Associations between online food outlet access and online food delivery service use amongst adults in the UK: a cross-sectional analysis of linked data

The healthiness of Australian food outlets available through online delivery platforms, by level of socioeconomic disadvantage and remoteness

Online food delivery platforms are an emerging but poorly understood aspect of food retail environments. We collected data via web scraping methods from the two leading online food delivery platforms in Victoria, Australia, identifying 11,154 food outlets from Menulog, and 12,939 from Uber Eats (with 21,733 unique outlets available across both platforms). Outlets were classified according to their healthiness using a tool developed with Australian dietitians and public health nutritionists, and assigned a food environment score. Area level (suburb/neighbourhood) socioeconomic disadvantage was determined using the Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas Index of Relative Socio-economic Disadvantage, and relative remoteness was determined using both the Accessibility/Remoteness Index of Australia and the Modified Monash Model. Across both food delivery platforms, approximately 15% of food outlets were classified as "unhealthy", 82% were classified as "less healthy", and 3% were classified as "healthy". More food outlets were available in areas of socioeconomic advantage, and in metropolitan areas. Food environment scores indicated that unhealthy outlets were significantly more available in areas with higher socioeconomic disadvantage and greater relative remoteness. Disparities in the healthiness of food outlets available through online food delivery platforms may have a negative influence on the purchasing and dietary behaviours of residents in these areas, thereby widening diet related health inequalities. Further research is required to understand the potential influence of online food delivery platforms on inequities in population diets and health.

Improving diets and multimorbidity prevention

In 2023, the UK government announced a Major Conditions Strategy, publishing 'The case for change and our strategic framework', which set out the focus on cancers, diabetes, dementia, mental ill health, musculoskeletal disorders, CVD and chronic respiratory diseases. Together, these conditions account for 60% of total disability-adjusted life years lost to early death or ill health in England, and one in four adults has at least two (multimorbidity). This review considers some of the key dietary risks for these major conditions and population policies that may improve diets and reduce risks. UK Government dietary recommendations, based on independent risk assessment and advice from the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition, are encapsulated in the national food model, the Eatwell Guide. Based on key sources of dietary data - chiefly consumption data from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey and consumer purchase data from Kantar - most people do not meet dietary recommendations. This review considers how science and evidence inform health improvement policy. This includes policies that encourage healthier food choices, such as labelling and public procurement standards to those that minimise the impact of the less healthy choice such as sugar and salt reduction and reformulation. The review also considers nutritional approaches to managing some non-communicable diseases. Given the role nutrition and excess weight play in the onset, prognosis and quality of life for those living with one or more of the major conditions, there are huge potential gains from even small dietary improvements across population groups.

Retrospective analysis of regional and metropolitan school food environments using Google Street View: A case study in New South Wales, Australia with youth consultation

ISSUE ADDRESSED

Food environments surrounding schools have a strong influence on the adolescent's food choices. Moreover, the prevalence of diet-related chronic diseases is higher in regional than metropolitan areas in Australia. Understanding school food environments in these different settings is crucial for informing future strategies to improve adolescent health.

METHODS

Google Street View was used to identify food outlets within 1.6 km around all secondary schools in Wagga Wagga and Blacktown in New South Wales which were selected as regional and metropolitan case study areas. Based on food outlet type, healthfulness categories were assigned, and Chi-squared tests were performed. The Health Advisory Panel for Youth at the University of Sydney (HAPYUS) were engaged to obtain their perspectives on findings.

RESULTS

Unhealthful food outlets were consistently most prevalent around schools in Wagga Wagga and Blacktown over 17 years. In 2023, these were predominantly restaurants (19.4% vs. 21.1%), cafés (16.8% vs. 11.1%), fast-food franchise outlets (15.1% vs. 17.4%) and independent takeaway stores (14.1% vs. 9.6%). No significant difference in healthfulness between regional and metropolitan areas was found. Youth advisors recognised price and social reasons as major contributors to food choices.

CONCLUSIONS

Google Street View was used as a novel resource to examine school food environments in regional and metropolitan areas which have remained consistently unhealthful for nearly two decades. SO WHAT?: Unhealthful school food environments may encourage poor diets and exacerbate rates of adolescent overweight and obesity. Critical government action is needed to improve school food environments.

Impact of Dietary Patterns on Metabolic Syndrome in Young Adults: A Cross-Sectional Study

Metabolic syndrome has become a significant public health concern. This study aims to investigate the impact of dietary patterns on metabolic syndrome in young adults and how physical activity modulates this effect. A cross-sectional study was conducted at a health management center in Tianjin, China, from September 2022 to March 2023. Participants aged 18-35 years were recruited using convenience sampling. Dietary intake was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire. Logistic regression models evaluated associations between these patterns and metabolic syndrome, adjusting for potential confounders. Among 442 participants, four dietary patterns were identified: Legume-Nut, Alcohol-Meat, Sugar-Processed, and Egg-Vegetable. The Legume-Nut dietary pattern was associated with a higher risk of metabolic syndrome (OR = 2.63, 95% CI: 1.08-6.37), while the Egg-Vegetable dietary pattern was associated with a lower risk (OR = 0.26, 95% CI: 0.10-0.70). No significant associations were found for the Sugar-Processed and Alcohol-Meat patterns. Subgroup analysis revealed that the Legume-Nut pattern increased the risk of metabolic syndrome among those with irregular physical activity, whereas the Egg-Vegetable pattern decreased the risk. These findings highlight the significant influence of dietary patterns on the risk of metabolic syndrome in young adults and the modifying effect of regular physical activity, underscoring the need for targeted dietary and lifestyle interventions to prevent metabolic syndrome in this population.

Developing the DIGIFOOD Dashboard to Monitor the Digitalization of Local Food Environments: Interdisciplinary Approach

BACKGROUND

Online food delivery services (OFDS) enable individuals to conveniently access foods from any deliverable location. The increased accessibility to foods may have implications on the consumption of healthful or unhealthful foods. Concerningly, previous research suggests that OFDS offer an abundance of energy-dense and nutrient-poor foods, which are heavily promoted through deals or discounts.

OBJECTIVE

In this paper, we describe the development of the DIGIFOOD dashboard to monitor the digitalization of local food environments in New South Wales, Australia, resulting from the proliferation of OFDS.

METHODS

Together with a team of data scientists, we designed a purpose-built dashboard using Microsoft Power BI. The development process involved three main stages: (1) data acquisition of food outlets via web scraping, (2) data cleaning and processing, and (3) visualization of food outlets on the dashboard. We also describe the categorization process of food outlets to characterize the healthfulness of local, online, and hybrid food environments. These categories included takeaway franchises, independent takeaways, independent restaurants and cafes, supermarkets or groceries, bakeries, alcohol retailers, convenience stores, and sandwich or salad shops.

RESULTS

To date, the DIGIFOOD dashboard has mapped 36,967 unique local food outlets (locally accessible and scraped from Google Maps) and 16,158 unique online food outlets (accessible online and scraped from Uber Eats) across New South Wales, Australia. In 2023, the market-leading OFDS operated in 1061 unique suburbs or localities in New South Wales. The Sydney-Parramatta region, a major urban area in New South Wales accounting for 28 postcodes, recorded the highest number of online food outlets (n=4221). In contrast, the Far West and Orana region, a rural area in New South Wales with only 2 postcodes, recorded the lowest number of food outlets accessible online (n=7). Urban areas appeared to have the greatest increase in total food outlets accessible via online food delivery. In both local and online food environments, it was evident that independent restaurants and cafes comprised the largest proportion of food outlets at 47.2% (17,437/36,967) and 51.8% (8369/16,158), respectively. However, compared to local food environments, the online food environment has relatively more takeaway franchises (2734/16,158, 16.9% compared to 3273/36,967, 8.9%) and independent takeaway outlets (2416/16,158, 14.9% compared to 4026/36,967, 10.9%).

CONCLUSIONS

The DIGIFOOD dashboard leverages the current rich data landscape to display and contrast the availability and healthfulness of food outlets that are locally accessible versus accessible online. The DIGIFOOD dashboard can be a useful monitoring tool for the evolving digital food environment at a regional scale and has the potential to be scaled up at a national level. Future iterations of the dashboard, including data from additional prominent OFDS, can be used by policy makers to identify high-priority areas with limited access to healthful foods both online and locally.

Use of online food delivery services among adults in five countries from the International Food Policy Study 2018-2021

Aim

Online food delivery services (OFDS) are popular for purchasing meals prepared outside home, increasing access to energy-dense and nutrient-poor foods. This adversely impacts dietary choices and health outcomes. Our study examined trends in OFDS use in Australia, Canada, Mexico, the United Kingdom (UK), and the United States (US) from 2018 to 2021.

Methods

Repeated annual cross-sectional data was sourced from the International Food Policy Study for five countries among adults over 18 years (N = 83,337). Weighted estimates for trends in i) the proportion of the respondent's purchasing meals per week using OFDS, and ii) average number (and standard deviation (SD)) of meals purchased per week using OFDS were assessed. Logistic regression models were fitted.

Findings

OFDS use increased among adults between 2018-2021 (Australia: 17 % of respondents purchased at least one meal in the last 7 days using OFDS in 2018 to 25 % in 2021, Canada: 12 % to 19 %, Mexico: 28 % to 38 %, UK: 19 % to 28 %, and US: 17 % to 21 %). Average number of meals purchased per week outside home remained consistent for all countries over time (e.g., in Australia, 2.70 (SD 0.06) meals in 2018 and 2.63 (SD 0.06) in 2021). However, average number of meals purchased using OFDS nearly doubled between 2018 and 2021 (e.g., in Australia, 0.45 (SD 0.03) meals in 2018 to 0.81 (SD 0.04) in 2021).

Conclusion

OFDS use is increasing and are substituting the conventional forms of purchasing meals outside home. Nutritional quality of foods sold, marketing practices and purchasing patterns on OFDS deserve further attention.

Digital food behaviours, motivations, and delivery application usage among saudis during COVID-19: A mixed-methods study

Food delivery apps (FDAs) and smartphones in Saudi Arabia have become ubiquitous and increasingly popular methods for food ordering and consumption. Such app use during the COVID-19 pandemic has become a convenient and popular response to pandemic restrictions. However, the motivations and preferences behind FDA use are complex, as are the perceptions of FDA users regarding nutrition and healthy foods. To explore FDA usage, motivations, perceptions, and food behaviours in the unique cultural context of Saudi Arabia at the intersection of two epidemics, COVID-19 and obesity, a convergent parallel mixed-methods study design was used with 566 Saudis in the quantitative phase and 17 continuing to the qualitative phase. Of the respondents, 71.9 % reported using FDA typically once a week. Frequent FDA usage was reported by 33.3 % of the participants aged 30-40 years (P = .049). Nearly two-thirds of the sample (62 %) reported that time and convenience were the driving factors in using FDAs. Qualitatively, six main themes were identified: 'Perceived benefits and drawbacks', 'Effects of Promotions and Food Preferences', 'Nutritional information and dietary guidelines', 'Concepts of healthy food', 'Obstacles to healthy food consumption', and 'Maintaining Customs and Traditions'. Although convenience and taste were the primary drivers of FDA usage, the roles of tradition and culture in Saudi Arabia were also important FDA usage factors. Overall, understanding the determinants of how Saudis engage with FDAs, in concert with a deeper understanding of food preferences, perceptions, and nutritional knowledge, should help guide future efforts in nutrition education, app development, and public health policy.

Assessing the healthiness of menus of all out-of-home food outlets and its socioeconomic patterns in Great Britain

Food environment research predominantly focuses on the spatial distribution of out-of-home food outlets. However, the healthiness of food choices available within these outlets has been understudied, largely due to resource constraints. In this study, we propose an innovative, low-resource approach to characterise the healthiness of out-of-home food outlets at scale. Menu healthiness scores were calculated for food outlets on JustEat, and a deep learning model was trained to predict these scores for all physical out-of-home outlets in Great Britain, based on outlet names. Our findings highlight the "double burden" of the unhealthy food environment in deprived areas where there tend to be more out-of-home food outlets, and these outlets tend to be less healthy. This methodological advancement provides a nuanced understanding of out-of-home food environments, with potential for automation and broad geographic application.

Using Mobile Ecological Momentary Assessment to Understand Consumption and Context Around Online Food Delivery Use: Pilot Feasibility and Acceptability Study

BACKGROUND

Mobile ecological momentary assessment (EMA) is a powerful tool for collecting real-time and contextual data from individuals. As our reliance on online technologies to increase convenience accelerates, the way we access food is changing. Online food delivery (OFD) services may further encourage unhealthy food consumption habits, given the high availability of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods. We used EMA to understand the real-time effects of OFD on individuals' food choices and consumption behaviors.

OBJECTIVE

The primary aims of this pilot study were to assess the feasibility and acceptability of using EMA in young users of OFD and compare 2 different EMA sampling methods. The secondary aims were to gather data on OFD events and their context and examine any correlations between demographics, lifestyle chronic disease risk factors, and OFD use.

METHODS

This study used EMA methods via a mobile app (mEMASense, ilumivu Inc). Existing users of OFD services aged 16 to 35 years in Australia who had access to a smartphone were recruited. Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups: signal-contingent or event-contingent. The signal-contingent group was monitored over 3 days between 7 AM and 10 PM. They received 5 prompts each day to complete EMA surveys via the smartphone app. In contrast, the event-contingent group was monitored over 7 days and was asked to self-report any instance of OFD.

RESULTS

A total of 102 participants were analyzed, with 53 participants in the signal-contingent group and 49 participants in the event-contingent group. Compliance rates, indicating the feasibility of signal-contingent and event-contingent protocols, were similar at 72.5% (574/792) and 73.2% (251/343), respectively. Feedback from the participants suggested that the EMA app was not easy to use, which affected their acceptability of the study. Participants in the event-contingent group were 3.53 (95% CI 1.52-8.17) times more likely to have had an OFD event captured during the study. Pizza (23/124, 18.5%) and fried chicken (18/124, 14.5%) comprised a bulk of the 124 OFD orders captured. Most orders were placed at home (98/124, 79%) for 1 person (68/124, 54.8%). Age (incidence rate ratio 0.95, 95% CI 0.91-0.99; P=.03) and dependents (incidence rate ratio 2.01, 95% CI 1.16-3.49; P=.01) were significantly associated with the number of OFD events in a week after adjusting for gender, socioeconomic status, diet quality score, and perceived stress levels.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot study showed that EMA using an event-contingent sampling approach may be a better method to capture OFD events and context than signal-contingent sampling. The compliance rates showed that both sampling methods were feasible and acceptable. Although the findings from this study have gathered some insight on the consumption and context of OFD in young people, further studies are required to develop targeted interventions.

Socioeconomic distribution of food outlet availability through online food delivery services in seven European countries: A cross-sectional study

This area-level cross-sectional study examined online food outlet availability through the most popular online food delivery service platforms (OFDS) across seven European countries, and explored how this online food outlet availability was socioeconomically distributed. Data collection of online food outlet availability was automated in England, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland. We used a geographic information system to join online food outlet availability to socio-demographic information. Median number of food outlets delivering through OFDS was highest in England and lowest in Italy, Portugal and Spain. We also found that high-income areas have the greatest online food outlet availability in most countries. In England, areas with a middle income had the least online food outlets available and no income data was available for Switzerland. Further work is needed to understand drivers of disparities in online food outlet availability, as well as possible implications for public health.

Opportunities to improve population health: possibilities for healthier food environments

The recent Covid-19 pandemic highlighted stark social inequalities, notably around access to food, nutrition and to green or blue space (i.e. outdoor spaces with vegetation and water). Consequently, obesity is socio-economically patterned by this inequality; and while the environmental drivers of obesity are widely acknowledged, there is currently little upstream intervention. We know that living with obesity contributes to increasing health inequalities, and places healthcare systems under huge strain. Our environment could broadly be described obesogenic, in the sense of supporting unhealthful eating patterns and sedentary behaviour. Evidence points to the existence of nearly 700 UK obesity policies, all of which have had little success. Obesity prevention and treatment has focused on educational and behavioural interventions targeted at individual consumers. A more sustainable approach would be to try and change the environments that promote less healthy eating and high energy intake as well as sedentary behaviour. Approaches which modify the environment have the potential to assist in the prevention of this complex condition. This review paper focuses on the role of wider food environments or foodscapes. While there is an imperfect evidence base relating to the role of the foodscape in terms of the obesity crisis, policy, practice, civic society and industry must work together and take action now, in areas where current evidence suggests change is required. Despite the current cost-of-living crisis, shaping the foodscape to better support healthful eating decisions has the potential to be a key aspect of a successful obesity prevention intervention.

Changes in Online Food Access During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Associations With Deprivation: Longitudinal Analysis

BACKGROUND

Food prepared out of home is typically energy-dense and nutrient-poor. Online food delivery services have become a popular way to purchase such food. The number of accessible food outlets through these services can influence how frequently they are used. Anecdotally, food outlet access through online food delivery services increased in England between 2020 and 2022, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the extent to which this access changed is poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to investigate monthly changes in online access to food prepared out of home in England in the context of the first 2 years of the COVID-19 pandemic compared with November 2019 and the extent to which any changes were associated with deprivation.

METHODS

In November 2019 and monthly between June 2020 and March 2022, we used automated data collection to construct a data set containing information about all food outlets in England registered to accept orders through the leading online food delivery service. Across postcode districts, we identified the number and percentage of food outlets registered to accept orders and the number that was accessible. We used generalized estimating equations (adjusted for population density, the number of food outlets in the physical food environment, and rural/urban classification) to investigate the change in outcomes compared with prepandemic levels (November 2019). We stratified analyses by deprivation quintile (Q).

RESULTS

Across England, the summed number of food outlets registered to accept orders online increased from 29,232 in November 2019 to 49,752 in March 2022. Across postcode districts, the median percentage of food outlets registered to accept orders online increased from 14.3 (IQR 3.8-26.0) in November 2019 to 24.0 (IQR 6.2-43.5) in March 2022. The median number of food outlets accessible online decreased from 63.5 (IQR 16.0-156.0) in November 2019 to 57.0 (IQR 11.0-163.0) in March 2022. However, we observed variation by deprivation. In March 2022, the median number of outlets accessible online was 175.0 (IQR 104.0-292.0) in the most deprived areas (Q5) compared with 27.0 (IQR 8.5-60.5) in the least deprived (Q1). In adjusted analyses, we estimated that the number of outlets accessible online in the most deprived areas was 10% higher in March 2022 compared with November 2019 (incidence rate ratios: 1.10, 95% CI 1.07-1.13). In the least deprived areas, we estimated a 19% decrease (incidence rate ratios: 0.81, 95% CI 0.79-0.83).

CONCLUSIONS

The number of food outlets accessible online increased only in the most deprived areas in England. Future research might attempt to understand the extent to which changes in online food access were associated with changes in online food delivery service use and the possible implications on diet quality and health.

Online on-demand delivery services of food and alcohol: A scoping review of public health impacts

The increase in availability of online on-demand food and alcohol delivery services has changed the way unhealthy commodities are accessed and understood. We conducted a systematic scoping review of academic and grey literature to map the current knowledge of public health and regulatory/policy outcomes arising from on-demand food and alcohol delivery (defined as delivery within 2 h). We systematically searched three electronic databases and completed supplementary forward citation searches and Google Scholar searches. In total, we screened 761 records (de-duplicated) and synthesised findings from 40 studies by commodity types (on-demand food or alcohol) and outcome focus (outlet, consumer, environmental, labour). Outlet-focused outcomes were most common (n = 16 studies), followed by consumer (n = 11), environmental (n = 7), and labour-focused (n = 6) outcomes. Despite geographical and methodological diversity of studies, results indicate that on-demand delivery services market unhealthy and discretionary foods, with disadvantaged communities having reduced access to healthy commodities. Services that deliver alcohol on-demand can also subvert current alcohol access restrictions, particularly through poor age verification processes. Underpinning these public health impacts is the multi-layered nature of on-demand services and context of the COVID-19 pandemic, which creates ongoing complications as to how populations access food and alcohol. Changing access to unhealthy commodities is an emerging issue in public health. Our scoping review considers priority areas for future research to better inform policy decisions. Current regulation of food and alcohol may not appropriately cover emerging on-demand technologies, necessitating a review of policy.

Associations between area deprivation and changes in the digital food environment during the COVID-19 pandemic: Longitudinal analysis of three online food delivery platforms

Online food delivery services facilitate access to unhealthy foods and have proliferated during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study explores associations between neighbourhood deprivation and exposure to online food delivery services and changes in exposure by deprivation during the first year of the pandemic. Data on food outlets delivering to 661 postcode districts in London and the North of England in 2020 and 2021 were collected from three online delivery platforms. The association between area deprivation and overall exposure to online food delivery services was moderated by region, with evidence of a positive relationship between count of outlets and deprivation in the North of England, and a negative relationship in London. There was no association between area deprivation and growth of online food delivery services. Associations between neighbourhood deprivation and exposure to the digital food environment vary geographically. Consequently, policies aimed at the digital food environment need to be tailored to the local context.

Investigating experiences of frequent online food delivery service use: a qualitative study in UK adults

BACKGROUND

Food prepared out-of-home is typically energy-dense and nutrient-poor. This food can be purchased from multiple types of retailer, including restaurants and takeaway food outlets. Using online food delivery services to purchase food prepared out-of-home is increasing in popularity. This may lead to more frequent unhealthy food consumption, which is positively associated with poor diet and living with obesity. Understanding possible reasons for using online food delivery services might contribute to the development of future public health interventions, if deemed necessary. This knowledge would be best obtained by engaging with individuals who use online food delivery services as part of established routines. Therefore, we aimed to investigate customer experiences of using online food delivery services to understand their reasons for using them, including any advantages and drawbacks.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In 2020, we conducted telephone interviews with 22 adults living in the UK who had used online food delivery services on at least a monthly basis over the previous year. Through codebook thematic analysis, we generated five themes: 'The importance of takeaway food', 'Less effort for more convenience', 'Saving money and reallocating time', 'Online food delivery service normalisation' and 'Maintained home food practices'. Two concepts were overarching throughout: 'Place. Time. Situation.' and 'Perceived advantages outweigh recognised drawbacks'. After considering each of the accessible food purchasing options within the context of their location and the time of day, participants typically selected online food delivery services. Participants reported that they did not use online food delivery services to purchase healthy food. Participants considered online food delivery service use to be a normal practice that involves little effort due to optimised purchasing processes. As a result, these services were seen to offer convenient access to food aligned with sociocultural expectations. Participants reported that this convenience was often an advantage but could be a drawback. Although participants were price-sensitive, they were willing to pay delivery fees for the opportunity to complete tasks whilst waiting for delivery. Furthermore, participants valued price-promotions and concluded that receiving them justified their online food delivery service use. Despite takeaway food consumption, participants considered home cooking to be irreplaceable.

CONCLUSIONS

Future public health interventions might seek to increase the healthiness of food available online whilst maintaining sociocultural values. Extending restrictions adopted in other food environments to online food delivery services could also be explored.

Boon or Bane? Urban Food Security and Online Food Purchasing during the COVID-19 Epidemic in Nanjing, China

This paper examines the relationship between the rapid growth of online food purchasing and household food security during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in China using the city of Nanjing as a case study. The paper presents the results of an online survey of 968 households in Nanjing in March 2020 focused on their food purchasing behavior and levels of food security during the early weeks of the pandemic. While online food purchasing has increased rapidly in many countries during the COVID-19 pandemic, little research attention has been paid to the relationship between online food purchasing and household food security. This paper provides detailed insights into this relationship in China. The medium- and longer-term food security and other consequences of the pandemic pivot to online food purchasing are a fertile area for future research in China and elsewhere.

Understanding the Online Environment for the Delivery of Food, Alcohol and Tobacco: An Exploratory Analysis of 'Dark Kitchens' and Rapid Grocery Delivery Services

Online spaces are increasingly important in the sale of food, alcohol and tobacco. This analysis focuses on two developments in online food delivery: delivery-only 'dark kitchens' and rapid grocery delivery services (RGDS), with the aim to understand and assess the availability of health harming and health promoting products through these services. Data was collected for one metropolitan local authority in London, UK, using publicly available online sources. Being explorative in nature, the analysis includes descriptive statistics and qualitative assessment. Three dark kitchens (renting kitchens to 116 food businesses), three grocery delivery apps, and 76 grocery businesses available through online delivery platforms were identified. Most businesses renting dark kitchen space were 'virtual restaurants' (52%) selling fast food (47%) or dessert (21%) through online delivery platforms. RGDS sold a variety of items, with a focus on pre-packaged foods high in fat, salt and sugar, alcoholic beverages and tobacco. These items were also most likely to be promoted through offers and promotional language. Fruits and vegetables were less commonly available and mainly on grocery delivery apps. Online delivery services increase the temporal and geographic availability and promotion of many unhealthy products. Research expanding on the geographic area of interest is needed.