Alexithymia as a prognostic risk factor for health problems: a brief review of epidemiological studies

Alexithymia, intolerance to uncertainty and mental health difficulties in adolescents with Type 1 diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) represents a serious chronic condition affecting a wide number of people. Discussion of the physical issues associated with T1DM pervades the literature, however, there is less discussion of the psychological consequences. Mental health difficulties, alexithymia and uncertainty are present in this population, and known to be harmful for the onset, maintenance and worsening of T1DM. This study aimed to evaluate the presence of these phenomena in people with T1DM.

METHODS

105 participants aged between 11 and 17 years old (M: 13.88; SD: 2.16) affected by T1DM were included in the sample. To assess the presence of mental health difficulties, SAFA scales (Depression, Anxiety and Somatic symptoms) were included in the protocol together with TAS-20 and IUS-12, which evaluate the presence and role of alexithymia and intolerance to uncertainty in the sample, respectively.

RESULTS

A concerning presence of anxiety, depression and somatic symptoms was found in the sample. Mental health difficulties appeared to be consistently present in the sample, often overcoming pathological thesholds. Alexithymia and uncertainty were also common, highlighting their role in T1DM.

CONCLUSIONS

Active mental health difficulties together with high rates of alexithymia and intolerance to uncertainty were prevalent in the sample of adolescents with diabetes.

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, Psychopathology, Uncertainty and Alexithymia: A Clinical and Differential Exploratory Study

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) represents a complex pathology affecting a large number of people. Research suggests that psychological factors influence coping with T1DM. This study aimed to investigate the presence and role of psychopathology, alexithymia and uncertainty in people affected by T1DM. The sample consisted of 137 patients (88 females, 49 males) affected by T1DM aged from 11 to 19 years old (Mean: 13.87; SD: 2.40). The diagnostic protocol consisted of a sociodemographic questionnaire, Self-administration Psychiatric Scales for Children and Adolescents (SAFA), Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20 (TAS-20) and Intolerance to Uncertainty Scale-12 (IUS-12). Descriptive, differential, correlational and regression analyses were performed in order to examine the relationships between these variables. The results suggested the sample had high levels of psychopathological indexes, alexithymia and intolerance of uncertainty. Also, there were significant differences between TAS-20 and IUS-12 distributions with respect to psychopathology. Correlations and multivariate linear regressions indicated age, gender and education significantly predicted alexithymia and intolerance of uncertainty. This data suggest the presence of elevated psychopathology, alexithymia and uncertainty in people with diabetes.

Alexithymia and asthma: a systematic review

Growing evidence from scientific research elucidates the important role of alexithymia in chronic immune diseases. This Review aims to explore the presence of alexithymia in patients affected by asthma and clarify its associations with other involved psychological and physical factors. In January 2023, according to PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search using PubMed and Scopus was conducted. Twenty-six studies were eligible based on inclusion criteria. Alexithymia was significantly present in asthma patients, with most studies reporting a higher prevalence (from 9 to 62.8%) than in control groups (approximately 10%). The coexistence of asthma and alexithymia was associated with a worse quality of life, psychiatric comorbidity, poor symptom control, and difficulty in recognizing exacerbations of the disease. These results suggest that alexithymia can negatively impact the management of asthma. For this reason, we recommend an accuracy assessment in clinical settings and the implementation of psychological interventions to promote the emotional and physical wellbeing of asthmatic patients.

The relationship between alexithymia, communication skills and mental well-being of Nurses' in Turkey: A cross-sectional study

PURPOSE

The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between alexithymia, communication skills, and mental well-being of nurses.

METHODS

This descriptive and correlational study was conducted with 272 nurses working in a hospital in Turkey. Data were collected using the "Introductory Information Form", "Health Professionals Communication Skills Scale", "Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale", and "Toronto Alexithymia Scale". Mean and percentage distributions as well as Pearson's correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis were used to analyze the data. The STROBE checklist was used to report this study.

RESULTS

It was determined that non-alexithymic nurses had higher mean scores communication skills and in mental well-being compared to alexithymic nurses. The nurses' alexithymia scores were negatively correlated with their communication skills and mental well-being scores. On the other hand, their nurses' mental well-being scores were positively correlated with their communication skills scores. Communication skills and mental well-being of the nurses accounted for 38.5 % of their alexithymia levels.

CONCLUSIONS

It is recommended that awareness-based interventions be carried out since increasing the emotional awareness of nurses will contribute to the development of their professional skills as well as their positive psychological effects.

What Is the Role of Psychological Factors in Long COVID Syndrome? Latent Class Analysis in a Sample of Patients Recovered from COVID-19

Background: This study aimed to identify clusters of long COVID-19 symptoms using latent class analysis and investigate the psychological factors involved in the onset of this syndrome. Method: Five hundred and six subjects recovering from COVID-19 completed a series of standardized questionnaires to evaluate the personality traits, alexithymia, and post-traumatic stress. Results: Five classes were identified: Brain fog (31.82%), No symptoms (20.95%), Sensory disorders (18.77%), Breath impairment (17.59%), and Multiple disorders (10.87%). Women reported post-COVID-19 respiratory symptoms and multiple disorders to a greater extent than men. Hospitalized subjects were more likely to report persistent symptoms after COVID-19 than asymptomatic or home-treated subjects. Antagonism, hyperarousal, and difficulty identifying emotions significantly predicted post COVID-19 symptoms. Conclusions: These findings open new questions for research on long COVID-19 and how states of emotional dysregulation can alter the physiological processes of the body and contribute to the onset of organic pathologies.

Alexithymia and intolerance of uncertainty predict somatic symptoms in autistic and non-autistic adults

LAY ABSTRACT

Autistic people have more physical health problems than non-autistic people. We were interested in whether autistic people experience more discomfort in their bodies than non-autistic people and whether certain psychological traits contribute to that. A survey was completed online by older adolescents and adults, 51 of whom were autistic, 32 of whom thought they might be autistic but were not diagnosed and 119 who were not autistic. They completed measures of somatic symptoms (daily experience of pain, discomfort, dizziness), alexithymia (difficulty identifying and expressing feelings), interoception (how much people are aware of their bodies) and intolerance of uncertainty (how people handle doubt or uncertainty), and reported any physical or mental health conditions. We found that the autistic participants had more physical and mental health conditions than the non-autistic participants, but even when we took account of this, they experienced higher levels of somatic symptoms. We looked at which psychological factors influenced levels of somatic symptoms across the whole sample, and found that alexithymia, intolerance of uncertainty, having physical health problems, being female and the number of mental health conditions predicted somatic symptoms, while interoception and autism diagnosis did not. The findings suggest that people may be more likely to experience physical discomfort if they are female, and have difficulty identifying and expressing feeling and difficulty tolerating doubt. As these psychological factors are more prominent in autism, we think this is important for physical and mental health providers to know about, so that these psychological factors can be considered when assessing and treating autistic people.

Alexithymia in autism: cross-sectional and longitudinal associations with social-communication difficulties, anxiety and depression symptoms

BACKGROUND

Alexithymia (difficulties in identifying and describing emotion) is a transdiagnostic trait implicated in social-emotional and mental health problems in the general population. Many autistic individuals experience significant social-communication difficulties and elevated anxiety/depression and alexithymia. Nevertheless, the role of alexithymia in explaining individual variability in the quality/severity of social-communication difficulties and/or anxiety and depression symptoms in autism remains poorly understood.

METHODS

In total, 337 adolescents and adults (autism N = 179) were assessed for alexithymia on the Toronto Alexithymia Scale and for social-communication difficulties, anxiety and depression symptoms. A total of 135 individuals (autism N = 76) were followed up 12-24 months later. We used regression models to establish cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between alexithymia, social-communication difficulties, anxiety and depression symptoms.

RESULTS

Autistic individuals reported significantly higher alexithymia than comparison individuals (p < 0.001, r effect size = 0.48), with 47.3% of autistic females and 21.0% of autistic males meeting cut-off for clinically relevant alexithymia (score ⩾61). Difficulties in describing feelings were particularly associated with current self-reported social-communication difficulties [p < 0.001, β = 0.57, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.44-0.67] and predicted later social-communication difficulties (p = 0.02, β = 0.43, 95% CI 0.07-0.82). Difficulties in identifying feelings were particularly associated with current anxiety symptom severity (p < 0.001, β = 0.54, 95% CI 0.41-0.77) and predicted later anxiety (p = 0.01; β = 0.31, 95% CI 0.08-0.62).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that difficulties in identifying v. describing emotion are associated with differential clinical outcomes in autism. Psychological therapies targeting emotional awareness may improve social-communication and anxiety symptoms in autism, potentially conferring long-term benefits.

The Relationship Between Death Anxiety and Alexithymia in Emergency Medical Technicians

INTRODUCTION

When confronted with traumatic accidents and events that result in death, people are at risk of developing death anxiety. Due to their stressful job, emergency medical technicians (EMTs) will develop alexithymia and be unable to express and manage their emotions over time. Studies show that alexithymia causes physical and mental disorders in many people. The present study aimed to determine the relationship between death anxiety and alexithymia in EMTs.

METHODS

The convenience sampling method was used to select 400 EMTs in southeastern Iran who met the inclusion criteria for this descriptive-analytical study. The Templer Death Anxiety Scale and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale were used to collect data. SPSS version 20 was used to analyze the data, which included descriptive and analytical statistics (Independent t test, ANOVA, Pearson correlation, and regression).

RESULTS

The results of the study showed that the mean score of death anxiety in EMTs was 10.26 ± 3.69. It was revealed that 46.7% of the EMTs experienced severe death anxiety. Furthermore, the total mean score of alexithymia in EMTs was 59.65 ± 8.28, indicating the possibility of alexithymia. The Pearson correlation test showed a direct moderate relationship between death anxiety and alexithymia scores (r = .351, p < .001).

CONCLUSION

According to the results, there is a direct significant relationship between death anxiety and alexithymia in EMTs. Therefore, it is suggested that EMTs be continuously taught effective methods to deal with death anxiety and reduce the physical and mental disorders caused by this problem.

Improving the measurement of alexithymia in autistic adults: a psychometric investigation of the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale and generation of a general alexithymia factor score using item response theory

BACKGROUND

Alexithymia, a personality trait characterized by difficulties interpreting emotional states, is commonly elevated in autistic adults, and a growing body of literature suggests that this trait underlies several cognitive and emotional differences previously attributed to autism. Although questionnaires such as the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) are frequently used to measure alexithymia in the autistic population, few studies have investigated the psychometric properties of these questionnaires in autistic adults, including whether differential item functioning (I-DIF) exists between autistic and general population adults.

METHODS

This study is a revised version of a previous article that was retracted due to copyright concerns (Williams and Gotham in Mol Autism 12:1-40). We conducted an in-depth psychometric analysis of the TAS-20 in a large sample of 743 cognitively able autistic adults recruited from the Simons Foundation SPARK participant pool and 721 general population controls enrolled in a large international psychological study. The factor structure of the TAS-20 was examined using confirmatory factor analysis, and item response theory was used to generate a subset of the items that were strong indicators of a "general alexithymia" factor. Correlations between alexithymia and other clinical outcomes were used to assess the nomological validity of the new alexithymia score in the SPARK sample.

RESULTS

The TAS-20 did not exhibit adequate model fit in either the autistic or general population samples. Empirically driven item reduction was undertaken, resulting in an 8-item general alexithymia factor score (GAFS-8, with "TAS" no longer referenced due to copyright) with sound psychometric properties and practically ignorable I-DIF between diagnostic groups. Correlational analyses indicated that GAFS-8 scores, as derived from the TAS-20, meaningfully predict autistic trait levels, repetitive behaviors, and depression symptoms, even after controlling for trait neuroticism. The GAFS-8 also presented no meaningful decrement in nomological validity over the full TAS-20 in autistic participants.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations of the current study include a sample of autistic adults that was majority female, later diagnosed, and well educated; clinical and control groups drawn from different studies with variable measures; only 16 of the TAS-20 items being administered to the non-autistic sample; and an inability to test several other important psychometric characteristics of the GAFS-8, including sensitivity to change and I-DIF across multiple administrations.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate the potential of the GAFS-8 to robustly measure alexithymia in both autistic and non-autistic adults. A free online score calculator has been created to facilitate the use of norm-referenced GAFS-8 latent trait scores in research applications (available at https://asdmeasures.shinyapps.io/alexithymia ).

Alexithymia is associated with reduced vitamin D levels, but not polymorphisms of the vitamin D binding-protein gene

OBJECTIVE

Alexithymia is a personality trait characterized by difficulties in identifying and describing emotions, which is associated with various psychiatric disorders, including depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Its pathogenesis is incompletely understood but previous studies suggested that genetic as well as metabolic factors, are involved. However, no results on the role of vitamin D and the polymorphisms rs4588 and rs7041 of the vitamin D binding protein (VDBP) have been published so far.

METHODS

Serum levels of total 25(OH)D were measured in two general-population samples (total n = 5733) of the Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP). The Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20 (TAS-20) was applied to measure alexithymia. Study participants were genotyped for rs4588 and rs7041. Linear and logistic regression analyses adjusted for sex, age, waist circumference, physical activity, season and study and, when applicable, for the batch of genotyping and the first three genetic principal components, were performed. In sensitivity analyses, the models were additionally adjusted for depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

25(OH)D levels were negatively associated with TAS-20 scores (β = -0.002; P < 0.001) and alexithymia according to the common cutoff of TAS-20>60 (β = -0.103; P < 0.001). These results remained stable after adjusting for depressive symptoms. The tested genetic polymorphisms were not significantly associated with alexithymia.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that low vitamin D levels may be involved in the pathophysiology of alexithymia. Given that no associations between alexithymia and rs4588 as well as rs7041 were observed, indicates that behavioral or nutritional features of alexithymic subjects could also explain this association.

Alexithymia and metabolic syndrome: the mediating role of binge eating

PURPOSE

Alexithymia, a personality trait characterized by difficulties in emotional processing, has been associated with unhealthy behaviors and chronic medical conditions. This study aimed to further develop our understanding of this complex relationship by investigating whether alexithymia increases the risk of metabolic syndrome (MetS) in participants with obesity or overweight through the mediating role of binge eating (BE).

METHODS

A consecutive sample of 238 treatment-seeking patients with obesity or overweight were recruited. Alexithymia (TAS-20), binge eating symptoms (BES), body mass index (BMI), and depression and anxiety symptoms (HADS) were concurrently assessed.

RESULTS

Almost half of the participants met the criteria for MetS (44.12%). Compared to patients without MetS, those with MetS were older, had a longer duration of overweight, and had a higher BMI (p < 0.01). Individual with MetS also had higher HADS, BES, and TAS-20 scores, particularly difficulty identifying and describing feelings. The structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis revealed that BES levels exerted a significant direct effect on MetS (p < 0.01), and that TAS-20 levels exerted a significant direct effect on BES (p < 0.01), anxiety (p < 0.001) and depression (p < 0.001). Moreover, psychological distress (anxiety, p = 0.01, and depression, p = .05) indirectly affected MetS through the mediating effect of BES, and TAS-20 (p = 0.01) indirectly affected MetS through the mediating effect of HADS and BES. Finally, age had a significant direct effect on MetS (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that alexithymia is a concurrent causative factor to the development of MetS through the mediating role of BE and psychological distress.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, case-control analytic study.

Improving the measurement of alexithymia in autistic adults: a psychometric investigation and refinement of the twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale

BACKGROUND

Alexithymia, a personality trait characterized by difficulties interpreting one's own emotional states, is commonly elevated in autistic adults, and a growing body of literature suggests that this trait underlies a number of cognitive and emotional differences previously attributed to autism, such as difficulties in facial emotion recognition and reduced empathy. Although questionnaires such as the twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) are frequently used to measure alexithymia in the autistic population, few studies have attempted to determine the psychometric properties of these questionnaires in autistic adults, including whether differential item functioning (I-DIF) exists between autistic and general population adults.

METHODS

We conducted an in-depth psychometric analysis of the TAS-20 in a large sample of 743 verbal autistic adults recruited from the Simons Foundation SPARK participant pool and 721 general population controls enrolled in a large international psychological study (the Human Penguin Project). The factor structure of the TAS-20 was examined using confirmatory factor analysis, and item response theory was used to further refine the scale based on local model misfit and I-DIF between the groups. Correlations between alexithymia and other clinical outcomes such as autistic traits, anxiety, and quality-of-life were used to assess the nomological validity of the revised alexithymia scale in the SPARK sample.

RESULTS

The TAS-20 did not exhibit adequate global model fit in either the autistic or general population samples. Empirically driven item reduction was undertaken, resulting in an eight-item unidimensional scale (TAS-8) with sound psychometric properties and practically ignorable I-DIF between diagnostic groups. Correlational analyses indicated that TAS-8 scores meaningfully predict autistic trait levels, anxiety and depression symptoms, and quality of life, even after controlling for trait neuroticism.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations of the current study include a sample of autistic adults that was overwhelmingly female, later-diagnosed, and well-educated; clinical and control groups drawn from different studies with variable measures; and an inability to test several other important psychometric characteristics of the TAS-8, including sensitivity to change and I-DIF across multiple administrations.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate the potential of the TAS-8 as a psychometrically robust tool to measure alexithymia in both autistic and non-autistic adults. A free online score calculator has been created to facilitate the use of norm-referenced TAS-8 latent trait scores in research applications (available at http://asdmeasures.shinyapps.io/TAS8_Score ).

The Importance of Alexithymia in Post-surgery. Differences on Body Image and Psychological Adjustment in Breast Cancer Patients

Breast cancer is a disease that is difficult to face and that often hinders body acceptance. Body changes due to surgery can be very emotionally challenging for those who experience them. The aim of this study is to explore the differences on body image and psychological adjustment on women with breast cancer with high and low alexithymia according to the type of surgery. In this cross-sectional study, 119 women diagnosed with breast cancer (stages I, II, and III) were evaluated with different self-report questionnaires. Afterward, patients were divided into two groups (high and low levels of alexithymia) to analyze dependent variables (body image and psychological adjustment) according to the type of surgery (radical mastectomy or breast conserving therapy). The results of the General Linear Model suggest that when patients show high alexithymia combined with having undergone a radical mastectomy, they show higher levels of Hopelessness. Furthermore, in patients with high alexithymia, higher scores of maladaptive coping styles and greater distortion of body image were found. Alexithymia seems to play an important role in the way in which women cope with their disease, especially in those with radical mastectomy.

The Mediating Role of Alexithymia in the Association Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Postdeployment Mental Health in Canadian Armed Forces Personnel

Recent studies showing an association between adverse childhood experiences and the development of alexithymia in military personnel have generated interest regarding the role of alexithymia in the pathway linking childhood trauma exposure to mental health disorders. Accordingly, the current study was conducted to (a) examine the associations among adverse childhood experiences, alexithymia, and symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among recently deployed Canadian military personnel and (b) assess the mediating role of alexithymia in these associations. Data collected from 2,927 members of the Canadian Armed Forces at baseline and after their return from an overseas deployment were subjected to a prospective path analysis. The results of the path analysis, R² = .35, pointed to a significant direct effect of childhood adversity on postdeployment mental health symptoms. Contrary to our expectations, the results also pointed to a negative indirect effect of childhood neglect, suggesting that childhood neglect contributed to lower levels of postdeployment depression and PTSD symptoms through the dimension of alexithymia related to difficulty in describing feelings. These patterns of associations, for the most part, persisted even when accounting for combat exposure during recent deployments, R² = .42. The present results are discussed in light of study limitations and methodological considerations, and policy and clinical implications are noted.

Alexithymia, infertility-related stress and quality of life in women undergoing an assisted reproductive treatment

The investigation of the association between alexithymia and quality of life in infertility is a relatively neglected area of research. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between alexithymia and infertility-related quality of life in women during Assisted Reproductive Treatment. Data were collected in a clinic in Rome, 93 infertile women completed the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), the Fertility Quality of Life (FertiQoL) questionnaire and a socio-demographic questionnaire. TAS-20 total and two factors-Difficulty in Identifying Feelings (DIF) and Difficulty in Describing Feelings (DDF)-showed significant negative correlations with the overall questionnaire and with both Core and Treatment modules of FertiQoL. The regression model explained the 43% variance in FertiQol overall scores (R² = 0.43; adjusted R² = .38); a significant effect was reported for the number of previous attempts (beta = 0.20; p < .04), TAS-20 DIF (beta = -0.47; p < .001) and TAS-20 Externally Orientated Thinking (EOT) (beta = 0.20; p < .04); after applying Benjamini-Hochberg correction procedure only TAS-20 DIF maintained its significance. Alexithymia is associated with a worsened quality of life in infertile women; specifically, low difficulties in identifying feelings were associated to higher quality of life. Further investigations are needed also to develop specific therapeutic interventions aimed to promote emotional abilities in infertile people.

Emotion and overeating behavior: effects of alexithymia and emotional regulation on overweight and obesity

PURPOSE

Obesity and overweight are significant risk factors for many serious diseases. Several studies have investigated the relationship between emotional regulation and overweight or obesity in people with eating disorders. Although a few studies have explored alexithymia in individuals with severe obesity without eating disorders, no attention has been paid to individuals with overweight and preclinical form of obesity. This study aims to assess whether overweight and obesity are related to emotional dysregulation and alexithymia.

METHODS

The study involved 111 undergraduate students who had not been diagnosed with an eating disorder. The sample was divided into two groups according to their body mass index (BMI): normal weight (N = 55) and overweight (N = 56). All of them completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), the Emotional Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), and the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2).

RESULTS

Results showed higher levels of alexithymia, and specifically higher difficulty in identifying feelings and an externally oriented thought, in participants with overweight. Multiple correlation analysis highlighted the positive relations between some EDI-2 subscales and both alexithymia and emotional regulation scores. Linear regressions revealed a significant relationship between body BMI and both alexithymia and emotional regulation strategies.

CONCLUSIONS

The condition of overweight/obesity seems to be associated with higher emotional dysregulation compared to normal weight condition. It is essential to study this relationship because it could represent a risk factor for the worsening of problems related to overeating and excessive body weight. These findings suggest that an integrated approach aimed at considering the promotion of emotional regulation could contribute to the effectiveness of a program designed to reduce overweight and obesity.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III: case-control analytic study.

Affective agnosia: a core affective processing deficit in the alexithymia spectrum

Affective agnosia, an impairment in knowing how one feels emotionally, has been described as an extreme deficit in the experience and expression of emotion that may confer heightened risk for adverse medical outcomes. Alexithymia, by contrast, has been proposed as an over-arching construct that includes a spectrum of deficits of varying severity, including affective agnosia at the more severe end. This perspective has been challenged by Taylor and colleagues, who argue that the concept of affective agnosia is unnecessary. We compare these two perspectives by highlighting areas of agreement, reasons for asserting the importance of the affective agnosia concept, errors in Taylor and colleagues’ critique, and measurement issues. The need for performance-based measures of the ability to mentally represent emotional states in addition to metacognitive measures is emphasized. We then draw on a previously proposed three-process model of emotional awareness that distinguishes affective response generation, conceptualization and cognitive control processes which interact to produce a variety of emotional awareness and alexithymia phenotypes - including affective agnosia. The tools for measuring these three processes, their neural substrates, the mechanisms of brain-body interactions that confer heightened risk for adverse medical outcomes, and the differential treatment implications for different kinds of deficits are described. By conceptualizing alexithymia as a spectrum of deficits, the opportunity to match specific deficit mechanisms with personalized treatment for patients will be enhanced.

Relationship between MIDAS, depression, anxiety and alexithymia in migraine patients

The co-existence of psychiatric comorbidities with migraine is well known; however, the relationship between alexithymia and migraine has not been persuasively shown yet. The aim of the study was to assess the relationships between migraine-related disability, depression, anxiety and alexithymia. One hundred and forty-five migraine patients (33.18 ± 8.6; 111 females, 34 males), and 50 control subjects (29.06 ± 7.6; 34 females, 16 males) were prospectively enrolled for the study. The participants completed a demographic data form and Migraine Disability Assessment Scale, Beck Depression Inventory, Beck Anxiety Inventory and Toronto Alexithymia Score-20 (TAS-20). All migraine patients were more depressive (p = 0.01) and anxious (p = 0.001) than the healthy subjects. TAS-20 scores of the migraine sufferers and the control group did not indicate alexithymia. The migraine-related disability of all migraine patients was severe (27.84 ± 29.22). Depression and anxiety scores in the migraine patients were highly correlated with each other and TAS-20 (r = 0.485, p = 0.001) and all its subscales in turn: difficulty in identifying (r = 0.435, p < 0.001) and describing feelings (r = 0.451, p = 0.001) and externally oriented thinking (r = 0.302, p = 0.001). Moreover, logistic regression analysis revealed that depression and anxiety predicted alexithymia. Our findings showed a complex relationship between migraine, depression, anxiety and alexithymia. On the other hand, alexithymia apparently was not directly connected to migraine, but its presence could be predicted in migraine patients because of co-morbid depression and anxiety.

Ideal cardiovascular health in adolescents and young adults is associated with alexithymia over two decades later: Findings from the cardiovascular risk in Young Finns Study: Department: Research Centre of Applied and Preventive Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

We evaluated the association of cardiovascular health in adolescence and young adulthood with alexithymia 25 years later. The study sample (n = 1122) participated in evaluations conducted in 1986 (baseline) and in 2011-2012 (T2). Baseline health factors and behaviors were assessed utilizing seven ideal cardiovascular health metrics (ICH index) including blood pressure, cholesterol and glucose levels, smoking, physical activity, body-mass-index, and diet. The stability of the ICH index was evaluated with corresponding assessments in 2007 (T1). At T2, alexithymia was measured with the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). The main analyses were conducted using ANCOVA and adjusted for depression, age, and present social and lifestyle factors. TAS-20 subscales, Difficulty Identifying Feelings (DIF), Difficulty Describing Feelings (DDF), and Externally Oriented Thinking, were analyzed separately. The ICH index was significantly associated with the TAS-20 total score, as well as both with DIF and DDF. A less ideal cardiovascular health was associated with higher alexithymia scores. However, regarding the separate factors, only the association between non-ideal dietary habits and DIF was significant in the multivariate analyses. The baseline ICH index score was stable from baseline to T1. We conclude that non-ideal cardiovascular lifestyle habits in adolescence and young adulthood are significantly associated with later alexithymia.

Attachment to Parents and Peers and Adolescent Mental Health: The Mediating Role of Alexithymia

The current research aims to study the mediating role of alexithymia on the relationship between attachment to parents and peers and mental health problems in a sample of 242 non-referred adolescents. Participants completed the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment, the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, and the Symptom Check List-90-R. Mediation analysis shows that alexithymia fully mediates the relations between attachment to peers and mental health problems in both adolescent males and females. Findings suggest the importance to identify promptly vulnerabilities and risks in order to create prevention and intervention programs aimed to foster positive attachment experiences and to support emotional regulation.

Influence of alexithymia on the management of Latin American patients with asthma: A cross-sectional study

Objectives:

In asthmatic patients, studies suggest that alexithymia leads to negative consequences and emotions that can affect physical, psychological, and social aspects of life. We designed this study to determine the frequency of alexithymia in Latin American patients with asthma, as well as to understand how this personality trait and each of its components interact with asthma severity and demographic variables, and their implications on treatment adherence and disease control under such setting.

Methods:

We conducted a cross-sectional study, involving 265 Latin American patients with asthma. Patient demographics and clinical characteristics were reported. The presence of alexithymia, asthma severity, and control, as well as treatment adherence, was analyzed. To assess the presence of alexithymia, the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale was used. For the statistical analyses, we performed Kendall’s tau-b correlation coefficient, chi-square tests for association, and one-way analysis of variance.

Results:

A total of 265 patients participated in the study with a gender distribution of 69.4% female and an average age of 54.7 years. In total, 30.2% of individuals presented alexithymia. There was a statistically significant correlation between educational level and 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale categories (p < .001), as well as a higher proportion of severe (35.1%, p = .001) and uncontrolled (50.0%, p = .185) asthma in patients with alexithymia. A higher proportion of patients with some level of non-adherence was seen on those with uncontrolled asthma (68.5%, p = .008).

Conclusion:

Our results suggest that in our sample, 3 in 10 Latin American asthma patients have alexithymia, and such mental condition is more common in those individuals with lower educational levels. Individuals with alexithymia present with severe asthma more frequently than do patients with possible or no alexithymia and are also more likely to have their disease uncontrolled.

Alexithymia in Patients with Psoriasis: A Cross-Sectional Study from Ecuador

Objective

We designed this study to determine the frequency of alexithymia in Ecuadorian patients with psoriasis, as well as possible associations between demographic factors, disease severity, and treatment adherence.

Methods

A cross-sectional study involving 99 Ecuadorian patients with psoriasis was conducted. Multinomial logistic regressions were performed to ascertain whether age, gender, educational level, years with disease, psoriasis area and severity index (PASI) scores, and treatment adherence categories are prediction factors in patients with psoriasis to present alexithymia, possible alexithymia or no alexithymia.

Results

A total of 99 patients participated in the study with a gender distribution of 57.6% male, and an average age and years with disease of 48.3 and 7.4, respectively. Out of all patients, 33.3% presented alexithymia, and 22.2% possible alexithymia, as assessed by the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). The multiple regression model statistically significantly predicted the TAS-20 score from age, gender, educational level, years with psoriasis, PASI score and level of adherence F (7,88) = 4.171, p = 0.001, adj. R2= 0.189. Only having the highest educational level added statistical significance to the prediction of having a lower TAS-20 score, whilst the remainder variables did not.

Conclusion

We found a similar proportion of alexithymia, as well of average TAS-20 scores among Ecuadorian patients with psoriasis in comparison to previous studies. Only having the highest educational level was found to decrease the TAS-20 score. Age, gender, years with psoriasis, PASI score and level of adherence were not identified as factors that influence the TAS-20 score.

Valoración de los niveles de alexitimia en pacientes en hemodiálisis

INTRODUCCIÓN La alexitimia es una alteración del estado de ánimo que se manifiesta en forma de dificultad para tomar conciencia sobre los propios sentimientos y fantasías, así como para poder expresarlos verbalmente. Ha sido relacionada con el desarrollo de otras patologías y con la presencia de enfermedades crónicas. En el caso particular de la insuficiencia renal, se ha relacionado con una peor adherencia al tratamiento y mayor riesgo de mortalidad. Por ello, nos planteamos valorar su presencia en un grupo de pacientes en hemodiálisis en nuestro centro. MÉTODO Muestra de 63 pacientes en hemodiálisis, hombres y mujeres, con edades entre 22 y 83 años. Se recogió también el tiempo que cada uno llevaba en tratamiento en hemodiálisis. Estudio descriptivo de corte transversal con datos recogidos entre febrero y abril de 2019. Se aplicó individualmente la Escala de Alexitimia de Toronto. Se cuantificaron los valores de frecuencia para las puntuaciones obtenidas en el test y se realizaron comparaciones de medias para sexo, edad y tiempo en diálisis. RESULTADOS Encontramos que un 22,2% de la muestra (14 sujetos) muestra valores de alexitimia clínicamente relevantes. No se encontraron diferencias significativas en los puntajes de alexitimia según el sexo, edad o tiempo en diálisis. CONCLUSIONES Los hallazgos de este estudio permiten concluir que casi una cuarta parte de los pacientes en diálisis presenta alexitimia, alertando sobre la necesidad de que estas personas reciban tratamiento psicológico especializado.

The Physical and the Emotional: Case Report, Mixed-Methods Development, and Discussion

There is a growing recognition that emotional problems are important to physical health outcomes. In response, primary care clinics have introduced self-report checklists to identify patients with emotional disorders such as depression or anxiety. Yet psychodynamic theory posits that certain emotional problems may be unconscious and unspoken, and thus not discernible on self-report checklists, and studies show that checklists do not identify every patient who needs treatment. New clinical tools are needed to identify subtle and complex presentations. We aimed to develop an innovative mixed-methods approach characterizing different types of verbal expression of feelings, drawing on psychodynamic theory and empirical research. We outline the development of the mixed-methods approach, including our theoretical framework and use of semi-structured interview data from Partners in Care (PIC), a randomized controlled trial of quality improvement for depression. We then illustrate the approach with one case: an older female PIC participant who screened positive for depression on all study self-reports. The approach delineates three qualitatively different categories of words-specific feeling words, vague feeling words, and physical words-that were quantified to define a measurable pattern for our participant. Clinicians could be trained to identify these categories of words in the context of a discussion of feelings to better detect and understand subtle emotional problems in patients who have difficulty talking openly about their feelings. Next steps include furthering face and construct validity and test-retest reliability, examining the prevalence of these patterns in a larger sample, and assessing correlates of patterns.

Alexithymia and Cardiac Outcome in Patients at First Acute Coronary Syndrome

BACKGROUND

This cohort study was aimed to verify whether subjects at their first acute coronary syndrome (ACS) were more alexithymic than healthy controls (HC) and whether alexithymia can predispose patients with coronary artery disease to new major adverse cardiac events (MACE) during a 24-month follow-up period.

METHODS

The sample included 100 HC with no history of depression or ACS and 304 never depressed patients with a first-ever ACS. A total of 266 patients completed the 2-year follow-up.

RESULTS

Patients and HC reported similar Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) scores. During the follow-up, 69 (22.69%) patients developed incident depression and 57 (18.75%) developed a new MACE. In a proportional hazard model, developing a first-ever depressive episode, but not alexithymia (hazard ratio = 1.008, 95% confidence interval = 0.984-1.033; p = 0.500), was associated with almost 3 times the risk of a recurrent cardiac event.

CONCLUSION

Incident depression, but not TAS-20 scores, represented risk factor for MACE.

A case-control study of psychosocial factors and their relationship to impairment and functionality in multiple sclerosis

The stress effect on multiple sclerosis remains unclear. Moderating psychosocial factors may be involved. This study compares some of them in people with multiple sclerosis and healthy controls, and their association with disease parameters. Coping style, social support, anxiety, alexithymia and early-life stress were measured, along with impairment and functionality. People with multiple sclerosis scored significantly higher on anxiety, alexithymia, and avoidance and instinctive coping but lower in social support. No differences were found in early-life stress. Impairment was related to avoidance, and functionality to avoidance and anxiety. Psychotherapeutic approaches focused on these psychosocial factors may improve functionality, impairment and quality of life in people with multiple sclerosis.

Regional homogeneity of intrinsic brain activity related to the main alexithymia dimensions

Background

Alexithymia is a multidimensional personality construct.

Objective

This study aims to investigate the neuronal correlates of each alexithymia dimension by examining the regional homogeneity (ReHo) of intrinsic brain activity in a resting situation.

Methods

From university freshmen, students with alexithymia and non-alexithymia were recruited. Their alexithymic traits were assessed using the Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20. The ReHo was examined using a resting-state functional MRI approach.

Results

This study suggests significant group differences in ReHo in multiple brain regions distributed in the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe and insular cortex. However, only the ReHo in the insula was positively associated with difficulty identifying feelings, a main dimension of alexithymia. The ReHo in the lingual gyrus, precentral gyrus and postcentral gyrus was positively associated with difficulty describing feelings in participants with alexithymia. Lastly, the ReHo in the right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC_R) was negatively related to the externally oriented thinking style of participants with alexithymia.

Conclusion

In conclusion, these results suggest that the main dimensions of alexithymia are correlated with specific brain regions’ function, and the role of the insula, lingual gyrus, precentral gyrus, postcentral gyrus and DMPFC_R in the neuropathology of alexithymia should be further investigated.

Predicting physical and mental health symptoms: Additive and interactive effects of difficulty identifying feelings, neuroticism and extraversion

OBJECTIVE

Alexithymia, neuroticism, and extraversion have been described as relevant predictors of mental and physical health conditions, but their putative interactive effects remain poorly understood and their prospective effects are not well studied. The present study has investigated the differential contributions of distinct personality traits in predicting mental and somatic health symptoms in cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses.

METHODS

Additive and interactive effects of neuroticism and extraversion (NEO-FFI), the TAS-20 total score (20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale) and its factors (Difficulty Identifying Feelings (DIF), Difficulty Describing Feelings (DDF) and External Oriented Thinking (EOT)) have been investigated on depressive symptoms, the number of chronic diseases, somatic and mental subjective health complaints. Analyses have been based on data from the population-based "Study of Health in Pomerania" (SHIP) in cross-sectional (N = 1704) and longitudinal (N = 1244) analyses.

RESULTS

In cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, additive associations of the TAS-20 total score and neuroticism on somatic and mental health complaints have been observed. The effects of the TAS-20 total score have been mainly carried by DIF. Further, in interaction effetcs extraversion has attenuated the negative impact of neuroticism, whereas DIF has augmented it.

CONCLUSION

The present study is the first demonstrating longitudinal effects of alexithymia, particularly DIF, neuroticism, and extraversion in predicting mental and somatic health symptoms. Associations between DIF, neuroticism, and extraversion have been additive and interactive. Hence, subjects high in neuroticism and DIF but low in extraversion have reported most health symptoms and thus might be in need for prevention strategies. Treatments chould be adapted to the associated combination of the personality characteristics.

A qualitative analysis of emotion and emotion regulation in hoarding disorder

OBJECTIVE

The role of emotion regulation (ER) has been receiving increased attention in relation to various forms of psychopathology including hoarding disorder (HD). However, questionnaire designs are limited to finding associations of ER with symptoms or symptom groups, without finding out how such constructs might be involved in the disorder.

METHODS

This study was a qualitative investigation of ER in a clinical HD sample (N = 11).

RESULTS

Prominent themes provided support for ER difficulties in hoarding. In particular, difficulties with identifying and describing feelings, unhelpful attitudes toward the emotional experience, the use of avoidance-based strategies, and a perceived lack of effective ER strategies were prominent themes. Furthermore, emotional factors were identified as being associated with the onset and/or exacerbation of hoarding behavior, and possessions and acquiring behavior appeared to serve an ER function.

CONCLUSION

The current paper provides a nuanced account of the role of ER in hoarding difficulties.

[Psychosomatic research in 2018: Lost illusions, renewed hopes]

A critical analysis of the basic hypotheses of psychosomatic research and the sometimes hasty assertions drawn from the previous works makes it possible to better discern the data confirmed by the most recent works or the most rigorous meta-analyses and to highlight the emerging tracks. If the hypothesis of behavioral patterns specifically related to the risk of certain pathologies seems abandoned, the predictive value of depression in the cardiovascular field, more than in that of oncology, becomes clearer. Negative affect and impaired emotional awareness emerge as two complementary factors of somatic vulnerability. Several vulnerability factors seem all the more effective as they affect individuals of lower socio-economic status. Social exclusion feeling and its links with the inflammatory response appear to be a possible common denominator, both for depression and for many somatic conditions. A series of studies on the cerebral regulation of emotions and stress, as well as on bidirectional brain-bowel relations and on the mediating role of the gut microbiota, complements the available epidemiological data. The same is true for certain advances in behavioral neuro-economics, which inform the decision-making processes of patients facing preventive health choices. Lastly, it appears that a significant part of the excess mortality associated with the existence of severe mental disorders is not due to factors inherent to the patients themselves, but to disparities in the quality of the care provided to them.

Alexithymia and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Complex Relationship

Alexithymia is a personality construct characterized by altered emotional awareness which has been gaining diagnostic prevalence in a range of neuropsychiatric disorders, with notably high rates of overlap with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the nature of its role in ASD symptomatology remains elusive. Here, we distill research at the intersection of alexithymia and ASD. After a brief synopsis of the studies that plaid a pioneering role in the identification of the overlapping fields between alexithymia and ASD, we comb the literature for evidence of its overlap with ASD in terms of prevalence, etiology, and behaviors. Through a formalized framework of the process of emotional interpretation and expression, we explore evidence for where and how deficits arise in this complex network of events. We portray how these relate to the dynamic interplay between alexithymic and autistic traits and find emerging evidence that alexithymia is both a cause and consequence of autistic behaviors. We end with a strategic proposal for future research and interventions to dampen the impacts of alexithymia in ASD.

Emotional processes and stress in children affected by hereditary angioedema with C1-inhibitor deficiency: a multicenter, prospective study

Background

Hereditary angioedema with C1-inhibitor deficiency (C1-INH-HAE) is characterized by recurrent edema of unpredictable frequency and severity. Stress, anxiety, and low mood are among the triggering factors most frequently reported. Impaired regulation and processing of emotions, also known as alexithymia, may influence outcomes. The aim of this study was to confirm the presence of alexithymia and stress in children with C1-INH-HAE, to determine whether they are also present in children affected by other chronic diseases, and to investigate their relationship with C1-INH-HAE severity. Data from children with C1-INH-HAE (n = 28) from four reference centers in Italy were compared with data from children with type 1 diabetes (T1D; n = 23) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA; n = 25). Alexithymia was assessed using the Alexithymia Questionnaire for Children scale; perceived stress was assessed using the Coddington Life Event Scale for Children (CLES-C).

Results

Mean age (standard deviation [SD]) in the C1-INH-HAE, T1D, and RA groups was 11.8 (3.3), 11.7 (2.9), and 11.1 (2.6) years, respectively. Mean C1-INH-HAE severity score was 5.9 (2.1), indicating moderate disease. Alexithymia scores were similar among disease groups and suggestive of difficulties in identifying and describing emotions; CLES-C scores tended to be worse in C1-INH-HAE children. C1-INH-HAE severity was found to correlate significantly and positively with alexithymia (p = 0.046), but not with perceived stress. Alexithymia correlated positively with perceived stress.

Conclusions

Alexithymia is common in children with chronic diseases. In C1-INH-HAE, it may result in increased perceived stress and act as a trigger of edema attacks. Comprehensive management of C1-INH-HAE children should consider psychological factors.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13023-018-0871-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Association Between Alexithymia and Risk of Incident Cardiovascular Diseases in the SUpplémentation en VItamines et Minéraux AntioXydants (SU.VI.MAX) Cohort

OBJECTIVE

Although it has been suggested that alexythymia is associated with cardiovascular diseases, studies are scarce and a causal relationship is questionable. This study explored the prospective association between alexithymia and cardiovascular events in middle-aged participants without cardiovascular history at baseline.

METHODS

The 26-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-26) was completed by 5586 participants of the French SUpplémentation en VItamines et Minéraux AntioXydants cohort (41.4% of men, M [SD] age = 52.2 [6.3] years) in 1996-1997. Covariates measured at baseline included age, occupational status, depressive symptoms, smoking status, body mass index, hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, and hypertriglyceridemia. The follow-up ran from January 1, 1998, to the date of the first cardiovascular event, the date of death or September 1, 2007, whichever occurred first. Cardiovascular events were validated by an independent expert committee. Hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals were computed with Cox regressions.

RESULTS

During an average of 8.9 years of follow-up, 171 first cardiovascular events were validated. After adjustment for age, sex, and occupational status, there was no association between baseline alexithymia and cardiovascular events at follow-up (hazard ratio [95% confidence interval] for 15 points of TAS-26 = 1.00 [0.81-1.23], p > .99). Adjusting for all covariates, using binary TAS-26 cut-offs or TAS-26 subscores yielded similar nonsignificant results.

CONCLUSIONS

In this large prospective study, alexithymia and cardiovascular events were not associated among a nonclinical population. This casts some doubt on whether alexithymia could be a meaningful target in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrials.gov (NCT00272428).

The Role of Difficulty in Identifying and Describing Feelings in Non-Suicidal Self-Injury Behavior (NSSI): Associations With Perceived Attachment Quality, Stressful Life Events, and Suicidal Ideation

Objective: Core alexithymic features, such as the difficulty in identifying and describing feelings, are associated with poor attachment styles and emotional trauma, which influence the capacity to regulate affect. Additionally, emotional regulation has been found to be the most commonly identified function associated with non-suicidal self-injury behavior (NSSI) in adolescents as they attempt to modulate strong emotions. However, few studies have examined the link between difficulty in identifying and describing feelings (core components of alexithymia), NSSI behaviors, quality of attachment, life stressors and suicidal ideation in healthy early adolescents. Consequently, this study aims to investigate these constructs and the relationship among them in a large non-clinical sample of adolescents.

Methods: Seven hundred and nine middle school students (50.4% males), aged 10–15 years (M = 12.6; SD = 1.06) were involved in this study. In order to investigate the variables considered in the study, the following measures were administered: the Deliberate Self-Harm Inventory exploring non-suicidal self-injurious behaviors; the Alexithymia Questionnaire for Children examining difficulty in identifying and describing feelings; the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment assessing the quality of parental and peer attachment; the Life Stressor Checklist-Revised outlining stressful/traumatic events and the Children’s Depression Inventory evaluating suicidal ideation.

Results: We found significantly positive relationships among difficulty in identifying and describing feelings, NSSI behaviors, stressful events, and suicidal ideation. Data indicated a significant negative association of difficulty in identifying and describing feelings with quality of attachment to parents and peers. Further findings highlighted that difficulty in identifying and describing feelings significantly mediated the effect of quality of attachment (parent and peer) on NSSI and suicidal ideation.

Conclusion: The ability to identify and describing feelings is important to managing emotional expression and understanding the feelings of others, both crucial in attaining successful interpersonal relationships. Our data revealed that, while controlling for stressful life events, low levels of attachment may increase adolescents’ difficulty in identifying and describing their own feelings, which in turn may increase the risk of both NSSI and suicidal ideation.

Characteristics of brain functional and structural connectivity in alexithymic students

BACKGROUND

Alexithymia is a multifaceted personality trait and a risk factor for several mental and physical diseases.

METHODS

In this study, 21 alexithymic students and 21 nonalexithymic students were recruited from the local university and assigned to the alexithymic group and the control group, respectively. Then, the functional connectivity and the structural connectivity among the brain regions of the students were investigated using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rsfMRI), function connection (FC) analysis, and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI).

RESULTS

The rsfMRI results revealed 14 brain regions showing significant differences in the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations between the two groups. Comparative analysis of the FC and DTI data in these brain regions between the two groups identified altered levels of functional and structural connectivity between the following four pairs of regions in the alexithymic subjects: the right inferior temporal gyrus and the central posterior gyrus, the left temporal gyrus and the insula, and the bilateral superior frontal gyrus and the anterior cingulate gyrus.

CONCLUSION

Compared with single MRI analysis, the multiple MRI analysis identified more precisely the brain regions that could play a key role in the development of alexithymia.

Alexithymia: a general deficit of interoception

Alexithymia is a sub-clinical construct, traditionally characterized by difficulties identifying and describing one's own emotions. Despite the clear need for interoception (interpreting physical signals from the body) when identifying one's own emotions, little research has focused on the selectivity of this impairment. While it was originally assumed that the interoceptive deficit in alexithymia is specific to emotion, recent evidence suggests that alexithymia may also be associated with difficulties perceiving some non-affective interoceptive signals, such as one's heart rate. It is therefore possible that the impairment experienced by those with alexithymia is common to all aspects of interoception, such as interpreting signals of hunger, arousal, proprioception, tiredness and temperature. In order to determine whether alexithymia is associated with selectively impaired affective interoception, or general interoceptive impairment, we investigated the association between alexithymia and self-reported non-affective interoceptive ability, and the extent to which individuals perceive similarity between affective and non-affective states (both measured using questionnaires developed for the purpose of the current study), in both typical individuals (n = 105 (89 female), mean age = 27.5 years) and individuals reporting a diagnosis of a psychiatric condition (n = 103 (83 female), mean age = 31.3 years). Findings indicated that alexithymia was associated with poor non-affective interoception and increased perceived similarity between affective and non-affective states, in both the typical and clinical populations. We therefore suggest that rather than being specifically associated with affective impairment, alexithymia is better characterized by a general failure of interoception.

Alexithymia and postpartum anxiety and depression symptoms: a follow-up study in a pregnancy cohort

INTRODUCTION

There is a lack of longitudinal studies assessing the significance of alexithymia on the emergence of mental illnesses. We aimed to evaluate the potential effect of alexithymia on postpartum anxiety and depression symptoms in a sample of parents to be.

METHODS

In a pregnancy cohort, longitudinal data were available from three time points (gestational weeks 18-20, and 3 and 12 months postpartum) for 100 mothers and 65 fathers. The 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) was used to assess alexithymia, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) to evaluate anxiety symptoms and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) to assess depression. Linear regression analyses were used to estimate the effect of alexithymia on the symptom scale score changes from baseline.

RESULTS

Both in mothers and fathers, the TAS-20 total score was significantly correlated with the STAI and EPDS scores at several time-points, with a higher TAS-20 score indicating more symptoms. In the regression analyses, the association of alexithymia with later symptoms became non-significant in mothers. However, in fathers, the TAS-20 score had a statistically significant effect on the increase of the STAI score at 3 months postpartum (p = 0.006). For the separate TAS-20 subscales, difficulty identifying feelings had a significant effect on the increase of anxiety by 12 months postpartum (p = 0.023) and difficulty describing feelings on the increase by 3 months postpartum (p < 0.001).

DISCUSSION

Although the setting did not facilitate the assessment of actual diagnoses regarding the anxiety and depression symptoms, alexithymia appears to have a significant effect on the increase of postpartum anxiety symptoms in fathers-to-be.

The role of alexithymia: An 8-year follow-up study of chronic pain patients

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this 8-year follow-up study was to ascertain changes in alexithymia, depressiveness and pain situation in a sample of chronic pain patients and to explore the impact of alexithymia and depression on the outcome.

METHODS

Participants (n=83) were chronic non-malignant pain patients who completed self-report study questionnaires before their first visit to the pain clinic and again 8years later. Study variables consisted of pain intensity measured by the Visual Analogous Scale, the Pain Disability Scale, the Toronto Alexithymia Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory. The moderate improvement in the pain situation was estimated as a decrease of 30% or more in pain intensity or pain disability.

RESULTS

In the whole sample there was a significant decrease in pain intensity, pain disability and depressiveness, but only some of the patients achieved moderate improvement in their pain situation. Alexithymia remained stable during the 8-year period. The alexithymic patients had poorer pain situation and more depressiveness both at baseline and at follow-up. Unfavorable outcome in the pain situation was connected with male gender and alexithymia at baseline but not with depressiveness. Alexithymia and depressiveness were closely related to each other and the connection strengthened during the follow-up period.

CONCLUSION

Alexithymic depressive chronic pain patients represent a special, more disabled subgroup among chronic pain patients. The authors recommend screening for and identifying alexithymia and depression in chronic pain patients. Structural treatment protocols such as cognitive-behavioral therapy may benefit these patients. More research is needed to develop treatment interventions for alexithymic patients.

Alexithymia in food-allergic versus healthy children and young adults

Alexithymia is a multifaceted personality construct associated with several medical illnesses. However, no studies have focused on food allergy. We investigated alexithymia among food-allergic youths, compared to a matched healthy sample. A total of 220 participants aged 9–25 years were assessed using the Toronto Alexithymia Scale and the Alexithymia Questionnaire for Children. Food-allergic patients reported higher levels of alexithymia compared to a matched healthy sample. Furthermore, an association between alexithymia and a clinical history of anaphylaxis was found among patients. Some possible hypotheses have been discussed considering physiological, psychological, developmental, and cognitive/behavioral factors.

Alexithymia and psychopathological symptoms in adolescent outpatients and mothers suffering from migraines: a case control study

BACKGROUND

Headache is a common disorder affecting a growing number of children and adolescents. In recent years, there has been an increase in scientific interest in exploring the relationship between migraine and emotional regulation, and in particular, the impact of emotional dysregulation on mental and physical health. The present study aims to explore the relationship between migraine and alexithymia among adolescents and their mothers as well as the impact of this association on mental health. An additional aim is to verify whether alexithymia may be a predictor of psychopathological symptoms in adolescents and mothers with migraines.

METHODS

A total of 212 subjects were involved in this study. The sample was divided into (a) Experimental Group (EG) consisting of 106 subjects (53 adolescents and 53 mothers) with a diagnosis of migraine according to International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD-3) and (b) Control Group (CG) including 106 subjects (53 adolescents and 53 mothers) without a diagnosis of migraine. All participants completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale to assess alexithymia and the Symptom Checklist-90-R to assess psychopathological symptoms.

RESULTS

Higher rates of alexithymia were found in the adolescents and mothers of the EG in comparison to the adolescents and mothers of the CG. Furthermore, adolescents and mothers experiencing both migraine and alexithymia, demonstrated a higher risk of psychopathology.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings from this study provide evidence that the co-occurrence of migraine and alexithymia increases the risk of psychopathology for both adolescents and their mothers.

Analysis of functional variants reveals new candidate genes associated with alexithymia

In this study we explored the possible association between 36,915 functional variants and alexithymia, a personality trait characterized by the inability to identify and describe emotions and feelings. From our analysis, variants in the genes ABCB4, TP53AIP1, ARHGAP32 and TMEM88B were identified linked to the alexithymia phenotype.

Life events, emotional responsiveness, and the functional prognosis of patients with rheumatoid arthritis

Background

Stressors may differently affect human physiological systems according to the host properties relevant to psycho-behavioral processes that the stressors invoke. In a Japanese multicenter cohort study of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), we examined if major life events differently contribute to the patients’ functional prognosis according to their ability to identify emotions as manifest feelings when encountering the events (emotional responsiveness).

Methods

460 patients with RA completed a self-administered baseline questionnaire about psychosocial factors including emotional responsiveness. Two years later, they checked on a list of positive/negative personal events that happened during the two-year study period. Rheumatologists evaluated their functional status at baseline and follow-up using the ACR classification system.

Results

In a multiple logistic regression model that included baseline demographic, disease activity/severity-related, therapeutic, and socioeconomic factors as covariates, none of the counts of positive, negative, or all life events was associated with the functional status at follow-up. In the subgroup with poor emotional responsiveness, however, these life event counts were all associated with a poorer functional prognosis (odds ratio of ACR class 3–4 vs. 1–2 associated with one increment in the all life-event count = 2.39, 95 % confidence interval = 1.27-4.48, p = .007), while no such relationship was evident for the rest of the patients.

Conclusions

Major life events, whether positive or negative in nature, may have an impact on the disease course of patients with RA when the patient has poor emotional responsiveness to the event(s).

Relationship between alexithymia and dependent personality disorder: a dimensional analysis

The present study had two aims and used two different samples. The first aim was to determine if alexithymia and dependent personality disorder (DPD) are distinct or overlapping constructs. The second aim was to determine the specificity and the stability of the relationship between alexithymia and DPD. The first study used exploratory principal components analysis (PCA) in a sample of 477 non-clinical subjects who completed three questionnaires measuring alexithymia (Twenty item Toronto Alexithymia Scale, i.e. TAS-20), dependent personality disorder (Dependent Personality Questionnaire, i.e. DPQ) and depression (Beck Depression Inventory-II, i.e. BDI-II). The second study used a sample of 305 subjects consecutively admitted to an outpatient department of legal medicine. The subjects completed (at admission and 3 months later) the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, screen questionnaire (SCID-II-SQ), the TAS-20 and the BDI. Multiple regressions were done. For the first study, the PCA yielded a four-factor solution with no overlap of the significant factor loadings for the items from each scale and with the factors corresponding to their respective construct. For the second study, multiple regressions showed that only avoidant personality disorder was an independent predictor of the TAS-20 scores. Alexithymia is a construct that is distinct and separate from DPD and depression. Alexithymia is not a stable feature of DPD while it is a core feature of avoidant personality disorder.

Factorial structure of the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale in a large sample of somatoform patients

Although a strong association between alexithymia and somatization has been postulated in numerous studies, no systematic study has investigated the psychometric properties of the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) in a sample of patients with somatoform disorder yet. The purpose of this study was to ensure a valid assessment by the German version of the TAS-20 in somatoform samples. We investigated whether the original three-factor model proposed by Bagby et al. (1994a), which is widely used in clinical research and practice, is replicable in a large sample of somatoform patients (n=806). Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) the goodness-of-fit of the originally proposed factor structure was compared to three factor models generated with exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and other factorial solutions derived from the literature. Our results demonstrate that the original three-factor model is not replicable in somatoform patients. Instead, the four-factor model by Franz et al. (2001b) described the data best. However, none of the models met all criteria of confirmatory factor analysis. Our results indicate that the three-factor model is not robust in the German version of the TAS-20. At this state of research we recommend to use the TAS-20 sum-score as a measure of alexithymia in somatoform patients in clinical practice.

Does alexithymia expose to mental disorder symptoms in late adolescence? A 4-year follow-up study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the possible causal link between alexithymia and the emergence of anxiety and depression symptoms, as well as alcohol consumption in a sample of late adolescents.

METHOD

The nonclinical sample comprised late adolescents (n = 315), including both females (n = 256) and males (n = 59). The follow-up period was 4 years, and at baseline, the mean age of the subjects was 19 years (range 17-21 years). Alexithymia was measured with the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), depression symptoms with the short form of the Beck Depression Inventory (RBDI), anxiety with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and alcohol consumption with the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). The three TAS-20 subscales were assessed separately. Linear and cumulative logistic regression analyses were used for the evaluation of associations, and the analyses were adjusted with the corresponding baseline scores.

RESULTS

The TAS-20 total and subscale scores did not predict the RBDI or AUDIT scores at follow-up. However, the TAS-20 subscale "difficulty identifying feelings" was significantly associated with both STAI-State (P = .007) and STAI-Trait (P = .004) scores at follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Alexithymic features may be individual predictors of later anxiety symptoms. The significant differences between the various dimensions of alexithymia should be considered in future studies.

A longitudinal study of alexithymia in relation to physical activity in adolescent females with scoliosis subjected to cheneau brace treatment: preliminary report

STUDY DESIGN

A longitudinal pilot study of changes in levels of alexithymia among females with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) under brace treatment.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the prevalence of alexithymia and to evaluate changes in alexithymia levels among female patients with AIS treated with a Cheneau brace, in comparison with healthy female adolescents.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Alexithymia is a personality trait incorporating the following core characteristics: difficulty in identifying and describing feelings, difficulty in distinguishing between feelings and the physical sensation of emotional arousal, limited imaginal processes, and an externally oriented cognitive style. Alexithymia can be common among adolescents and young adults with severe idiopathic scoliosis.

METHODS

Thirty-six female patients with AIS, aged 13.4 years (standard deviation [SD], 1.7) at the beginning of the study, completed the Polish version of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale-26 (TAS-26). The second and third evaluations took place at 6 and 12 months, respectively, after the beginning of the study. Thirty-six healthy female controls were also included.

RESULTS

The mean TAS-26 total score was 63.4 (SD, 9.3), 59.5 (SD, 12.1), and 59.6 (SD, 12.5) during the first, second, and last patient evaluation, whereas in healthy females 60.0 (SD, 10.9). With regard to the TAS-26 total score, results differed significantly between the first and the second (P = 0.007) and between the first and the third patient evaluation (P = 0.007). Regression analysis revealed that during the second and third patient evaluation, duration of recreational sports activity had a statistically significant (P = 0.029 and P = 0.005, respectively) influence on the probability of females reporting no alexithymia.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of alexithymia in healthy female controls is the same as in patients with scoliosis subjected to underarm brace treatment. Statistically significant changes with regard to TAS-26 total score and externally oriented thinking domain were found in patient sample. Physical activity in females with AIS treated nonoperatively coexists with lower scores in the TAS-26.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

2.