 Brighton thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS) case definition and a new Brighton Collaboration case definition for vaccine-induced immune thrombocytopenia and thrombosis (VITT). These case definitions are intended for use in clinical trials and post-licensure pharmacovigilance activities to facilitate safety data comparability across multiple settings. They are not intended to guide clinical management. The case definitions were developed by a group of subject matter and Brighton Collaboration process experts as part of the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI)-funded Safety Platform for Evaluation of vACcines (SPEAC). The case definitions, each with defined levels of diagnostic certainty, are based on relevant published evidence and expert consensus and are accompanied by specific guidelines for TTS and VITT data collection and analysis. The document underwent peer review by a reference group of vaccine safety stakeholders and haematology experts to ensure case definition useability, applicability and scientific integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Schönborn
- University Medicine Greifswald, Institute for Transfusion Medicine, Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Sue Pavord
- Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, UK.
| | - Vivien Mun Yee Chen
- Department of Haematology, Concord Repatriation General Hospital and NSW Health Pathology, Concord, NSW, Australia; ANZAC Research Institute, Concord, NSW, Australia; Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Concord, NSW, Australia.
| | - Menaka Pai
- Hamilton Regional Laboratory Medicine Program, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Dalha Haliru Gwarzo
- Institution: Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria; Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Kano, Nigeria.
| | - Jim Buttery
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Flor M Munoz
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, and Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Huyen Tran
- Clinical Haematology Department, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Andreas Greinacher
- University Medicine Greifswald, Institute for Transfusion Medicine, Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Barbara Law
- SPEAC, Brighton Collaboration, Independent Consultant, Stratford, Ontario, Canada.
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Zhang Y, Bissola AL, Treverton J, Hack M, Lychacz M, Kwok S, Arnold A, Nazy I. Vaccine-Induced Immune Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia: Clinicopathologic Features and New Perspectives on Anti-PF4 Antibody-Mediated Disorders. J Clin Med 2024; 13:1012. [PMID: 38398325 PMCID: PMC10889051 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13041012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT) is a rare yet severe adverse complication first identified during the global vaccination effort against SARS-CoV-2 infection, predominantly observed following administration of the ChAdOx1-S (Oxford-AstraZeneca) and Ad26.CoV2.S (Johnson & Johnson/Janssen) adenoviral vector-based vaccines. Unlike other anti-platelet factor 4 (PF4) antibody-mediated disorders, such as heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), VITT arises with the development of platelet-activating anti-PF4 antibodies 4-42 days post-vaccination, typically featuring thrombocytopenia and thrombosis at unusual sites. AIM To explore the unique properties, pathogenic mechanisms, and long-term persistence of VITT antibodies in patients, in comparison with other anti-PF4 antibody-mediated disorders. DISCUSSION This review highlights the complexity of VITT as it differs in antibody behavior and clinical presentation from other anti-PF4-mediated disorders, including the high incidence rate of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) and the persistence of anti-PF4 antibodies, necessitating a re-evaluation of long-term patient care strategies. The nature of VITT antibodies and the underlying mechanisms triggering their production remain largely unknown. CONCLUSION The rise in awareness and subsequent prompt recognition of VITT is paramount in reducing mortality. As vaccination campaigns continue, understanding the role of adenoviral vector-based vaccines in VITT antibody production is crucial, not only for its immediate clinical implications, but also for developing safer vaccines in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (Y.Z.); (J.T.); (M.H.); (S.K.)
- Michael G. DeGroote Centre for Transfusion Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (A.-L.B.); (M.L.)
| | - Anna-Lise Bissola
- Michael G. DeGroote Centre for Transfusion Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (A.-L.B.); (M.L.)
- Department of Medicine, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Jared Treverton
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (Y.Z.); (J.T.); (M.H.); (S.K.)
- Michael G. DeGroote Centre for Transfusion Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (A.-L.B.); (M.L.)
| | - Michael Hack
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (Y.Z.); (J.T.); (M.H.); (S.K.)
- Michael G. DeGroote Centre for Transfusion Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (A.-L.B.); (M.L.)
| | - Mark Lychacz
- Michael G. DeGroote Centre for Transfusion Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (A.-L.B.); (M.L.)
- Department of Medicine, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Sarah Kwok
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (Y.Z.); (J.T.); (M.H.); (S.K.)
- Michael G. DeGroote Centre for Transfusion Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (A.-L.B.); (M.L.)
| | - Addi Arnold
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Western University, London, ON N6A 5A5, Canada;
| | - Ishac Nazy
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (Y.Z.); (J.T.); (M.H.); (S.K.)
- Michael G. DeGroote Centre for Transfusion Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (A.-L.B.); (M.L.)
- Department of Medicine, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
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Schönborn L, Esteban O, Wesche J, Dobosz P, Broto M, Puig SR, Fuhrmann J, Torres R, Serra J, Llevadot R, Palicio M, Wang JJ, Gordon TP, Lindhoff-Last E, Hoffmann T, Alberio L, Langer F, Boehme C, Biguzzi E, Grosse L, Endres M, Liman T, Thiele T, Warkentin TE, Greinacher A. Anti-PF4 immunothrombosis without proximate heparin or adenovirus vector vaccine exposure. Blood 2023; 142:2305-2314. [PMID: 37883798 PMCID: PMC10862238 DOI: 10.1182/blood.2023022136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Platelet-activating anti-platelet factor 4 (PF4)/heparin antibodies and anti-PF4 antibodies cause heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) and vaccine-induced immune thrombocytopenia and thrombosis (VITT), respectively. Diagnostic and treatment considerations differ somewhat between HIT and VITT. We identified patients with thrombocytopenia and thrombosis without proximate heparin exposure or adenovirus-based vaccination who tested strongly positive by PF4/polyanion enzyme-immunoassays and negative/weakly positive by heparin-induced platelet activation (HIPA) test but strongly positive by PF4-induced platelet activation (PIPA) test (ie, VITT-like profile). We tested these patients by a standard chemiluminescence assay that detects anti-PF4/heparin antibodies found in HIT (HemosIL AcuStar HIT-IgG(PF4-H)) as well as a novel chemiluminescence assay for anti-PF4 antibodies found in VITT. Representative control sera included an exploratory anti-PF4 antibody-positive but HIPA-negative/weak cohort obtained before 2020 (n = 188). We identified 9 patients with a clinical-pathological profile of a VITT-like disorder in the absence of proximate heparin or vaccination, with a high frequency of stroke (arterial, n = 3; cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, n = 4), thrombocytopenia (median platelet count nadir, 49 × 109/L), and hypercoagulability (greatly elevated D-dimer levels). VITT-like serological features included strong reactivity by PIPA (aggregation <10 minutes in 9/9 sera) and positive testing in the novel anti-PF4 chemiluminescence assay (3/9 also tested positive in the anti-PF4/heparin chemiluminescence assay). Our exploratory cohort identified 13 additional patient sera obtained before 2020 with VITT-like anti-PF4 antibodies. Platelet-activating VITT-like anti-PF4 antibodies should be considered in patients with thrombocytopenia, thrombosis, and very high D-dimer levels, even without a proximate exposure to heparin or adenovirus vector vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Schönborn
- Institut für Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | | | - Jan Wesche
- Institut für Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Jessica Fuhrmann
- Institut für Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | - Jing Jing Wang
- Department of Immunology, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University and SA Pathology, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
| | - Tom Paul Gordon
- Department of Immunology, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University and SA Pathology, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
| | - Edelgard Lindhoff-Last
- Cardioangiology Center Bethanien Hospital, CCB Coagulation Center and CCB Coagulation Research Center, Frankfurt, Hessen, Germany
| | - Till Hoffmann
- Institute for Transplantation Diagnostics and Cell Therapeutics, University Hospital Duesseldorf, Medical Faculty, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Lorenzo Alberio
- Service and Central Laboratory of Hematology, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Florian Langer
- Zentrum für Onkologie, II. Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik, Universitätsklinikum Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christian Boehme
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Eugenia Biguzzi
- Clinic of Hematology, Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland, Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Leonie Grosse
- Department of Pediatrics, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich, Germany
| | - Matthias Endres
- Department of Neurology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen, Partner site Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Herz-Kreislauf-Forschung, Partner site Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Liman
- Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen, Partner site Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Neurology, Evangelical Hospital Oldenburg, Carl von Ossietzky University, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Thiele
- Institut für Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsmedizin Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Theodore E. Warkentin
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine and Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Andreas Greinacher
- Institut für Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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Ngo ATP, Bochenek V, Gollomp K. The immunology of PF4 polyanion interactions. Curr Opin Hematol 2023; 30:219-229. [PMID: 37603711 DOI: 10.1097/moh.0000000000000782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Platelet factor 4 (PF4, CXCL4), the most abundant α-granule platelet-specific chemokine, forms tetramers with an equatorial ring of high positive charge that bind to a wide range of polyanions, after which it changes conformation to expose antigenic epitopes. Antibodies directed against PF4 not only help to clear infection but can also lead to the development of thrombotic disorders such as heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) and vaccine-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis (VITT). This review will outline the different mechanisms through which PF4 engagement with polyanions combats infection but also contributes to the pathogenesis of inflammatory and thrombotic disease states. RECENT FINDINGS Recent work has shown that PF4 binding to microbial polyanions may improve outcomes in infection by enhancing leukocyte-bacterial binding, tethering pathogens to neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), decreasing the thrombotic potential of NET DNA, and modulating viral infectivity. However, PF4 binding to nucleic acids may enhance their recognition by innate immune receptors, leading to autoinflammation. Lastly, while HIT is induced by platelet activating antibodies that bind to PF4/polyanion complexes, VITT, which occurs in a small subset of patients treated with COVID-19 adenovirus vector vaccines, is characterized by prothrombotic antibodies that bind to PF4 alone. SUMMARY Investigating the complex interplay of PF4 and polyanions may provide insights relevant to the treatment of infectious disease while also improving our understanding of the pathogenesis of thrombotic disorders driven by anti-PF4/polyanion and anti-PF4 antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anh T P Ngo
- Division of Hematology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia
| | | | - Kandace Gollomp
- Division of Hematology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia
- Department of Pediatrics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Lamprinou M, Sachinidis A, Stamoula E, Vavilis T, Papazisis G. COVID-19 vaccines adverse events: potential molecular mechanisms. Immunol Res 2023; 71:356-372. [PMID: 36607502 PMCID: PMC9821369 DOI: 10.1007/s12026-023-09357-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by a single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) virus, known as SARS-CoV-2. The disease, since its first outbreak in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, has led to a global pandemic. The pharmaceutical industry has developed several vaccines, of different vector technologies, against the virus. Of note, among these vaccines, seven have been fully approved by WHO. However, despite the benefits of COVID-19 vaccination, some rare adverse effects have been reported and have been associated with the use of the vaccines developed against SARS-CoV-2, especially those based on mRNA and non-replicating viral vector technology. Rare adverse events reported include allergic and anaphylactic reactions, thrombosis and thrombocytopenia, myocarditis, Bell's palsy, transient myelitis, Guillen-Barre syndrome, recurrences of herpes-zoster, autoimmunity flares, epilepsy, and tachycardia. In this review, we discuss the potential molecular mechanisms leading to these rare adverse events of interest and we also attempt an association with the various vaccine components and platforms. A better understanding of the underlying mechanisms, according to which the vaccines cause side effects, in conjunction with the identification of the vaccine components and/or platforms that are responsible for these reactions, in terms of pharmacovigilance, could probably enable the improvement of future vaccines against COVID-19 and/or even other pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malamatenia Lamprinou
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, 54124 Greece
| | - Athanasios Sachinidis
- 4th Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Hippokration General Hospital of Thessaloniki, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Eleni Stamoula
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, 54124 Greece
| | - Theofanis Vavilis
- Laboratory of Medical Biology and Genetics, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece ,Department of Dentistry, School of Medicine, European University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Georgios Papazisis
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, 54124 Greece ,Clinical Research Unit, Special Unit for Biomedical Research and Education (SUBRE), School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Salih F, Schönborn L, Endres M, Greinacher A. Immunvermittelte Sinus- und Hirnvenenthrombosen: VITT und
prä-VITT als Modellerkrankung. AKTUEL RHEUMATOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1055/a-1936-3123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
ZusammenfassungIn diesem Übersichtsartikel beschreiben wir die klinischen und
paraklinischen Charakteristika der Vakzin-induzierten immunthrombotischen
Thrombozytopenie (VITT) und fassen den gegenwärtigen Kenntnisstand zur
Pathogenese zusammen. Bei der VITT bilden sich 5–20 Tage nach einer
Impfung mit einem Adenovirus-vektorbasiertem SARS-CoV-2-Vakzin (AstraZeneca oder
Johnson & Johnson) lebensbedrohliche Thrombosen aus, vor allem in den
zerebralen Sinus und Hirnvenen. Laborchemisch zeigt sich eine typische
Thrombozytopenie mit erhöhten D-Dimeren. Der Pathogenese liegen
immunologische Prozesse zugrunde, die Ähnlichkeiten mit der
Heparin-induzierten Thrombozytopenie aufweisen: so geht die VITT mit
hochtitrigem Immunoglobulin G gegen das thrombozytäre Protein
Plättchenfaktor 4 (PF4) einher. Durch die Interaktion mit dem Impfstoff
wird PF4 so verändert, dass es von Antikörper-produzierenden
Zellen des Immunsystems erkannt wird. Die so produzierten
Anti-PF4-Antikörper führen über thrombozytäre
FcγIIa-Rezeptoren zu einer Plättchenaktivierung. Der Nachweis
plättchenaktivierender Anti-PF4-Antikörper bestätigt die
Diagnose einer VITT. Antikoagulanzien, die die Bildung von Thrombin oder
Thrombin selbst blockieren und hochdosiertes i. v.-Immunglobulin G, das
die Fcγ-Rezeptor-vermittelte Zellaktivierung inhibiert, stellen die
wirksame und kausale Behandlung der VITT dar. Bei Patienten mit katastrophalem
Verlauf kann ein Plasmaaustausch versucht werden. Bei einigen Patienten ist ein
prä-VITT Syndrom als Prodromalstadium zu beoachten, das sich
typischerweise mit Kopfschmerzen manifestieren kann und dessen frühe
Behandlung hilft, thrombotische Komplikationen zu vermeiden. Die spezifische
Dynamik der VITT-assozierten Immunreaktion entspricht einer transienten,
sekundären Immunantwort. Aktuelle Studien gehen der Frage nach, wie PF4
an unterschiedliche adenovirale Proteine bindet und beleuchten die Rolle von
anderen Impfstoff-Bestandteilen als potentielle Liganden für die
PF4-Bindung. Einige dieser Faktoren sind auch an der Etablierung eines
proinflammatorischen Milieus („danger signal“) beteiligt, das
unmittelbar nach der Impfung die 1. Phase der VITT-Pathogenese triggert. Sobald
in der 2. Phase der VITT-Pathogenese hohe Titer von Anti-PF4-Antikörper
gebildet sind, aktivieren diese neben Thrombozyten auch Granulozyten. In einem
als NETose (von „neutrophil extracellular traps“) bezeichneten
Prozess setzen aktivierte Granulozyten dabei DNA frei, mit der PF4 weitere
Komplexe bildet, an die Anti-PF4-Antikörper binden. Dies
verstärkt die Fcγ-Rezeptor-vermittelte Zellaktivierung weiter
mit der Folge einer ausgeprägten Thrombin-Bildung. Zum Ende des Artikels
geben wir einen Ausblick, welchen Einfluss die bisherigen Erkenntnisse zur VITT
auf weitere globale Impfkampagnen gegen SARS-CoV-2 haben und beleuchten, wie
Anti-PF4-Antikörper jenseits von VITT und HIT auch eine Rolle bei
seltenen Erkrankungen spielen, die mit rezidivierenden venösen und
arteriellen Thrombosen einhergehen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farid Salih
- Klinik für Neurologie mit Experimenteller Neurologie,
Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin,
Germany
| | - Linda Schönborn
- Institut für Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsmedizin
Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Matthias Endres
- Klinik für Neurologie mit Experimenteller Neurologie,
Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin,
Germany
| | - Andreas Greinacher
- Institut für Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsmedizin
Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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Marietta M, Coluccio V, Luppi M. Potential mechanisms of vaccine-induced thrombosis. Eur J Intern Med 2022; 105:1-7. [PMID: 35953336 PMCID: PMC9359676 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejim.2022.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Vaccine-induced immune thrombocytopenia and thrombosis (VITT) is a rare syndrome characterized by high-titer anti-platelet factor 4 (PF4) antibodies, thrombocytopenia and arterial and venous thrombosis in unusual sites, as cerebral venous sinuses and splanchnic veins. VITT has been described to occur almost exclusively after administration of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 and Ad26.COV2.S adenovirus vector- based COVID-19 vaccines. Clinical and laboratory features of VITT resemble those of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). It has been hypothesized that negatively charged polyadenylated hexone proteins of the AdV vectors could act as heparin to induce the conformational changes of PF4 molecule that lead to the formation of anti-PF4/polyanion antibodies. The anti-PF4 immune response in VITT is fostered by the presence of a proinflammatory milieu, elicited by some impurities found in ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine, as well as by soluble spike protein resulting from alternative splice events. Anti-PF4 antibodies bind PF4, forming immune complexes which activate platelets, monocytes and granulocytes, resulting in the VITT's immunothrombosis. The reason why only a tiny minority of patents receiving AdV-based COVID-19 vaccines develop VITT is still unknown. It has been hypothesized that individual intrinsic factors, either acquired (i.e., pre-priming of B cells to produce anti-PF4 antibodies by previous contacts with bacteria or viruses) or inherited (i.e., differences in platelet T-cell ubiquitin ligand-2 [TULA-2] expression) can predispose a few subjects to develop VITT. A better knowledge of the mechanistic basis of VITT is essential to improve the safety and the effectiveness of future vaccines and gene therapies using adenovirus vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Marietta
- Hematology Unit, Azienda Ospedaliero- Universitaria, Modena, Italy.
| | - Valeria Coluccio
- Hematology Unit, Azienda Ospedaliero- Universitaria, Modena, Italy
| | - Mario Luppi
- Hematology Unit, Azienda Ospedaliero- Universitaria, Modena, Italy; Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Section of Hematology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
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10
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Williams DW, Ho K, Lenon A, Kim S, Kim T, Gwack Y, Kim RH. Long-Term Ligature-Induced Periodontitis Exacerbates Development of Bisphosphonate-Related Osteonecrosis of the Jaw in Mice. J Bone Miner Res 2022; 37:1400-1410. [PMID: 35598324 PMCID: PMC9386631 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.4614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Bisphosphonate-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (BRONJ) is a detrimental intraoral lesion that occurs in patients with long-term or high-dose use of anti-resorptive agents such as bisphosphonates. Tooth extraction is a known risk factor for BRONJ, and such intervention is often performed to eliminate existing pathological inflammatory conditions. Previously, we determined that ligature-induced periodontitis (LIP) is a risk factor for the development of osteonecrosis in mice, but it remains unclear whether the chronicity of LIP followed by extraction influences osteonecrosis development. In this study, we assess the effect of short-term and long-term LIP (ligature placed for 3 weeks [S-LIP] or 10 weeks [L-LIP], respectively) on osteonecrosis development in mice receiving 250 μg/kg/week zoledronic acid (ZOL). When compared to S-LIP, L-LIP caused 70% (p ≤ 0.0014) more bone loss without altering microbe composition. In the presence of ZOL, bone loss mediated by LIP was prevented and bone necrosis was induced. When the ligated tooth was extracted, histologic hallmarks of osteonecrosis including empty lacunae and necrotic bone were increased by 88% (p = 0.0374) and 114% (p = 0.0457), respectively, in L-LIP compared to S-LIP. We also observed significant increases in serum platelet factor 4 (PF4) and macrophage inflammatory factor 1 γ (MIP1γ) in mice that received ZOL treatment and had tooth extractions compared to controls, which may be systemic markers of inflammation-associated osteonecrosis development. Additionally, CD3+ T cells were identified as the major immune population in both health and disease, and we observed a 116% (p = 0.0402) increase in CD3+IL23R+ T cells in L-LIP compared to S-LIP lesions following extraction. Taken together, our study reveals that extracting a periodontally compromised tooth increases the formation of necrotic bone compared to extracting a periodontally healthy tooth and that osteonecrosis may be associated with the duration of the preexisting pathological inflammatory conditions. © 2022 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Drake Winslow Williams
- The Shapiro Family Laboratory of Viral Oncology and Aging Research, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Section of Restorative Dentistry, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Katie Ho
- The Shapiro Family Laboratory of Viral Oncology and Aging Research, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Allison Lenon
- The Shapiro Family Laboratory of Viral Oncology and Aging Research, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Sol Kim
- The Shapiro Family Laboratory of Viral Oncology and Aging Research, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Section of Restorative Dentistry, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Terresa Kim
- The Shapiro Family Laboratory of Viral Oncology and Aging Research, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Yousang Gwack
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Reuben H Kim
- The Shapiro Family Laboratory of Viral Oncology and Aging Research, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Section of Restorative Dentistry, UCLA School of Dentistry, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,UCLA Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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11
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Cohen TS, Kelly EJ, Nylander S, Bansal H, Jepson BM, Bhuyan P, Sobieszczyk ME, Falsey AR. Serum levels of anti-PF4 IgG after AZD1222 (ChAdOx1 nCoV-19) vaccination. Sci Rep 2022; 12:7961. [PMID: 35562373 PMCID: PMC9103599 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-11623-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Rare cases of thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS) have been reported after AZD1222. Anti-platelet factor-4 (PF4) antibodies were observed in patients following presentation of TTS, however it is unclear if AZD1222 was responsible for inducing production of anti-PF4. Paired samples (baseline and day-15) from a phase 3 trial of AZD1222 vs placebo were analyzed for anti-PF4 levels; 19/1727 (1.1%, AZD1222) vs 7/857 (0.8%, placebo) participants were anti-PF4-IgG-negative at baseline but had moderate Day-15 levels (P = 0.676) and 0/35 and 1/20 (5.0%) had moderate levels at baseline but high Day-15 levels. These data indicate that AZD1222 does not induce a clinically relevant general increase in anti-PF4 IgG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor S Cohen
- Microbiome Discovery, Vaccines and Immune Therapies, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, 20878, USA.
| | - Elizabeth J Kelly
- Translational Medicine, Vaccines and Immune Therapies, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | - Sven Nylander
- Clinical Development, Vaccines and Immune Therapies, Biopharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Himanshu Bansal
- Biometrics, Vaccines and Immune Therapies, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | - Brett M Jepson
- Biometrics, Vaccines and Immune Therapies, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | - Prakash Bhuyan
- Vaccines and Immune Therapies, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | - Magdalena E Sobieszczyk
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center and New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ann R Falsey
- University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
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12
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Genome-wide association study of platelet factor 4/heparin antibodies in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood Adv 2022; 6:4137-4146. [PMID: 35533259 PMCID: PMC9327558 DOI: 10.1182/bloodadvances.2022007673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparin, a widely used anticoagulant, carries the risk of an antibody mediated adverse drug reaction, heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). A subset of heparin-treated patients produces detectable levels of antibodies against complexes of heparin bound to circulating platelet factor 4 (PF4). Using a genome-wide association study (GWAS) approach, we aimed to identify genetic variants associated with anti-PF4/heparin antibodies that account for the variable antibody response seen in HIT. We performed a GWAS on anti-PF4/heparin antibody levels determined via polyclonal enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Our discovery cohort (n=4237) and replication cohort (n=807) constituted patients with European ancestry and clinical suspicion of HIT with cases confirmed via functional assay. Genome-wide significance was considered at α=5x10-8. No variants were significantly associated with anti-PF4/heparin antibody levels in the discovery cohort at a genome-wide significant level. Secondary GWAS analyses included identification of variants with suggestive associations in the discovery cohort (α=1x10-4). The top variant in both cohorts was rs1555175145 (discovery β=-0.112[0.018], p=2.50x10-5; replication β=-0.104[0.051], p=0.041). In gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), three gene sets reached false discovery rate-adjusted significance (q<0.05) in both discovery and replication cohorts: "Leukocyte Transendothelial Migration," "Innate Immune Response," and "Lyase Activity." Our results indicate that genomic variation is not significantly associated with anti-PF4/heparin antibody levels. Given our power to identify variants with moderate frequencies and effect sizes, this evidence suggests genetic variation is not a primary driver of variable antibody response in heparin-treated patients with European ancestry.
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13
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Bolliger D, Santer D, Tanaka KA. Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia in Patients with Mechanical Circulatory Support. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2022; 36:1880-1882. [DOI: 10.1053/j.jvca.2022.03.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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14
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Miller E, Norwood C, Giles JB, Huddart R, Karnes JH, Whirl-Carrillo M, Klein TE. PharmGKB summary: heparin-induced thrombocytopenia pathway, adverse drug reaction. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2022; 32:117-124. [PMID: 35102073 PMCID: PMC8988468 DOI: 10.1097/fpc.0000000000000465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elise Miller
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Arizona College of Pharmacy, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Charles Norwood
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Arizona College of Pharmacy, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Jason B. Giles
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Arizona College of Pharmacy, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Rachel Huddart
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
| | - Jason H. Karnes
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Arizona College of Pharmacy, Tucson, Arizona
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN
| | | | - Teri E. Klein
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
- Department of Biomedical Informatics Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
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15
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Greinacher A, Schönborn L, Siegerist F, Steil L, Palankar R, Handtke S, Reder A, Thiele T, Aurich K, Methling K, Lalk M, Völker U, Endlich N. Pathogenesis of vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT). Semin Hematol 2022; 59:97-107. [PMID: 35512907 PMCID: PMC8863951 DOI: 10.1053/j.seminhematol.2022.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT; synonym, thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome, is associated with high-titer immunoglobulin G antibodies directed against platelet factor 4 (PF4). These antibodies activate platelets via platelet FcγIIa receptors, with platelet activation greatly enhanced by PF4. Here we summarize the current concepts in the pathogenesis of VITT. We first address parallels between heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and VITT, and provide recent findings on binding of PF4 to adenovirus particles and non-assembled adenovirus proteins in the 2 adenovirus vector-based COVID-19 vaccines, ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 and Ad26.COV2.S. Further, we discuss the potential role of vaccine constituents such as glycosaminoglycans, EDTA, polysorbate 80, human cell-line proteins and nucleotides as potential binding partners of PF4. The immune response towards PF4 in VITT is likely triggered by a proinflammatory milieu. Human cell-line proteins, non-assembled virus proteins, and potentially EDTA may contribute to the proinflammatory state. The transient nature of the immune response towards PF4 in VITT makes it likely that-as in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia -marginal zone B cells are key for antibody production. Once high-titer anti-PF4 antibodies have been formed 5 to 20 days after vaccination, they activate platelets and granulocytes. Activated granulocytes undergo NETosis and the released DNA also forms complexes with PF4, which fuels the Fcγ receptor-dependent cell activation process, ultimately leading to massive thrombin generation. Finally, we summarize our initial observations indicating that VITT-like antibodies might also be present in rare patients with recurrent venous and arterial thrombotic complications, independent of vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Greinacher
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany,Corresponding author: Prof. Dr Andreas Greinacher, Institut für Transfusions medizin, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Sauerbruchstraße, D-17489 Greifswald, Germany. Tel: +49 383 486 5482; fax: +49 383 486 5489
| | - Linda Schönborn
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Florian Siegerist
- Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Leif Steil
- Interfaculty Institute of Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Raghavendra Palankar
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Stefan Handtke
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Alexander Reder
- Interfaculty Institute of Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Thomas Thiele
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Konstanze Aurich
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Karen Methling
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael Lalk
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Uwe Völker
- Interfaculty Institute of Genetics and Functional Genomics, Department Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Nicole Endlich
- Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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16
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Campello E, Bulato C, Simion C, Spiezia L, Radu CM, Gavasso S, Sartorello F, Saggiorato G, Zerbinati P, Fadin M, tormene D, Simioni P. Assessing clinically meaningful hypercoagulability after COVID-19 Vaccination: a longitudinal study. Thromb Haemost 2022; 122:1352-1360. [PMID: 35253140 PMCID: PMC9393084 DOI: 10.1055/a-1788-5206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A large number of daily requests to exclude possible prothrombotic risk factors for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines were received. Our aim was to longitudinally evaluate coagulation profiles in a series of healthy subjects who received COVID-19 vaccination and assess hypercoagulability thereafter. Volunteers awaiting a first or second dose of either the ChAdOx1 or BNT162b2 vaccine were enrolled. Venous samples were obtained at baseline (before the vaccine) and longitudinally 3 ± 2 days (T1) and 10 ± 2 days after the vaccine (T2). Global coagulation monitoring was assessed via platelet count, whole blood thromboelastometry and impedance aggregometry, plasma thrombin generation, and anti-platelet factor 4 (PF4)/heparin immunoglobulin G antibodies. One hundred and twenty-two subjects were enrolled (61 [50%] ChAdOx1 and 61 BNT162b2). The ChAdOx1 cohort showed a slight but transient increase in thrombin generation (mainly endogenous thrombin potential [ETP] with thrombomodulin and ETP ratio) at T1, which promptly decreased at T2. In addition, the second dose of either vaccine was associated with increased thrombin peak, ETP with thrombomodulin, and ETP ratio. At baseline, 3.2% of the ChAdOx1 cohort and 1.6% BNT162b2 cohort were positive for PF4/heparin antibodies with a stable titer through T1 and T2. No relevant differences were detected in platelet count and aggregation, or thromboelastometry parameters. No thrombotic or hemorrhagic events occurred. We can confirm that no clinically meaningful hypercoagulability occurred after either vaccine, albeit keeping in mind that thrombin generation may increase in the first days after the second dose of either vaccine and after the first dose of the ChAdOx1 vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Campello
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua School of Medicine and Surgery, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Chiara Simion
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua, Padova, Italy
| | - Luca Spiezia
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua, Padova, Italy
| | | | | | - Francesca Sartorello
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua School of Medicine and Surgery, Padova, Italy
| | - Graziella Saggiorato
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua School of Medicine and Surgery, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Mariangela Fadin
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua School of Medicine and Surgery, Padova, Italy
| | - daniela tormene
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua School of Medicine and Surgery, Padova, Italy
| | - Paolo Simioni
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua School of Medicine and Surgery, Padova, Italy
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17
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Giles JB, Miller EC, Steiner HE, Karnes JH. Elucidation of Cellular Contributions to Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia Using Omic Approaches. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:812830. [PMID: 35126147 PMCID: PMC8814424 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.812830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is an unpredictable, complex, immune-mediated adverse drug reaction associated with a high mortality. Despite decades of research into HIT, fundamental knowledge gaps persist regarding HIT likely due to the complex and unusual nature of the HIT immune response. Such knowledge gaps include the identity of a HIT immunogen, the intrinsic roles of various cell types and their interactions, and the molecular basis that distinguishes pathogenic and non-pathogenic PF4/heparin antibodies. While a key feature of HIT, thrombocytopenia, implicates platelets as a seminal cell fragment in HIT pathogenesis, strong evidence exists for critical roles of multiple cell types. The rise in omic technologies over the last decade has resulted in a number of agnostic, whole system approaches for biological research that may be especially informative for complex phenotypes. Applying multi-omics techniques to HIT has the potential to bring new insights into HIT pathophysiology and identify biomarkers with clinical utility. In this review, we review the clinical, immunological, and molecular features of HIT with emphasis on key cell types and their roles. We then address the applicability of several omic techniques underutilized in HIT, which have the potential to fill knowledge gaps related to HIT biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason B. Giles
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Arizona College of Pharmacy, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Elise C. Miller
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Arizona College of Pharmacy, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Heidi E. Steiner
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Arizona College of Pharmacy, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Jason H. Karnes
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Arizona College of Pharmacy, Tucson, AZ, United States,Department of Biomedical Informatics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States,*Correspondence: Jason H. Karnes,
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18
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Doganyigit Z, Eroglu E, Akyuz E. Inflammatory mediators of cytokines and chemokines in sepsis: From bench to bedside. Hum Exp Toxicol 2022; 41:9603271221078871. [PMID: 35337213 DOI: 10.1177/09603271221078871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Background: Sepsis is a serious clinical condition characterized by damage to the immune system as a result of an uncontrolled response to infection. Septic patients show complications such as fever, cardiovascular shock, and/or systemic organ failure. Acute organ failure formed in sepsis mostly affects the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. In sepsis, responses including pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory processes in addition to the Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4) signals leading to the release of inflammatory mediators have been suggested to be fundamental pathways in the pathophysiology of sepsis. Purpose: In this context, unregulated levels of sepsis-associated inflammatory mediators may increase the risk of mortality. In sepsis, infection-induced pathogens lead to a systemic inflammatory response. These systemic responses may contribute to septic shock and organ dysfunction. In the unfavorable clinical course of sepsis, an uncontrolled inflammatory response is observed. Accordingly, the mechanism of inflammatory mediators such as cytokines and chemokines in sepsis might increase. Neurotransmitters and gene regulators affect inflammatory mediators and control the inflammatory response. In this review, we aimed to show the new therapeutic targets in sepsis treatment with current studies. New clinical implications targeting inflammatory mediators in high mortality affected by the uncontrolled inflammatory response in sepsis can contribute to the understanding of the symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuleyha Doganyigit
- Faculty of Medicine, Histology and Embryology, 162338Yozgat Bozok University, Yozgat, Turkey
| | - Ece Eroglu
- Faculty of Medicine, 162338Yozgat Bozok University Yozgat, Turkey
| | - Enes Akyuz
- Faculty of International Medicine, Department of Biophysics, 448249University of Health Sciences Istanbul, Turkey
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19
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Elrashdy F, Tambuwala MM, Hassan SS, Adadi P, Seyran M, Abd El-Aziz TM, Rezaei N, Lal A, Aljabali AAA, Kandimalla R, Bazan NG, Azad GK, Sherchan SP, Choudhury PP, Serrano-Aroca Á, Takayama K, Chauhan G, Pizzol D, Barh D, Panda PK, Mishra YK, Palù G, Lundstrom K, Redwan EM, Uversky VN. Autoimmunity roots of the thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination. Autoimmun Rev 2021; 20:102941. [PMID: 34508917 PMCID: PMC8426137 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2021.102941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Although vaccination represents the most promising way to stop or contain the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and safety and effectiveness of available vaccines were proven, a small number of individuals who received anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines developed a prothrombotic syndrome. Vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT) can be triggered by the adenoviral vector-based vaccine, whereas lipid nanoparticle-mRNA-based vaccines can induce rare cases of deep vein thrombosis (DVT). Although the main pathogenic mechanisms behind this rare phenomenon have not yet been identified, both host and vaccine factors might be involved, with pathology at least in part being related to the vaccine-triggered autoimmune reaction. In this review, we are considering some aspects related to pathogenesis, major risk factors, as well as peculiarities of diagnosis and treatment of this rare condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatma Elrashdy
- Department of Endemic Medicine and Hepatogastroenterology, Kasr Alainy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Murtaza M Tambuwala
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
| | - Sk Sarif Hassan
- Department of Mathematics, Pingla Thana Mahavidyalaya, Maligram, 722140 Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal, India
| | - Parise Adadi
- Department of Food Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Murat Seyran
- Doctoral Student in Natural and Technical Sciences (SPL 44), University of Vienna, Währinger Straße, A-1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Tarek Mohamed Abd El-Aziz
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Minia University, El-Minia 61519, Egypt; Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229-3900, USA.
| | - Nima Rezaei
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Amos Lal
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, USA
| | - Alaa A A Aljabali
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Yarmouk University, Irbid 21163, P. O. BOX 566, Jordan.
| | - Ramesh Kandimalla
- Applied Biology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Uppal Road, Tarnaka, Hyderabad 500007, India; Department of Biochemistry, Kakatiya Medical College, Warangal, India
| | - Nicolas G Bazan
- Neuroscience Center of Excellence, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana, 70112, USA.
| | | | - Samendra P Sherchan
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA.
| | - Pabitra Pal Choudhury
- Applied Statistics Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, 700108, West Bengal, India
| | - Ángel Serrano-Aroca
- Biomaterials and Bioengineering Lab, Centro de Investigación Traslacional San Alberto Magno, Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir, c/Guillem de Castro 94, Valencia 46001, Spain.
| | - Kazuo Takayama
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.
| | - Gaurav Chauhan
- School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501 Sur, 64849 Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico.
| | - Damiano Pizzol
- Italian Agency for Development Cooperation -, Khartoum, Sudan Street 33, Al Amarat, Sudan
| | - Debmalya Barh
- Institute of Integrative Omics and Applied Biotechnology (IIOAB), Nonakuri, Purba Medinipur, WB-721172, India; and Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil.
| | - Pritam Kumar Panda
- Condensed Matter Theory Group, Materials Theory Division, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Box 516, SE-751 20 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Yogendra K Mishra
- University of Southern Denmark, Mads Clausen Institute, NanoSYD, Alsion 2, 6400 Sønderborg, Denmark.
| | - Giorgio Palù
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Italy.
| | | | - Elrashdy M Redwan
- Biological Science Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Vladimir N Uversky
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States.
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20
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Azzarone B, Veneziani I, Moretta L, Maggi E. Pathogenic Mechanisms of Vaccine-Induced Immune Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia in People Receiving Anti-COVID-19 Adenoviral-Based Vaccines: A Proposal. Front Immunol 2021; 12:728513. [PMID: 34484238 PMCID: PMC8415022 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.728513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
VITT is a rare, life-threatening syndrome characterized by thrombotic symptoms in combination with thrombocytopenia, which may occur in individuals receiving the first administration of adenoviral non replicating vectors (AVV) anti Covid19 vaccines. Vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT) is characterized by high levels of serum IgG that bind PF4/polyanion complexes, thus triggering platelet activation. Therefore, identification of the fine pathophysiological mechanism by which vaccine components trigger platelet activation is mandatory. Herein, we propose a multistep mechanism involving both the AVV and the neo-synthetized Spike protein. The former can: i) spread rapidly into blood stream, ii), promote the early production of high levels of IL-6, iii) interact with erythrocytes, platelets, mast cells and endothelia, iv) favor the presence of extracellular DNA at the site of injection, v) activate platelets and mast cells to release PF4 and heparin. Moreover, AVV infection of mast cells may trigger aberrant inflammatory and immune responses in people affected by the mast cell activation syndrome (MCAS). The pre-existence of natural antibodies binding PF4/heparin complexes may amplify platelet activation and thrombotic events. Finally, neosynthesized Covid 19 Spike protein interacting with its ACE2 receptor on endothelia, platelets and leucocyte may trigger further thrombotic events unleashing the WITT syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Azzarone
- Immunology Research Area, IRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Irene Veneziani
- Immunology Research Area, IRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Moretta
- Immunology Research Area, IRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Enrico Maggi
- Immunology Research Area, IRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
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21
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Marcucci R, Marietta M. Vaccine-induced thrombotic thrombocytopenia: the elusive link between thrombosis and adenovirus-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Intern Emerg Med 2021; 16:1113-1119. [PMID: 34191218 PMCID: PMC8243058 DOI: 10.1007/s11739-021-02793-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The amazing effort of vaccination against COVID-19, with more than 2 billion vaccine doses administered all around the world as of 16 June 2021, has changed the history of this pandemic, drastically reducing the number of severe cases or deaths in countries were mass vaccination campaign have been carried out. However, the people's rising enthusiasm has been blunted in late February 2021 by the report of several cases of unusual thrombotic events in combination with thrombocytopenia after vaccination with ChAdOx1 nCov-19 (Vaxzevria), and a few months later also after Ad26.COV2. S vaccines. Of note, both products used an Adenovirus-based (AdV) platform to deliver the mRNA molecule - coding for the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2. A clinical entity characterized by cerebral and/or splanchnic vein thrombosis, often associated with multiple thromboses, with thrombocytopenia and bleeding, and sometimes disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), was soon recognized as a new syndrome, named vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT) or thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS). VITT was mainly observed in females under 55 years of age, between 4 and 16 days after receiving only Adenovirus-based vaccine and displayed a seriously high fatality rate. This prompted the Medicine Regulatory Agencies of various countries to enforce the pharmacovigilance programs, and to provide some advices to restrict the use of AdV-based vaccines to some age groups. This point-of view is aimed at providing a comprehensive review of epidemiological issues, pathogenetic hypothesis and treatment strategies of this rare but compelling syndrome, thus helping physicians to offer an up-to dated and evidence-based counseling to their often alarmed patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossella Marcucci
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, "Careggi" University Hospital, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Marco Marietta
- Hematology Unit, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria, via del Pozzo 71, 41124, Modena, Italy.
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22
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Thiele T, Ulm L, Holtfreter S, Schönborn L, Kuhn SO, Scheer C, Warkentin TE, Bröker BM, Becker K, Aurich K, Selleng K, Hübner NO, Greinacher A. Frequency of positive anti-PF4/polyanion antibody tests after COVID-19 vaccination with ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 and BNT162b2. Blood 2021; 138:299-303. [PMID: 33988688 PMCID: PMC8129797 DOI: 10.1182/blood.2021012217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccination using the adenoviral vector COVID-19 vaccine ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AstraZeneca) has been associated with rare vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT). Affected patients test strongly positive in platelet factor 4 (PF4)/polyanion enzyme immunoassays (EIAs), and serum-induced platelet activation is maximal in the presence of PF4. We determined the frequency of anti-PF4/polyanion antibodies in healthy vaccinees and assessed whether PF4/polyanion EIA+ sera exhibit platelet-activating properties after vaccination with ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (n = 138) or BNT162b2 (BioNTech/Pfizer; n = 143). In total, 19 of 281 participants tested positive for anti-PF4/polyanion antibodies postvaccination (All: 6.8% [95% confidence interval (CI), 4.4-10.3]; BNT162b2: 5.6% [95% CI, 2.9-10.7]; ChAdOx1 nCoV-19: 8.0% [95% CI, 4.5% to 13.7%]). Optical densities were mostly low (between 0.5 and 1.0 units; reference range, <0.50), and none of the PF4/polyanion EIA+ samples induced platelet activation in the presence of PF4. We conclude that positive PF4/polyanion EIAs can occur after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 vaccination with both messenger RNA- and adenoviral vector-based vaccines, but many of these antibodies likely have minor (if any) clinical relevance. Accordingly, low-titer positive PF4/polyanion EIA results should be interpreted with caution when screening asymptomatic individuals after vaccination against COVID-19. Pathogenic platelet-activating antibodies that cause VITT do not occur commonly following vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Thiele
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Institute of Immunology and Transfusion Medicine
| | - Lena Ulm
- Friedrich-Loeffler Institute of Medical Microbiology
| | - Silva Holtfreter
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Immunology and Transfusion Medicine, and
| | - Linda Schönborn
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Institute of Immunology and Transfusion Medicine
| | - Sven Olaf Kuhn
- Department of Anaesthesiology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Christian Scheer
- Department of Anaesthesiology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Theodore E Warkentin
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine and
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada; and
| | - Barbara M Bröker
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Immunology and Transfusion Medicine, and
| | | | - Konstanze Aurich
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Institute of Immunology and Transfusion Medicine
| | - Kathleen Selleng
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Institute of Immunology and Transfusion Medicine
| | - Nils-Olaf Hübner
- Central Unit for Infection Prevention and Control, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Andreas Greinacher
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Institute of Immunology and Transfusion Medicine
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23
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Abstract
The association between inflammation, infection, and venous thrombosis has long been recognized; yet, only in the last decades have we begun to understand the mechanisms through which the immune and coagulation systems interact and reciprocally regulate one another. These interconnected networks mount an effective response to injury and pathogen invasion, but if unregulated can result in pathological thrombosis and organ damage. Neutrophils, monocytes, and platelets interact with each other and the endothelium in host defense and also play critical roles in the formation of venous thromboembolism. This knowledge has advanced our understanding of both human physiology and pathophysiology, as well as identified mechanisms of anticoagulant resistance and novel therapeutic targets for the prevention and treatment of thrombosis. In this review, we discuss the contributions of inflammation and infection to venous thromboembolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meaghan E. Colling
- Hematology Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Clinical Division of Haematology and Haemostaseology, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benjamin E. Tourdot
- Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Yogendra Kanthi
- Laboratory of Vascular Thrombosis and Inflammation, Division of Intramural Research, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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24
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Warkentin TE, Greinacher A. Spontaneous HIT syndrome: Knee replacement, infection, and parallels with vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia. Thromb Res 2021; 204:40-51. [PMID: 34144250 DOI: 10.1016/j.thromres.2021.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is characterized clinically by thrombocytopenia, hypercoagulability, and increased thrombosis risk, and serologically by platelet-activating anti-platelet factor 4 (PF4)/heparin antibodies. Heparin-"induced" acknowledges that HIT is usually triggered by a proximate immunizing exposure to heparin. However, certain non-heparin medications (pentosan polysulfate, hypersulfated chondroitin sulfate, fondaparinux) can trigger "HIT". Further, naturally-occurring polyanions (bacterial lipopolysaccharide, DNA/RNA) can interact with PF4 to recapitulate HIT antigens. Indeed, immunologic presensitization to naturally-occurring polyanions could explain why HIT more closely resembles a secondary, rather than a primary, immune response. In 2008 it was first reported that a HIT-mimicking disorder can occur without any preceding exposure to heparin or polyanionic medications. Termed "spontaneous HIT syndrome", two subtypes are recognized: (a) surgical (post-orthopedic, especially post-total knee arthroplasty, and (b) medical (usually post-infectious). Recently, COVID-19 adenoviral vector vaccination has been associated with a thrombotic thrombocytopenic disorder associated with positive PF4-dependent enzyme-immunoassays and serum-induced platelet activation that is maximal when PF4 is added. Vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT) features unusual thromboses (cerebral venous thrombosis, splanchnic vein thrombosis) similar to those seen in spontaneous HIT syndrome. The emerging concept is that classic HIT reflects platelet-activating anti-PF4/heparin antibodies whereas spontaneous HIT syndrome and other atypical "autoimmune HIT" presentations (delayed-onset HIT, persisting HIT, heparin "flush" HIT) reflect heparin-independent platelet-activating anti-PF4 antibodies-although the precise relationships between PF4 epitope targets and the clinical syndromes remain to be determined. Treatment of spontaneous HIT syndrome includes non-heparin anticoagulation (direct oral Xa inhibitors favored over direct thrombin inhibitors) and high-dose immunoglobulin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodore E Warkentin
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, and Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; Hamilton Regional Laboratory Medicine Program (Transfusion Medicine), Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; Service of Benign Hematology, Hamilton Health Sciences (Hamilton General Hospital), Canada.
| | - Andreas Greinacher
- From Institut für Immunologie und Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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25
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Chong BH. Evolving concepts of pathogenesis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: Diagnostic and therapeutic implications. Int J Lab Hematol 2021; 42 Suppl 1:25-32. [PMID: 32543064 DOI: 10.1111/ijlh.13223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is an immune reaction to heparin. It often causes severe thrombosis which may lead to limb gangrene and thrombosis-associated death. The concept of its pathogenesis has been evolving during the past five decades. Initially, HIT was thought to be caused by disseminated intravascular coagulation. Later it became clear that HIT was mediated by an immune mechanism whereby an IgG antibody induced platelet aggregation, release of procoagulant materials and consequently thrombus formation. The antigen comprises Platelet Factor 4 (PF4) and heparin which have a tendency to form ultralarge complexes. The HIT immune response has atypical features. IgG antibody appears early without IgM precedence and lasts transiently. One explanation is that there is prior priming by bacterial infection. Another unique characteristic is that it is processed as if it is a particulate antigen involving complement activation and B cells. Antigen-presenting cells/monocytes are also involved but the role of T cells is controversial. Recent advances have provided new insights into the underlying mechanisms of HIT-related thrombosis. Previously, platelets were believed to play a central role; their activation and consequently the induction of blood coagulation was the basis of the hypercoagulability in HIT. More recently, several studies have provided clear evidence that neutrophil and NETosis, monocytes and endothelial cells contribute significantly to the thrombosis in HIT. These new insights may result in development of better diagnostic laboratory assays and more effective treatments for HIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beng H Chong
- Heamatology Department, New South Wales Health Pathology, Kogarah and Sutherland Campuses, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Heamatolgy Department, St George and Sutherland Hospitals, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,St George Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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26
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Koster A, Erdoes G, Nagler M, Birschmann I, Alberio L. How would we treat our own heparin-induced thrombocytopenia during cardiac surgery? J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2020; 35:1585-1593. [PMID: 33342734 DOI: 10.1053/j.jvca.2020.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this article is to provide a comprehensive review of the current state of knowledge on heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) in cardiac surgery. The management of HIT patients undergoing cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass is complex and requires an interdisciplinary and patient-tailored approach because available evidence is limited and current anticoagulation strategies have potential risks. An index case is used to discuss both the established and new perioperative therapeutic options in HIT patients undergoing urgent cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Koster
- Institute of Anesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Heart, and Diabetes Center NRW, Bad Oeynhausen, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Gabor Erdoes
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Michael Nagler
- University Institute of Clinical Chemistry, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ingvild Birschmann
- Institute of Laboratory and Transfusion Medicine, Heart, and Diabetes Center NRW, Bad Oeynhausen, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Lorenzo Alberio
- Division of Hematology and Central Hematology Laboratory, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), University of Lausanne (UNIL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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27
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Arepally GM, Cines DB. Pathogenesis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Transl Res 2020; 225:131-140. [PMID: 32417430 PMCID: PMC7487042 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2020.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
There are currently no effective substitutes for high intensity therapy with unfractionated heparin (UFH) for cardiovascular procedures based on its rapid onset of action, ease of monitoring and reversibility. The continued use of UFH in these and other settings requires vigilance for its most serious nonhemorrhagic complication, heparin induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). HIT is an immune prothrombotic disorder caused by antibodies that recognize complexes between platelet factor 4 (PF4) and polyanions such as heparin (H).The pathogenicity of anti-PF4/H antibodies is likely due to the formation of immune complexes that initiate intense procoagulant responses by vascular and hematopoietic cells that lead to the generation of platelet microparticles, monocyte and endothelial cell procoagulant activity, and neutrophil extracellular traps, among other outcomes. The development of anti-PF4/H antibodies after exposure to UFH greatly exceeds the incidence of clinical disease, but the biochemical features that distinguish pathogenic from nonpathogenic antibodies have not been identified. Diagnosis relies on pretest clinical probability, screening for anti-PF4/H antibodies and documentation of their platelet activating capacity. However, both clinical algorithms and test modalities have limited predictive values making diagnosis and management challenging. Given the unacceptable rates of recurrent thromboembolism and bleeding associated with current therapies, there is an unmet need for novel rational nonanticoagulant therapeutics based on the pathogenesis of HIT. We will review recent developments in our understanding of the pathogenesis of HIT and its implications for future approaches to diagnosis and management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gowthami M Arepally
- Division of Hematology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina.
| | - Douglas B Cines
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman-University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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28
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Sartori MT, Zurlo C, Bon M, Bertomoro A, Bendo R, Bertozzi I, Radu CM, Campello E, Simioni P, Fabris F. Platelet-Derived Microparticles Bearing PF4 and Anti-GAGS Immunoglobulins in Patients with Sepsis. Diagnostics (Basel) 2020; 10:diagnostics10090627. [PMID: 32846949 PMCID: PMC7555115 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics10090627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
PF4 is a megakaryocyte-derived cationic chemokine that plays a part in innate immunity through its activity on the macrophages. In bacterial sepsis, PF4 binds to glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) on the surface of aerobic bacteria, giving rise to an antigenic complex that induces the early formation of anti-PF4 IgG-IgA-IgM. This triggers the immune response in patients receiving heparin therapy who develop heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). These antibodies have also been identified in patients with chronic Gram-negative infections. Given the complexity of this innate immune response network, our study on 45 patients with sepsis focused on the immune response mediated by platelet PF4. We analyzed the role of IgG-IgA-IgM against PF4-GAGs, and the presence of specific PF4-bearing platelet microparticles (PMPs). Anti-GAGs/PF4 IgG-IgA-IgM levels were significantly higher in septic patients than in control groups (healthy controls or acute patients without sepsis, p < 0.001). PF4-bearing PMP levels were only significantly higher in septic patients (p < 0.001). The occurrence of IgG-IgA-IgM against PF4-GAGs and PF4+ PMPs correlated with an improvement in patients’ sepsis. In conclusion, we demonstrated that, in the course of bacterial sepsis, platelet activation leads to the formation of specific PF4-bearing PMPs. These specific microparticles bind to polyanionic sequences on the surface of aerobic bacteria, giving rise to an antigenic complex that induces the early formation of IgG-IgA-IgM against PF4-GAGs as an innate immune response to infection.
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29
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Hogan M, Berger JS. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT): Review of incidence, diagnosis, and management. Vasc Med 2020; 25:160-173. [PMID: 32195628 DOI: 10.1177/1358863x19898253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is a life and limb-threatening complication of heparin exposure. Here, we review the pathogenesis, incidence, diagnosis, and management of HIT. The first step in thwarting devastating complications from this entity is to maintain a high index of clinical suspicion, followed by an accurate clinical scoring assessment using the 4Ts. Next, appropriate stepwise laboratory testing must be undertaken in order to rule out HIT or establish the diagnosis. In the interim, all heparin must be stopped immediately, and the patient administered alternative anticoagulation. Here we review alternative anticoagulation choice, therapy alternatives in the difficult-to-manage patient with HIT, and the problem of overdiagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Hogan
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology Oncology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Berger
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology and Hematology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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30
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Wu F, Dong K, Zhu M, Zhang Q, Xie B, Li D, Gan H, Linhardt RJ, Zhang Z. Development of a method to analyze the complexes of enoxaparin and platelet factor 4 with size-exclusion chromatography. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2019; 164:668-671. [PMID: 30472585 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Heparin, a highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan, has been used as a clinical anticoagulant over 80 years. However, heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis (HITT) is a serious side effect of heparin therapy, resulting in relatively high risk of amputation and even death. HITT is caused by forming of complexes between heparin and platelet factor 4 (PF4). Enoxaparin, one of the most commonly used low molecular weight heparin (LMWH), were developed in 1980's. The lower molecular weight of enoxaparin reduces the risk of HITT by binding to less PF4. To detect the binding capacity between enoxaparin and PF4 could be an effect way to control this risk before it goes to patients. In this work, a size exclusion chromatography (SEC) method was developed to analyze the patterns of complexes formed between PF4 and enoxaparin. The chromatographic condition was optimized to separate PF4, enoxaparin, ultra-large complexes and small complexes. The linearity and stability of this method were confirmed. The impacts of PF4/enoxaparin mixture ratios and incubation time on the forming complexes were investigated. Four enoxaparin samples were analyzed with this method to verify its practicability. It is a robust, accurate and practicable method, and provides an easy way to monitor the capacity of enoxaparin forming complexes with PF4, suggesting the HITT related quality of enoxaparin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangxia Wu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Translational Research and Therapy for Neuro-Psycho-Diseases and College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215021, China
| | - Kai Dong
- Tianjin Chase Sun Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Tianjin, 300111, China
| | - Meng Zhu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Translational Research and Therapy for Neuro-Psycho-Diseases and College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215021, China
| | - Qinghua Zhang
- Tianjin Chase Sun Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Tianjin, 300111, China
| | - Bingying Xie
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Translational Research and Therapy for Neuro-Psycho-Diseases and College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215021, China
| | - Duxin Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Translational Research and Therapy for Neuro-Psycho-Diseases and College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215021, China
| | - Hao Gan
- Tianjin Chase Sun Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Tianjin, 300111, China
| | - Robert J Linhardt
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY, 12180, USA
| | - Zhenqing Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Translational Research and Therapy for Neuro-Psycho-Diseases and College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215021, China.
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31
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Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia. Platelets 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-813456-6.00041-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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32
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Bakchoul T, Marini I. Drug-associated thrombocytopenia. HEMATOLOGY. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEMATOLOGY. EDUCATION PROGRAM 2018; 2018:576-583. [PMID: 30504360 PMCID: PMC6246020 DOI: 10.1182/asheducation-2018.1.576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Many drugs have been implicated in drug-induced immune thrombocytopenia (DITP). Patients with DITP develop a drop in platelet count 5 to 10 days after drug administration with an increased risk of hemorrhage. The diagnosis of DITP is often challenging, because most hospitalized patients are taking multiple medications and have comorbidities that can also cause thrombocytopenia. Specialized laboratory diagnostic tests have been developed and are helpful to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment of DITP involves discontinuation of the offending drug. The platelet count usually starts to recover after 4 or 5 half-lives of the responsible drug or drug metabolite. High doses of intravenous immunoglobulin can be given to patients with severe thrombocytopenia and bleeding. Although in most cases, DITP is associated with bleeding, life-threatening thromboembolic complications are common in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). Binding of antiplatelet factor 4/heparin antibodies to Fc receptors on platelets and monocytes causes intravascular cellular activation, leading to an intensely prothrombotic state in HIT. The clinical symptoms include a decrease in platelet counts by >50% and/or new thromboembolic complications. Two approaches can help to confirm or rule out HIT: assessment of the clinical presentation using scoring systems and in vitro demonstration of antiplatelet factor 4/heparin antibodies. The cornerstone of HIT management is immediate discontinuation of heparin when the disease is suspected and anticoagulation using nonheparin anticoagulant. In this review, we will provide an update on the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of both DITP and HIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamam Bakchoul
- Transfusion Medicine, Medical Faculty of Tubingen, University of Tubingen, Tubingen, Germany
| | - Irene Marini
- Transfusion Medicine, Medical Faculty of Tubingen, University of Tubingen, Tubingen, Germany
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33
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Prechel M, Hudec S, Lowden E, Escalante V, Emanuele N, Emanuele M, Walenga JM. Profiling Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT) Antibodies in Hospitalized Patients With and Without Diabetes. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2018; 24:294S-300S. [PMID: 30419766 PMCID: PMC6714824 DOI: 10.1177/1076029618808915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparin (H) anticoagulation in populations characterized by elevated platelet factor 4
(PF4) frequently elicits PF4/H antibodies, presenting a risk of heparin-induced
thrombocytopenia. Recent studies have shown that anti-PF4/H enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assays (ELISAs) detect antibodies in individuals never exposed to heparin. Platelet factor
4/H cross-reactive antibodies may result from PF4-mediated defense responses to injury or
infection. This study questioned whether patients with diabetes are more likely to develop
the endogenous cross-reactive antibodies. A comparison of healthy volunteers versus
hospitalized patients with or without diabetes showed no significant differences in the
prevalence of PF4/H ELISA-positive results. However, the group of patients who had both
diabetes and an infectious condition had higher median antibody titer compared to other
patients with or without diabetes regardless of reason for hospitalization. Higher PF4/H
titers were also associated with patients with diabetes who were not on any medical
therapy. In the future, determining whether PF4/H cross-reactive antibodies sensitize
patients to respond adversely to heparin anticoagulation or predispose patients to other
complications may be relevant to diabetes care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Prechel
- Health Sciences Division, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Susan Hudec
- Endocrinology Division, Department of Medicine, Loyola University Health System, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Elizabeth Lowden
- Endocrinology Division, Department of Medicine, Loyola University Health System, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Vicki Escalante
- Health Sciences Division, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Nicholas Emanuele
- Endocrinology Division, Department of Medicine, Loyola University Health System, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Maryann Emanuele
- Endocrinology Division, Department of Medicine, Loyola University Health System, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Jeanine M Walenga
- Health Sciences Division, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, IL, USA
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Karnes JH. Pharmacogenetics to prevent heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: what do we know? Pharmacogenomics 2018; 19:1413-1422. [PMID: 30398086 DOI: 10.2217/pgs-2018-0147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is a life-threatening, immune-mediated adverse reaction to heparin anticoagulants. The inability to predict HIT represents a considerable liability associated with heparin administration. Genetic studies of HIT are challenging due to the scarcity of true HIT cases, potential for misclassification, and many environmental risk factors. Genetic studies have not consistently identified risk alleles for HIT, the production of platelet factor 4/heparin antibodies or the thromboembolic complications of HIT. Genes implicated in HIT and platelet factor 4/heparin antibody levels include FCGR2A, TDAG8, HLA-DR and others. Compelling evidence also suggests that the FCGR2A H131R polymorphism is associated with HIT-related thrombosis. There is a need for well-powered, multiethnic studies with laboratory confirmation of HIT, detailed patient- and drug-specific data, and inclusion of both serologic and thromboembolic outcomes. Genomic biomarkers identified from such studies offer the possibility of shifting current clinical practice paradigms from early detection and treatment to prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason H Karnes
- Department of Pharmacy Practice & Science, University of Arizona College of Pharmacy, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.,Sarver Heart Center, Department of Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Tucson, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.,Division of Pharmacogenomics, Center for Applied Genetics & Genomic Medicine (TCAG2M), Department of Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Tucson, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
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35
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Amiral J, Seghatchian J. An update on evidence based diagnostic and confirmatory testing strategies for heparin induced thrombocytopenia using combined immunological and functional assays. Transfus Apher Sci 2018; 57:804-811. [PMID: 30401517 DOI: 10.1016/j.transci.2018.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
This manuscript aims to provide a concise review on current diagnostic/ confirmatory strategies of Heparin Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT) with the combined use of immunological / functional assays in addition to the clinical probability. Laboratory diagnosis of HIT is of primordial importance as the related complications could become rapidly severe and life-threatening and can provoke limb amputation in some cases. The first action in the presence of HIT suspicion is to withdraw heparin and to initiate an alternative anticoagulant. Whilst vitamin K antagonists are not appropriate, anticoagulant options include Fondaparinux, Sodium Danaparoid, DOACs, Argatroban, and Bivalirudin. However, if HIT is excluded, patients can benefit again from the high therapeutic and antithrombotic efficacy of this drug, which remains superior to all the substitutive anticoagulant treatments. HIT is suspected in the presence of a platelet count drop > 50% on 2 successive counts, or a platelet count < 100 G/L, and of a significant clinical probability (4 Ts score). Testing patients' plasma is required for establishing the diagnosis. Laboratory investigation involves first the immunological measurement of heparin dependent IgG antibodies (mainly targeted to Heparin-Platelet Factor 4 complexes). When positive, a functional assay for platelet activation, performed at a low and high heparin concentration, allows confirming this disease. In any case, if the immuno-assay is negative, HIT can be excluded with a high probability, and heparin can be continued (if clinical examination favors this decision). Conversely, the higher the IgG antibody concentration is (and affinity), the higher is the probability of developing HIT. The functional assay has now become for confirming the platelet activation capacity of antibodies, and therefore confirming the presence of HIT. Up to now, the gold reference method for testing antibody-dependent platelet activation is the C14-Serotonin Release Assay, available only in very few laboratories working with radio-isotopes. A simple, sensitive, and accurate flow cytometry assay becomes now available to all clinical sites, and it can be easily used for testing the capacity of heparin dependent-antibodies to activate platelets, at low heparin concentration. This technique can be performed in any laboratory equipped with a flow cytometer and can make the HIT confirmation diagnosis rapidly available, which introduces a great improvement for management of patients with HIT. We believe that an evidence-based update on this topic is timely and well warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Amiral
- SH-Consulting, Scientific Director and Consultant in Hemostasis, Andrésy France.
| | - Jerard Seghatchian
- International Consultancy in Blood Components Quality/Safety Improvement, Audit/ Inspection and DDR Strategies, London, UK.
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Dhakal B, Kreuziger LB, Rein L, Kleman A, Fraser R, Aster RH, Hari P, Padmanabhan A. Disease burden, complication rates, and health-care costs of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in the USA: a population-based study. LANCET HAEMATOLOGY 2018; 5:e220-e231. [PMID: 29703336 DOI: 10.1016/s2352-3026(18)30046-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia can be a life-threatening and limb-threatening complication of heparin therapy. Incidence and complication rates of this condition have been extrapolated from studies with modest sample sizes, and despite the availability of therapeutic interventions the outcomes of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia are not well understood. We aimed to estimate disease burden, complication rates, and costs of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in the USA. METHODS In this population-based study we analysed data from 2009 to 2013 from the Nationwide (National) Inpatient Sample (NIS), a large, all-payer inpatient health-care database in the USA. To validate the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) code for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (289.84), we defined the sensitivity and specificity of this code using patient data from 2013 from a local hospital (Froedtert Memorial Lutheran Hospital, Milwaukee, WI, USA). The primary outcomes assessed were the incidence of hospital discharges with codes for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and of discharges for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia associated with cardiopulmonary bypass, haemodialysis, hip or knee arthroplasty, trauma or injury (or both), and gingival or periodontal disease (or both). We also assessed the incidence of thrombosis, bleeding, limb or digit amputation, mortality, length of hospital stay, and associated hospital charges. FINDINGS Between 2009 and 2013, 97 566 discharges from the NIS assigned the ICD-9-CM code for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia, and 149 911 247 discharges coded for non-heparin-induced thrombocytopenia, were analysed. Overall, heparin-induced thrombocytopenia was identified in 97 566 (0·065%; SE 0·0012) of 150 008 813 discharges, corresponding to approximately one in 1500 hospital admissions. Patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass had the highest rates of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (7702 [0·63%; SE 0·03] of 1 230 362), followed by those undergoing haemodialysis (23 012 [0·47%; 0·01] of 4 908 100), those with gingival or periodontal disease, or both (106 [0·12%; 0·03] of 88 621), and those with trauma or injury, or both (541 [0·09%; 0·01] of 602 944); patients with hip (845 [0·04%; 0·004] of 1 943 353) and knee (676 [0·02%; 0·002] of 3 022 602) arthroplasty had the lowest rates of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Thrombosis (29 079 [29·8%; SE 0·4] of 97 566) and bleeding (6044 [6·2%; 0·2] of 97 566) were common complications in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia, and 1446 (23·9%; 1·2) of 6044 patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia who had haemorrhage died. 742 (0·76%; SE 0·06) of 97 566 patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia discharges underwent amputations compared with 173 043 (0·12%; 0·001) of 149 911 247 with non-heparin-induced thrombocytopenia discharges (adjusted odds ratio 5·095 [95% CI 4·309-6·023]; p<0·0001). Overall, in-hospital mortality was 9842 (10·1%; SE 0·2) of 97 508 in discharge summaries coded for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia compared with 3 206 700 (2·1%; 0·01) of 149 811 891 in discharges for non-heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (adjusted odds ratio 4·075 [95% CI 3·846-4·317]; p<0·0001). The median length of stay among live discharges was 8·9 days (IQR 4·6-17·1) and total hospital charges were US$83 072 (IQR 37 240-188 419) for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia discharges compared with 2·6 days (1·4-4·8) and $21 360 (11 426-41 917) for non-heparin-induced thrombocytopenia discharges (p<0·0001 for both). 333 discharges from a local hospital were analysed to assess the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of the heparin-induced thrombocytopenia ICD-9-CM code; sensitivity was 90·9% (95% CI 57·1-99·5) and specificity was 94·4% (91·1-96·6). INTERPRETATION Complication rates for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia remain high and more effective preventive and treatment interventions are needed. FUNDING None.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binod Dhakal
- Department of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Lisa Baumann Kreuziger
- Department of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA; Medical Sciences Institute, BloodCenter of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA; Blood Research Institute, BloodCenter of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Lisa Rein
- Department of Biostatistics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Ariel Kleman
- Department of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Raphael Fraser
- Department of Biostatistics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Richard H Aster
- Department of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA; Blood Research Institute, BloodCenter of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Parameswaran Hari
- Department of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Anand Padmanabhan
- Department of Pathology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA; Medical Sciences Institute, BloodCenter of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA; Blood Research Institute, BloodCenter of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA.
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Maharaj S, Chang S, Seegobin K, Morales J, Aysola A, Rana F, Shaikh M. Temporality of heparin-induced antibodies: a retrospective study in outpatients undergoing hemodialysis on unfractionated heparin. Exp Hematol Oncol 2018; 7:23. [PMID: 30221035 PMCID: PMC6137914 DOI: 10.1186/s40164-018-0115-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Heparin-induced antibodies (HIA) are responsible for causing heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis. Research has shown that the temporality of heparin-induced antibodies does not follow the classic immunologic response. The immunobiology of HIA generation remains unclear with varying in vitro and in vivo data. Outpatients undergoing hemodialysis (HD) are exposed to heparin chronically. The HIA immune response can therefore be investigated in vivo in this population. Methods We examined the time between the start of HD using unfractionated heparin and HIA levels in 212 outpatients during a 6-year period. Antibodies were detected on enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. HIA levels were analyzed to determine significance of the trend over time. HIA subgroups were also analyzed for correlation with subsequent thrombotic events and platelet count during follow up. Results Overall, the HIA response in HD was found to peak early with waning antibody response despite continued exposure to heparin. The peak prevalence of a strong immune response (optical density > 1.000) was early and short lived, while weaker immune response (optical density 0.400–1.000) persisted for the first 6 months then declined. The mean follow-up time per patient was 2.3 ± 1.4 years. Despite circulating HIA, including high titers, no patients developed HIT in this sample. There was no association between HIA and thrombocytopenia. There was increased incidence of thrombosis in patients with strong HIA compared to other groups, but this did not achieve statistical significance. Conclusions The data suggest a significant temporal pattern of HIA in outpatients undergoing HD using unfractionated heparin. Positive HIA was not found to be significantly associated with thrombocytopenia or thrombosis risk in these patients. However, while not achieving statistical significance, subsequent thrombotic events occurred most frequently in the strong positive HIA group (optical density > 1.000). Further research into HIA and risk of thrombosis in this population is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satish Maharaj
- 1Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine-Jacksonville, UF Health Jacksonville, 653 W 8th St, Jacksonville, FL 32209 USA
| | - Simone Chang
- 2University of Miami Health System, Miami, FL USA
| | - Karan Seegobin
- 1Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine-Jacksonville, UF Health Jacksonville, 653 W 8th St, Jacksonville, FL 32209 USA
| | - James Morales
- 1Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine-Jacksonville, UF Health Jacksonville, 653 W 8th St, Jacksonville, FL 32209 USA
| | - Agnes Aysola
- 1Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine-Jacksonville, UF Health Jacksonville, 653 W 8th St, Jacksonville, FL 32209 USA
| | - Fauzia Rana
- 1Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine-Jacksonville, UF Health Jacksonville, 653 W 8th St, Jacksonville, FL 32209 USA
| | - Marwan Shaikh
- 1Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine-Jacksonville, UF Health Jacksonville, 653 W 8th St, Jacksonville, FL 32209 USA
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38
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Rauova L, Arepally G, Poncz M, Cines DB. Molecular and cellular pathogenesis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). Autoimmun Rev 2018; 17:1046-1052. [PMID: 30103043 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lubica Rauova
- Division of Hematology, Department of Pediatrics, Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, USA
| | - Gowthami Arepally
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, USA
| | - Mortimer Poncz
- Division of Hematology, Department of Pediatrics, Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, USA
| | - Douglas B Cines
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, USA.
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39
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Gruel Y. Analysis of big data for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: valuable information but also some doubts. Lancet Haematol 2018; 5:e188-e189. [PMID: 29703334 DOI: 10.1016/s2352-3026(18)30050-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yves Gruel
- Department of Haematology-Haemostasis, Trousseau Hospital and EA 7501, University Francois Rabelais, 37044 Tours Cedex, France.
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40
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Sut C, Tariket S, Aubron C, Aloui C, Hamzeh-Cognasse H, Berthelot P, Laradi S, Greinacher A, Garraud O, Cognasse F. The Non-Hemostatic Aspects of Transfused Platelets. Front Med (Lausanne) 2018. [PMID: 29536007 PMCID: PMC5835084 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2018.00042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Platelets transfusion is a safe process, but during or after the process, the recipient may experience an adverse reaction and occasionally a serious adverse reaction (SAR). In this review, we focus on the inflammatory potential of platelet components (PCs) and their involvement in SARs. Recent evidence has highlighted a central role for platelets in the host inflammatory and immune responses. Blood platelets are involved in inflammation and various other aspects of innate immunity through the release of a plethora of immunomodulatory cytokines, chemokines, and associated molecules, collectively termed biological response modifiers that behave like ligands for endothelial and leukocyte receptors and for platelets themselves. The involvement of PCs in SARs—particularly on a critically ill patient’s context—could be related, at least in part, to the inflammatory functions of platelets, acquired during storage lesions. Moreover, we focus on causal link between platelet activation and immune-mediated disorders (transfusion-associated immunomodulation, platelets, polyanions, and bacterial defense and alloimmunization). This is linked to the platelets’ propensity to be activated even in the absence of deliberate stimuli and to the occurrence of time-dependent storage lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Sut
- GIMAP-EA3064, Université de Lyon, Saint-Étienne, France.,Etablissement Français du Sang, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Sofiane Tariket
- GIMAP-EA3064, Université de Lyon, Saint-Étienne, France.,Etablissement Français du Sang, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Cécile Aubron
- Médecine Intensive Réanimation, Centre Hospitalier Régionale et Universitaire de Brest, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Brest, France
| | - Chaker Aloui
- GIMAP-EA3064, Université de Lyon, Saint-Étienne, France
| | | | | | - Sandrine Laradi
- GIMAP-EA3064, Université de Lyon, Saint-Étienne, France.,Etablissement Français du Sang, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Andreas Greinacher
- Institute for Immunology and Transfusion Medicine, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Olivier Garraud
- GIMAP-EA3064, Université de Lyon, Saint-Étienne, France.,Institut National de Transfusion Sanguine (INTS), Paris, France
| | - Fabrice Cognasse
- GIMAP-EA3064, Université de Lyon, Saint-Étienne, France.,Etablissement Français du Sang, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, Saint-Etienne, France
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Schindewolf M, Steindl J, Beyer-Westendorf J, Schellong S, Dohmen PM, Brachmann J, Madlener K, Pötzsch B, Klamroth R, Hankowitz J, Banik N, Eberle S, Müller MM, Kropff S, Lindhoff-Last E. Use of Fondaparinux Off-Label or Approved Anticoagulants for Management of Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 70:2636-2648. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2017.09.1099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Greinacher A, Selleng K, Warkentin TE. Autoimmune heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. J Thromb Haemost 2017; 15:2099-2114. [PMID: 28846826 DOI: 10.1111/jth.13813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Autoimmune heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (aHIT) indicates the presence in patients of anti-platelet factor 4 (PF4)-polyanion antibodies that are able to activate platelets strongly even in the absence of heparin (heparin-independent platelet activation). Nevertheless, as seen with serum obtained from patients with otherwise typical heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), serum-induced platelet activation is inhibited at high heparin concentrations (10-100 IU mL-1 heparin). Furthermore, upon serial dilution, aHIT serum will usually show heparin-dependent platelet activation. Clinical syndromes associated with aHIT include: delayed-onset HIT, persisting HIT, spontaneous HIT syndrome, fondaparinux-associated HIT, heparin 'flush'-induced HIT, and severe HIT (platelet count of < 20 × 109 L-1 ) with associated disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Recent studies have implicated anti-PF4 antibodies that are able to bridge two PF4 tetramers even in the absence of heparin, probably facilitated by non-heparin platelet-associated polyanions (chondroitin sulfate and polyphosphates); nascent PF4-aHIT-IgG complexes recruit additional heparin-dependent HIT antibodies, leading to the formation of large multimolecular immune complexes and marked platelet activation. aHIT can persist for several weeks, and serial fibrin, D-dimer, and fibrinogen levels, rather than the platelet count, may be helpful for monitoring treatment response. Although standard anticoagulant therapy for HIT ought to be effective, published experience indicates frequent failure of activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT)-adjusted anticoagulants (argatroban, bivalirudin), probably because of underdosing in the setting of HIT-associated DIC, known as 'APTT confounding'. Thus, non-APTT-adjusted therapies with drugs such as danaparoid and fondaparinux, or even direct oral anticoagulants, such as rivaroxaban or apixaban, are suggested therapies, especially for long-term management of persisting HIT. In addition, emerging data indicate that high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin can interrupt HIT antibody-induced platelet activation, leading to rapid platelet count recovery.
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MESH Headings
- Administration, Oral
- Animals
- Anticoagulants/administration & dosage
- Anticoagulants/adverse effects
- Anticoagulants/immunology
- Autoantibodies/blood
- Autoimmunity/drug effects
- Blood Coagulation/drug effects
- Blood Platelets/drug effects
- Blood Platelets/immunology
- Blood Platelets/metabolism
- Heparin/adverse effects
- Heparin/immunology
- Humans
- Immunoglobulins, Intravenous/administration & dosage
- Immunologic Factors/administration & dosage
- Partial Thromboplastin Time
- Platelet Activation/drug effects
- Platelet Factor 4/immunology
- Purpura, Thrombocytopenic, Idiopathic/blood
- Purpura, Thrombocytopenic, Idiopathic/chemically induced
- Purpura, Thrombocytopenic, Idiopathic/drug therapy
- Purpura, Thrombocytopenic, Idiopathic/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- A Greinacher
- Institut für Immunologie und Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - K Selleng
- Institut für Immunologie und Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - T E Warkentin
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Department of Medicine, and McMaster Centre for Transfusion Research, Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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Karnes JH, Shaffer CM, Cronin R, Bastarache L, Gaudieri S, James I, Pavlos R, Steiner H, Mosley JD, Mallal S, Denny JC, Phillips EJ, Roden DM. Influence of Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) Alleles and Killer Cell Immunoglobulin-Like Receptors (KIR) Types on Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT). Pharmacotherapy 2017; 37:1164-1171. [PMID: 28688202 PMCID: PMC5600645 DOI: 10.1002/phar.1983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is an unpredictable, life-threatening, immune-mediated reaction to heparin. Variation in human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes is now used to prevent immune-mediated adverse drug reactions. Combinations of HLA alleles and killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) are associated with multiple autoimmune diseases and infections. The objective of this study is to evaluate the association of HLA alleles and KIR types, alone or in the presence of different HLA ligands, with HIT. HIT cases and heparin-exposed controls were identified in BioVU, an electronic health record coupled to a DNA biobank. HLA sequencing and KIR type imputation using Illumina OMNI-Quad data were performed. Odds ratios for HLA alleles and KIR types and HLA*KIR interactions using conditional logistic regressions were determined in the overall population and by race/ethnicity. Analysis was restricted to KIR types and HLA alleles with a frequency greater than 0.01. The p values for HLA and KIR association were corrected by using a false discovery rate q<0.05 and HLA*KIR interactions were considered significant at p<0.05. Sixty-five HIT cases and 350 matched controls were identified. No statistical differences in baseline characteristics were observed between cases and controls. The HLA-DRB3*01:01 allele was significantly associated with HIT in the overall population (odds ratio 2.81 [1.57-5.02], p=2.1×10-4 , q=0.02) and in individuals with European ancestry, independent of other alleles. No KIR types were associated with HIT, although a significant interaction was observed between KIR2DS5 and the HLA-C1 KIR binding group (p=0.03). The HLA-DRB3*01:01 allele was identified as a potential risk factor for HIT. This class II HLA gene and allele represent biologically plausible candidates for influencing HIT pathogenesis. We found limited evidence of the role of KIR types in HIT pathogenesis. Replication and further study of the HLA-DRB3*01:01 association is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason H Karnes
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Arizona College of Pharmacy, Tucson, AZ
- Sarver Heart Center, Tucson, AZ
| | - Christian M Shaffer
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN
| | - Robert Cronin
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville
| | - Lisa Bastarache
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville
| | - Silvana Gaudieri
- School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN
- Institute for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Ian James
- Institute for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Rebecca Pavlos
- Institute for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Heidi Steiner
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Arizona College of Pharmacy, Tucson, AZ
| | - Jonathan D Mosley
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN
| | - Simon Mallal
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN
- Institute for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN
| | - Joshua C Denny
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville
| | - Elizabeth J Phillips
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN
| | - Dan M Roden
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN
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Anti-Platelet Factor 4/Heparin Antibody Formation Occurs Endogenously and at Unexpected High Frequency in Polycythemia Vera. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 2017:9876819. [PMID: 28698883 PMCID: PMC5494054 DOI: 10.1155/2017/9876819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Revised: 04/05/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Background Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN) encounter thromboses due to multiple known risk factors. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is a thrombotic syndrome mediated by anti-platelet factor 4 (PF4)/heparin antibodies with undetermined significance for thrombosis in MPN. We hypothesized that anti-PF4/heparin Ab might occur in MPN and promote thrombosis. Methods Anti-PF4/heparin antibodies were analyzed in 127 MPN patients including 76 PV and 51 ET. Screening, validation testing, and isotype testing of anti-PF4/heparin Ab were correlated with disease characteristics. Results Anti-PF4/heparin antibodies were detected in 21% of PV and 12% of ET versus 0.3–3% in heparin-exposed patients. Validation testing confirmed anti-PF4/heparin immunoglobulins in 15% of PV and 10% of ET. Isotype testing detected 9.2% IgG and 5.3% IgM in PV and exclusively IgM in ET. IgG-positive PV patients encountered thromboses in 57.1% suggesting anti-PF4/heparin IgG may contribute to higher risk for thrombosis in MPN. Overall, 45% of PV patients experienced thromboses with 11.8% positive for anti-PF4/heparin IgG versus 7.1% in PV without thrombosis. Conclusion Anti-PF4/heparin antibodies occur endogenously and more frequently in MPN than upon heparin exposure. Thrombotic risk increases in anti-PF4/heparin IgG-positive PV reflecting potential implications and calling for larger, confirmatory cohorts. Anti-PF4/heparin IgG should be assessed upon thrombosis in PV to facilitate avoidance of heparin in anti-PF4/heparin IgG-positive PV.
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Anti-platelet factor 4/polyanion antibodies mediate a new mechanism of autoimmunity. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14945. [PMID: 28530237 PMCID: PMC5458132 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibodies recognizing complexes of the chemokine platelet factor 4 (PF4/CXCL4) and polyanions (P) opsonize PF4-coated bacteria hereby mediating bacterial host defense. A subset of these antibodies may activate platelets after binding to PF4/heparin complexes, causing the prothrombotic adverse drug reaction heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). In autoimmune-HIT, anti-PF4/P-antibodies activate platelets in the absence of heparin. Here we show that antibodies with binding forces of approximately 60–100 pN activate platelets in the presence of polyanions, while a subset of antibodies from autoimmune-HIT patients with binding forces ≥100 pN binds to PF4 alone in the absence of polyanions. These antibodies with high binding forces cluster PF4-molecules forming antigenic complexes which allow binding of polyanion-dependent anti-PF4/P-antibodies. The resulting immunocomplexes induce massive platelet activation in the absence of heparin. Antibody-mediated changes in endogenous proteins that trigger binding of otherwise non-pathogenic (or cofactor-dependent) antibodies may also be relevant in other antibody-mediated autoimmune disorders. Antibodies against the platelet factor 4 (PF4) support bacterial host defence but in some cases may lead to heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). Nguyen et al. show that in autoimmune HIT a subset of antibodies binds strongly to PF4 causing its conformational change that leads to association of non-pathogenic PF4 antibodies and thrombotic platelet activation.
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Abstract
Due to familiarity, short half-life, ease of monitoring, and the availability of a reversal agent, heparin remains the anticoagulant of choice for cardiac operations requiring cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). However, occasionally patients require CPB but should not receive heparin, most often because of acute or subacute heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). In these cases, if it is not feasible to wait for the disappearance of HIT antibodies, an alternative anticoagulant must be selected. A number of non-heparin anticoagulant options have been explored. However, current recommendations suggest the use of a direct thrombin inhibitor such as bivalirudin. This review describes the use of heparin alternatives for the conduct of CPB with a focus on the direct thrombin inhibitors.
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Onwuemene O, Arepally GM. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: research and clinical updates. HEMATOLOGY. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEMATOLOGY. EDUCATION PROGRAM 2016; 2016:262-268. [PMID: 27913490 PMCID: PMC6142447 DOI: 10.1182/asheducation-2016.1.262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) remains an important diagnosis to consider in hospitalized patients developing thrombocytopenia. HIT is an immune-mediated prothrombotic disorder caused by antibodies to platelet factor 4 (PF4) and heparin. Recent basic scientific studies have advanced our understanding of disease pathogenesis through studies of the PF4/heparin structure, immune mechanisms, and cellular basis of thrombosis. Clinical advances have also occurred in areas of HIT prevention, description of disease variants, and diagnostic strategies. Emerging anticoagulants with the potential to change HIT treatment are evolving, although with limited data. This review will provide a current perspective on HIT pathogenesis, disease features, diagnostic strategies, and role of emerging therapies for the management of HIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwatoyosi Onwuemene
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
| | - Gowthami M Arepally
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
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Madeeva D, Cines DB, Poncz M, Rauova L. Role of monocytes and endothelial cells in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Thromb Haemost 2016; 116:806-812. [PMID: 27487857 DOI: 10.1160/th16-02-0162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is an autoimmune disorder characterised by thrombocytopenia and thrombosis. The mechanisms leading to platelet destruction are complex and the thrombotic complications of HIT appear to be due to multiple different intravascular targets. The dual binding of HIT antibodies to platelet surface PF4/GAG complexes and to FcγRIIA likely leads to both platelet clearance and to their direct activation. Monocytes and endothelial cells bind PF4 with higher avidity than platelets and are more resistant to competitive removal of surface-bound PF4 in the presence of heparin. Binding of HIT antibodies to PF4/glycosaminoglycan complexes on the surface on these cells leads to their activation and increased procoagulant activity. Binding of higher levels of PF4 released from activated platelets to the endothelium may lead to changes of the anticoagulant properties of the glycocalyx and target the endothelial cells for HIT antibodies. Pathogenic antibodies bound to endothelial cells further promote prothrombotic conditions by a mechanism that is independent of FcγR activation, yet not completely understood. A more detailed understanding of the role of monocytes and endothelium may identify new targets for intervention to mitigate the risk of thrombosis with less impact on systemic haemostasis than current approaches to treatment for this serious disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Lubica Rauova
- Lubica Rauova, MD, PhD, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 3615 Civic Center Blvd, ARC, Rm. 316F, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA, Tel.: +1 215 590 4667, Fax: +1 267 426 5476, E-mail:
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Khandelwal S, Arepally GM. Immune pathogenesis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Thromb Haemost 2016; 116:792-798. [PMID: 27465274 DOI: 10.1160/th16-01-0074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The immune response to heparin is one of the most common drug-induced allergies, and yet, atypical for a drug hypersensitivity reaction. Whereas most drug-induced allergies are rare, idiosyncratic and life-long, the allergic response to heparin is common, predictable in certain clinical settings and transient. Advances in the last decade with regards to structural characterisation of the PF4/heparin antigenic complex, contributions of innate immunity and development of animal models have provided insights into the distinctive features of the HIT immune response. Recent descriptions of the crystal structure of the PF4/heparin complex, alongside other biophysical studies, have clarified the structural requirements for immunogenicity and heparin-dependency of antibody formation. Studies of interactions of PF4 with bacterial cell walls as well as epidemiologic associations of anti-PF4/heparin antibody formation and infection suggest a role for immune priming and explain the rapid evolution of an isotype-switched immune response in sensitised patients. Murine models have greatly facilitated investigations of cellular basis of the HIT response and identified a major role for T-cells and marginal zone B-cells, but key findings have yet to be validated in human disease. This chapter will summarise recent investigations of the HIT immune response in the context of major pathways of immune activation and identify areas of uncertainty.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gowthami M Arepally
- Gowthami Arepally, MD, Division of Hematology, DUMC Box 3486, Rm 356A Alex H. Sands Bldg., Research Drive, Durham, NC 27710, USA, Tel: +1 919 668 3696, Fax: +1 919 684 2420, E-mail:
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Krauel K, Schulze A, Jouni R, Hackbarth C, Hietkamp B, Selleng S, Koster A, Jensch I, van der Linde J, Schwertz H, Bakchoul T, Hundt M, Greinacher A. Further insights into the anti-PF4/heparin IgM immune response. Thromb Haemost 2015; 115:752-61. [PMID: 26467272 DOI: 10.1160/th15-08-0654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 09/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Anti-platelet factor 4 (PF4)/heparin antibodies are not only the cause of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia but might also play a role in the antibacterial host defence. Recently, marginal zone (MZ) B cells were identified to be crucial for anti-PF4/heparin IgG antibody production in mice. Combining human studies and a murine model of polymicrobial sepsis we further characterised the far less investigated anti-PF4/heparin IgM immune response. We detected anti-PF4/heparin IgM antibodies in the sera of paediatric patients < 6 months of age after cardiac surgery and in sera of splenectomised mice subjected to polymicrobial sepsis. In addition, PF4/heparin-specific IgM B cells were not only found in murine spleen, but also in peritoneum and bone marrow upon in vitro stimulation. Together, this indicates involvement of additional B cell populations, as MZ B cells are not fully developed in humans until the second year of life and are restricted to the spleen in mice. Moreover, PF4/heparin-specific B cells were detected in human cord blood upon in vitro stimulation and PF4-/- mice produced anti-PF4/heparin IgM antibodies after polymicrobial sepsis. In conclusion, the anti-PF4/heparin IgM response is a potential innate immune reaction driven by a B cell population distinct from MZ B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Andreas Greinacher
- Prof. Dr. Andreas Greinacher, Institut für Immunologie und Transfusionsmedizin, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Ferdinand-Sauerbruch-Strasse, D-17489 Greifswald, Germany, Tel.: +49 3834 865482, Fax: +49 3834 865489, E-mail:
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