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de Assis LVM, Harder L, Lacerda JT, Parsons R, Kaehler M, Cascorbi I, Nagel I, Rawashdeh O, Mittag J, Oster H. Tuning of liver circadian transcriptome rhythms by thyroid hormone state in male mice. Sci Rep 2024; 14:640. [PMID: 38182610 PMCID: PMC10770409 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-50374-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (THs) are important regulators of systemic energy metabolism. In the liver, they stimulate lipid and cholesterol turnover and increase systemic energy bioavailability. It is still unknown how the TH state interacts with the circadian clock, another important regulator of energy metabolism. We addressed this question using a mouse model of hypothyroidism and performed circadian analyses. Low TH levels decreased locomotor activity, food intake, and body temperature mostly in the active phase. Concurrently, liver transcriptome profiling showed only subtle effects compared to elevated TH conditions. Comparative circadian transcriptome profiling revealed alterations in mesor, amplitude, and phase of transcript levels in the livers of low-TH mice. Genes associated with cholesterol uptake, biosynthesis, and bile acid secretion showed reduced mesor. Increased and decreased cholesterol levels in the serum and liver were identified, respectively. Combining data from low- and high-TH conditions allowed the identification of 516 genes with mesor changes as molecular markers of the liver TH state. We explored these genes and created an expression panel that assesses liver TH state in a time-of-day dependent manner. Our findings suggest that the liver has a low TH action under physiological conditions. Circadian profiling reveals genes as potential markers of liver TH state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Vinicius Monteiro de Assis
- Center of Brain Behavior and Metabolism, Institute of Neurobiology, University of Lübeck, Marie Curie Street, 23562, Lübeck, Germany.
- University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany.
| | - Lisbeth Harder
- Center of Brain Behavior and Metabolism, Institute of Neurobiology, University of Lübeck, Marie Curie Street, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
- Division of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - José Thalles Lacerda
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Bioscience, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rex Parsons
- Faculty of Health, School of Public Health and Social Work, Australian Centre for Health Services Innovation and Centre for Healthcare Transformation, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Australia
| | - Meike Kaehler
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Ingolf Cascorbi
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Inga Nagel
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Kiel, Germany
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Oliver Rawashdeh
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Jens Mittag
- Center of Brain Behavior and Metabolism, Institute for Endocrinology and Diabetes - Molecular Endocrinology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Henrik Oster
- Center of Brain Behavior and Metabolism, Institute of Neurobiology, University of Lübeck, Marie Curie Street, 23562, Lübeck, Germany.
- University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany.
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Martin JV, Sarkar PK. Nongenomic roles of thyroid hormones and their derivatives in adult brain: are these compounds putative neurotransmitters? Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1210540. [PMID: 37701902 PMCID: PMC10494427 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1210540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
We review the evidence regarding the nongenomic (or non-canonical) actions of thyroid hormones (thyronines) and their derivatives (including thyronamines and thyroacetic acids) in the adult brain. The paper seeks to evaluate these compounds for consideration as candidate neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are defined by their (a) presence in the neural tissue, (b) release from neural tissue or cell, (c) binding to high-affinity and saturable recognition sites, (d) triggering of a specific effector mechanism and (e) inactivation mechanism. Thyronines and thyronamines are concentrated in brain tissue and show distinctive patterns of distribution within the brain. Nerve terminals accumulate a large amount of thyroid hormones in mature brain, suggesting a synaptic function. However, surprisingly little is known about the potential release of thyroid hormones at synapses. There are specific binding sites for thyroid hormones in nerve-terminal fractions (synaptosomes). A notable cell-membrane binding site for thyroid hormones is integrin αvβ3. Furthermore, thyronines bind specifically to other defined neurotransmitter receptors, including GABAergic, catecholaminergic, glutamatergic, serotonergic and cholinergic systems. Here, the thyronines tend to bind to sites other than the primary sites and have allosteric effects. Thyronamines also bind to specific membrane receptors, including the trace amine associated receptors (TAARs), especially TAAR1. The thyronines and thyronamines activate specific effector mechanisms that are short in latency and often occur in subcellular fractions lacking nuclei, suggesting nongenomic actions. Some of the effector mechanisms for thyronines include effects on protein phosphorylation, Na+/K+ ATPase, and behavioral measures such as sleep regulation and measures of memory retention. Thyronamines promptly regulate body temperature. Lastly, there are numerous inactivation mechanisms for the hormones, including decarboxylation, deiodination, oxidative deamination, glucuronidation, sulfation and acetylation. Therefore, at the current state of the research field, thyroid hormones and their derivatives satisfy most, but not all, of the criteria for definition as neurotransmitters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph V. Martin
- Biology Department, Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Rutgers University, Camden, NJ, United States
| | - Pradip K. Sarkar
- Department of Basic Sciences, Parker University, Dallas, TX, United States
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Taylor E, Wynen H, Heyland A. Thyroid hormone membrane receptor binding and transcriptional regulation in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1195733. [PMID: 37305042 PMCID: PMC10250714 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1195733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (THs) are small amino acid derived signaling molecules with broad physiological and developmental functions in animals. Specifically, their function in metamorphic development, ion regulation, angiogenesis and many others have been studied in detail in mammals and some other vertebrates. Despite extensive reports showing pharmacological responses of invertebrate species to THs, little is known about TH signaling mechanisms outside of vertebrates. Previous work in sea urchins suggests that non-genomic mechanisms are activated by TH ligands. Here we show that several THs bind to sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) cell membrane extracts and are displaced by ligands of RGD-binding integrins. A transcriptional analysis across sea urchin developmental stages shows activation of genomic and non-genomic pathways in response to TH exposure, suggesting that both pathways are activated by THs in sea urchin embryos and larvae. We also provide evidence associating TH regulation of gene expression with TH response elements in the genome. In ontogeny, we found more differentially expressed genes in older larvae compared to gastrula stages. In contrast to gastrula stages, the acceleration of skeletogenesis by thyroxine in older larvae is not fully inhibited by competitive ligands or inhibitors of the integrin membrane receptor pathway, suggesting that THs likely activate multiple pathways. Our data confirms a signaling function of THs in sea urchin development and suggests that both genomic and non-genomic mechanisms play a role, with genomic signaling being more prominent during later stages of larval development.
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Huang S, Liu L, Tang X, Xie S, Li X, Kang X, Zhu S. Research progress on the role of hormones in ischemic stroke. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1062977. [PMID: 36569944 PMCID: PMC9769407 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1062977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke is a major cause of death and disability around the world. However, ischemic stroke treatment is currently limited, with a narrow therapeutic window and unsatisfactory post-treatment outcomes. Therefore, it is critical to investigate the pathophysiological mechanisms following ischemic stroke brain injury. Changes in the immunometabolism and endocrine system after ischemic stroke are important in understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms of cerebral ischemic injury. Hormones are biologically active substances produced by endocrine glands or endocrine cells that play an important role in the organism's growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and aging. Hormone research in ischemic stroke has made very promising progress. Hormone levels fluctuate during an ischemic stroke. Hormones regulate neuronal plasticity, promote neurotrophic factor formation, reduce cell death, apoptosis, inflammation, excitotoxicity, oxidative and nitrative stress, and brain edema in ischemic stroke. In recent years, many studies have been done on the role of thyroid hormone, growth hormone, testosterone, prolactin, oxytocin, glucocorticoid, parathyroid hormone, and dopamine in ischemic stroke, but comprehensive reviews are scarce. This review focuses on the role of hormones in the pathophysiology of ischemic stroke and discusses the mechanisms involved, intending to provide a reference value for ischemic stroke treatment and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyuan Huang
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lu Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen People’s Hospital, The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaodong Tang
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Shulan Xie
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xinrui Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xianhui Kang
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China,*Correspondence: Xianhui Kang, ; Shengmei Zhu,
| | - Shengmei Zhu
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China,*Correspondence: Xianhui Kang, ; Shengmei Zhu,
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Exogenous 3-Iodothyronamine (T1AM) Can Affect Phosphorylation of Proteins Involved on Signal Transduction Pathways in In Vitro Models of Brain Cell Lines, but These Effects Are Not Strengthened by Its Catabolite, 3-Iodothyroacetic Acid (TA1). Life (Basel) 2022; 12:life12091352. [PMID: 36143389 PMCID: PMC9502970 DOI: 10.3390/life12091352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
T1AM, a derivative of thyroid hormones, and its major catabolite, TA1, produce effects on memory acquisition in rodents. In the present study, we compared the effects of exogenous T1AM and TA1 on protein belonging to signal transduction pathways, assuming that TA1 may strengthen T1AM’s effects in brain tissue. A hybrid line of cancer cells of mouse neuroblastoma and rat glioma (NG 108-15), as well as a human glioblastoma cell line (U-87 MG) were used. We first characterized the in vitro model by analyzing gene expression of proteins involved in the glutamatergic cascade and cellular uptake of T1AM and TA1. Then, cell viability, glucose consumption, and protein expression were assessed. Both cell lines expressed receptors implicated in glutamatergic pathway, namely Nmdar1, Glur2, and EphB2, but only U-87 MG cells expressed TAAR1. At pharmacological concentrations, T1AM was taken up and catabolized to TA1 and resulted in more cytotoxicity compared to TA1. The major effect, highlighted in both cell lines, albeit on different proteins involved in the glutamatergic signaling, was an increase in phosphorylation, exerted by T1AM but not reproduced by TA1. These findings indicate that, in our in vitro models, T1AM can affect proteins involved in the glutamatergic and other signaling pathways, but these effects are not strengthened by TA1.
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Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1): Potential application in mood disorders: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 131:192-210. [PMID: 34537265 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
There is a need for innovation with respect to therapeutics in psychiatry. Available evidence indicates that the trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) agonist SEP-363856 is promising, as it improves measures of cognitive and reward function in schizophrenia. Hedonic and cognitive impairments are transdiagnostic and constitute major burdens in mood disorders. Herein, we systematically review the behavioural and genetic literature documenting the role of TAAR1 in reward and cognitive function, and propose a mechanistic model of TAAR1's functions in the brain. Notably, TAAR1 activity confers antidepressant-like effects, enhances attention and response inhibition, and reduces compulsive reward seeking without impairing normal function. Further characterization of the responsible mechanisms suggests ion-homeostatic, metabolic, neurotrophic, and anti-inflammatory enhancements in the limbic system. Multiple lines of evidence establish the viability of TAAR1 as a biological target for the treatment of mood disorders. Furthermore, the evidence suggests a role for TAAR1 in reward and cognitive function, which is attributed to a cascade of events that are relevant to the cellular integrity and function of the central nervous system.
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Li ZM, Miller M, Gachkar S, Mittag J, Schriever SC, Pfluger PT, Schramm KW, De Angelis M. Determination of 3-iodothyronamine (3-T 1AM) in mouse liver using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2021; 1165:122553. [PMID: 33503577 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2021.122553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
3-iodothyronamine (3-T1AM) has been suggested as a novel chemical messenger and potent trace amine-associated receptor 1 ligand in the CNS that occurs naturally as endogenous metabolite of the thyroid hormones. Discrepancies and variations in 3-T1AM plasma and tissue concentrations have nonetheless caused controversy regarding the existence and biological role of 3-T1AM. These discussions are at least partially based on potential analytical artefacts caused by differential decay kinetics of 3-T1AM and the widely used deuterated quantification standard D4-T1AM. Here, we report a novel LC-MS/MS method for the quantification of 3-T1AM in biological specimens using stable isotope dilution with 13C6-T1AM, a new internal standard that showed pharmacodynamic properties comparable to endogenous 3-T1AM. The method detection limit (MDL) and method quantification limit (MQL) of 3-T1AM were 0.04 and 0.09 ng/g, respectively. The spike-recoveries of 3-T1AM were between 85.4% and 94.3%, with a coefficient of variation of 3.7-5.8%. The intra-day and inter-day variations of 3-T1AM were 8.45-11.2% and 3.58-5.73%, respectively. Endogenous 3-T1AM liver values in C57BL/6J mice were 2.20 ± 0.49 pmol/g with a detection frequency of 50%. Higher liver 3-T1AM values were found when C57BL/6J mice were treated with N-acetyl-3-iodothyronamine or O-acetyl-3-iodothyronamine. Overall, our new stable isotope dilution LC-MS/MS method improves both the sensitivity and selectivity compared with existing methods. The concomitant possibility to quantify additional thyroid hormones such as thyroxine, 3,5,3'-triiodo-L-thyronine, 3,3',5'-triiodo-L-thyronine, 3,3'-diiodo-L-thyronine, and 3,5-diiodo-L-thyronine further adds to the value of our novel method in exploring the natural occurrence and fate of 3-T1AM in biological tissues and fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong-Min Li
- Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Molecular EXposomics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan (Nutrition), Technical University Munich, 85354 Freising, Germany.
| | - Manuel Miller
- Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Research Unit Comparative Medicine (AVM), Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Sogol Gachkar
- Institute for Endocrinology & Diabetes, Molecular Endocrinology, Center of Brain, Behavior & Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Jens Mittag
- Institute for Endocrinology & Diabetes, Molecular Endocrinology, Center of Brain, Behavior & Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Sonja C Schriever
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Neuherberg, Germany; Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Diabetes Center at Helmholtz Zentrum München, Germany; Research Unit Neurobiology of Diabetes, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Paul T Pfluger
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Neuherberg, Germany; Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Diabetes Center at Helmholtz Zentrum München, Germany; Research Unit Neurobiology of Diabetes, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany; TUM School of Medicine, Neurobiology of Diabetes, Technical University Munich, Germany
| | - Karl-Werner Schramm
- Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Molecular EXposomics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Department für Biowissenschaftliche Grundlagen, Technische Universität München, Weihenstephaner Steig 23, 85350 Freising, Germany
| | - Meri De Angelis
- Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Molecular EXposomics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
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Tozzi F, Rutigliano G, Borsò M, Falcicchia C, Zucchi R, Origlia N. T 1AM-TAAR1 signalling protects against OGD-induced synaptic dysfunction in the entorhinal cortex. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 151:105271. [PMID: 33482355 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Abnormalities in thyroid hormones (TH) availability and/or metabolism have been hypothesized to contribute to Alzheimer's disease (AD) and to be a risk factor for stroke. Recently, 3-iodothyronamine (T1AM), an endogenous amine putatively derived from TH metabolism, gained interest for its ability to promote learning and memory in the mouse. Moreover, T1AM has been demonstrated to rescue the β-Amyloid dependent LTP impairment in the entorhinal cortex (EC), a brain area crucially involved in learning and memory and early affected during AD. In the present work, we have investigated the effect of T1AM on ischemia-induced EC synaptic dysfunction. In EC brain slices exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD), we demonstrated that the acute perfusion of T1AM (5 μM) was capable of preventing ischemia-induced synaptic depression and that this protective effect was mediated by the trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1). Moreover, we demonstrated that activation of the BDNF-TrkB signalling is required for T1AM action during ischemia. The protective effect of T1AM was more evident when using EC slices from transgenic mutant human APP (mhAPP mice) that are more vulnerable to the effect of OGD. Our results confirm that the TH derivative T1AM can rescue synaptic function after transient ischemia, an effect that was also observed in a Aβ-enriched environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Tozzi
- Bio@SNS laboratory, Scuola Normale Superiore, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Marco Borsò
- Department of Pathology, University of Pisa, 56100 Pisa, Italy
| | - Chiara Falcicchia
- Institute of Neuroscience of the Italian National Research Council (CNR), Pisa, Italy
| | - Riccardo Zucchi
- Department of Pathology, University of Pisa, 56100 Pisa, Italy
| | - Nicola Origlia
- Institute of Neuroscience of the Italian National Research Council (CNR), Pisa, Italy.
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Pretorius L, Smith C. The trace aminergic system: a gender-sensitive therapeutic target for IBS? J Biomed Sci 2020; 27:95. [PMID: 32981524 PMCID: PMC7520957 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-020-00688-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to a lack of specific or sensitive biomarkers, drug discovery advances have been limited for individuals suffering from irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). While current therapies provide symptomatic relief, inflammation itself is relatively neglected, despite the presence of chronic immune activation and innate immune system dysfunction. Moreover, considering the microgenderome concept, gender is a significant aetiological risk factor. We believe that we have pinpointed a "missing link" that connects gender, dysbiosis, diet, and inflammation in the context of IBS, which may be manipulated as therapeutic target. The trace aminergic system is conveniently positioned at the interface of the gut microbiome, dietary nutrients and by-products, and mucosal immunity. Almost all leukocyte populations express trace amine associated receptors and significant amounts of trace amines originate from both food and the gut microbiota. Additionally, although IBS-specific data are sparse, existing data supports an interpretation in favour of a gender dependence in trace aminergic signalling. As such, trace aminergic signalling may be altered by fluctuations of especially female reproductive hormones. Utilizing a multidisciplinary approach, this review discusses potential mechanisms of actions, which include hyperreactivity of the immune system and aberrant serotonin signalling, and links outcomes to the symptomology clinically prevalent in IBS. Taken together, it is feasible that the additional level of regulation by the trace aminergic system in IBS has been overlooked, until now. As such, we suggest that components of the trace aminergic system be considered targets for future therapeutic action, with the specific focus of reducing oxidative stress and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesha Pretorius
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch, 7062, South Africa
| | - Carine Smith
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch, 7062, South Africa.
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Giammanco M, Di Liegro CM, Schiera G, Di Liegro I. Genomic and Non-Genomic Mechanisms of Action of Thyroid Hormones and Their Catabolite 3,5-Diiodo-L-Thyronine in Mammals. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21114140. [PMID: 32532017 PMCID: PMC7312989 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21114140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the realization that the cellular homologs of a gene found in the retrovirus that contributes to erythroblastosis in birds (v-erbA), i.e. the proto-oncogene c-erbA encodes the nuclear receptors for thyroid hormones (THs), most of the interest for THs focalized on their ability to control gene transcription. It was found, indeed, that, by regulating gene expression in many tissues, these hormones could mediate critical events both in development and in adult organisms. Among their effects, much attention was given to their ability to increase energy expenditure, and they were early proposed as anti-obesity drugs. However, their clinical use has been strongly challenged by the concomitant onset of toxic effects, especially on the heart. Notably, it has been clearly demonstrated that, besides their direct action on transcription (genomic effects), THs also have non-genomic effects, mediated by cell membrane and/or mitochondrial binding sites, and sometimes triggered by their endogenous catabolites. Among these latter molecules, 3,5-diiodo-L-thyronine (3,5-T2) has been attracting increasing interest because some of its metabolic effects are similar to those induced by T3, but it seems to be safer. The main target of 3,5-T2 appears to be the mitochondria, and it has been hypothesized that, by acting mainly on mitochondrial function and oxidative stress, 3,5-T2 might prevent and revert tissue damages and hepatic steatosis induced by a hyper-lipid diet, while concomitantly reducing the circulating levels of low density lipoproteins (LDL) and triglycerides. Besides a summary concerning general metabolism of THs, as well as their genomic and non-genomic effects, herein we will discuss resistance to THs and the possible mechanisms of action of 3,5-T2, also in relation to its possible clinical use as a drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Giammanco
- Department of Surgical, Oncological and Oral Sciences (Discipline Chirurgiche, Oncologiche e Stomatologiche), University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy;
| | - Carlo Maria Di Liegro
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF)), University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (C.M.D.L.); (G.S.)
| | - Gabriella Schiera
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF)), University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy; (C.M.D.L.); (G.S.)
| | - Italia Di Liegro
- Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (Dipartimento di Biomedicina, Neuroscienze e Diagnostica avanzata (Bi.N.D.)), University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-091-2389-7415 or +39-091-2389-7446
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Homuth G, Lietzow J, Schanze N, Golchert J, Köhrle J. Endocrine, Metabolic and Pharmacological Effects of Thyronamines (TAM), Thyroacetic Acids (TA) and Thyroid Hormone Metabolites (THM) - Evidence from in vitro, Cellular, Experimental Animal and Human Studies. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2020; 128:401-413. [PMID: 32450582 DOI: 10.1055/a-1139-9200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone metabolites (THM) with few or no iodine substituents such as 3,5-T2, the thyronamines 3-T1AM and T0AM, and their oxidation products, the thyroacetic acids (TA) formed by monoamine oxidases, have recently attracted major interest due to their metabolic actions which are in part distinct from those of the classical thyromimetic hormone T3, the major ligand of T3 receptors. This review compiles and discusses in vitro effects of 3,5-T2, TAM and TA reported for thyrocytes, pancreatic islets and hepatocytes as well as findings from in vivo studies in mouse models after single or repeated administration of pharmacological doses of these agents. Comparison of the 3,5-T2 effects on the transcriptome with not yet published proteome data in livers of obese mice on high fat diet indicate a distinct anti-steatotic effect of this THM. Furthermore, uptake, metabolism, and cellular actions via various receptors such as trace amine-associated receptors (TAAR), alpha-adrenergic, GPCR and T3 receptors are discussed. Studies on postulated pathways of biosynthesis of 3-T1AM, its effects on the HPT-axis and thyroid gland as well as insulin secretion are reviewed. 3-T1AM also acts on hepatocytes and interferes with TRPM8-dependent signaling in human cell lines related to the eye compartment. Human studies are presented which address potential biosynthesis routes of 3,5-T2 and 3-T1AM from THM precursors, especially T3. The current state of diagnostic analytics of these minor THM in human blood is portrayed comparing and critically discussing the still divergent findings based on classical immunoassay and recently developed liquid-chromatography/mass- spectrometry methods, which allow quantification of the thyronome spectrum from one single small volume serum sample. The clinical perspectives of use and potential abuse of these biologically active THM is addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Homuth
- Department of Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Julika Lietzow
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nancy Schanze
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Berlin, Germany
| | - Janine Golchert
- Department of Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Josef Köhrle
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Berlin, Germany
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12
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3-Iodothyronamine and Derivatives: New Allies Against Metabolic Syndrome? Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21062005. [PMID: 32183490 PMCID: PMC7139928 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21062005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In the two decades since its discovery, a large body of evidence has amassed to highlight the potential of 3-iodothyronamine (T1AM) as an antiobesity drug, whose pleiotropic signaling actions profoundly impact energy metabolism. In the present review, we recapitulate the most relevant properties of T1AM, including its structural and functional relationship to thyroid hormone, its endogenous levels, molecular targets, as well as its genomic and non-genomic effects on metabolism elicited in experimental models after exogenous administration. The physiological and pathophysiological relevance of T1AM in the regulation of energy homeostasis and metabolism is also discussed, along with its potential therapeutic applications in metabolic disturbances. Finally, we examine a number of T1AM analogs that have been recently developed with the aim of designing novel pharmacological agents for the treatment of interlinked diseases, such as metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders, as well as additional synthetic tools that can be exploited to further explore T1AM-dependent mechanisms and the physiological roles of trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1)-mediated effects.
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Sacripanti G, Lorenzini L, Bandini L, Frascarelli S, Zucchi R, Ghelardoni S. 3-Iodothyronamine and 3,5,3'-triiodo-L-thyronine reduce SIRT1 protein expression in the HepG2 cell line. Horm Mol Biol Clin Investig 2020; 41:/j/hmbci.ahead-of-print/hmbci-2019-0045/hmbci-2019-0045.xml. [PMID: 32114521 DOI: 10.1515/hmbci-2019-0045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Background 3-Iodothyronamine (T1AM) is an endogenous messenger chemically related to thyroid hormone. Recent results indicate significant transcriptional effects of chronic T1AM administration involving the protein family of sirtuins, which regulate important metabolic pathways and tumor progression. Therefore, the aim of this work was to compare the effect of exogenous T1AM and 3,5,3'-triiodo-L-thyronine (T3) chronic treatment on mammalian sirtuin expression in hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2) and in primary rat hepatocytes at micromolar concentrations. Materials and methods Sirtuin (SIRT) activity and expression were determined using a colorimetric assay and Western blot analysis, respectively, in cells treated for 24 h with 1-20 μM T1AM or T3. In addition, cell viability was evaluated by the MTTtest upon 24 h of treatment with 0.1-20 μM T1AM or T3. Results In HepG2, T1AM significantly reduced SIRT 1 (20 μM) and SIRT4 (10-20 μM) protein expression, while T3 strongly decreased the expression of SIRT1 (20 μM) and SIRT2 (any tested concentration). In primary rat hepatocytes, T3 decreased SIRT2 expression and cellular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) concentration, while on sirtuin activity it showed opposite effects, depending on the evaluated cell fraction. The extent of MTT staining was moderately but significantly reduced by T1AM, particularly in HepG2 cells, whereas T3 reduced cell viability only in the tumor cell line. Conclusions T1AM and T3 downregulated the expression of sirtuins, mainly SIRT1, in hepatocytes, albeit in different ways. Differences in mechanisms are only observational, and further investigations are required to highlight the potential role of T1AM and T3 in modulating sirtuin expression and, therefore, in regulating cell cycle or tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ginevra Sacripanti
- Department of Pathology, University of Pisa, Via Roma 55, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Leonardo Lorenzini
- Department of Pathology, University of Pisa, Via Roma 55, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Lavinia Bandini
- Department of Pathology, University of Pisa, Via Roma 55, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Sabina Frascarelli
- Department of Pathology, University of Pisa, Via Roma 55, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Riccardo Zucchi
- Department of Pathology, University of Pisa, Via Roma 55, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Sandra Ghelardoni
- Department of Pathology, University of Pisa, Via Roma 55, 56126 Pisa, Italy
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Xia B, Shi XC, Xie BC, Zhu MQ, Chen Y, Chu XY, Cai GH, Liu M, Yang SZ, Mitchell GA, Pang WJ, Wu JW. Urolithin A exerts antiobesity effects through enhancing adipose tissue thermogenesis in mice. PLoS Biol 2020; 18:e3000688. [PMID: 32218572 PMCID: PMC7141696 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Obesity leads to multiple health problems, including diabetes, fatty liver, and even cancer. Here, we report that urolithin A (UA), a gut-microflora-derived metabolite of pomegranate ellagitannins (ETs), prevents diet-induced obesity and metabolic dysfunctions in mice without causing adverse effects. UA treatment increases energy expenditure (EE) by enhancing thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (BAT) and inducing browning of white adipose tissue (WAT). Mechanistically, UA-mediated increased thermogenesis is caused by an elevation of triiodothyronine (T3) levels in BAT and inguinal fat depots. This is also confirmed in UA-treated white and brown adipocytes. Consistent with this mechanism, UA loses its beneficial effects on activation of BAT, browning of white fat, body weight control, and glucose homeostasis when thyroid hormone (TH) production is blocked by its inhibitor, propylthiouracil (PTU). Conversely, administration of exogenous tetraiodothyronine (T4) to PTU-treated mice restores UA-induced activation of BAT and browning of white fat and its preventive role on high-fat diet (HFD)-induced weight gain. Together, these results suggest that UA is a potent antiobesity agent with potential for human clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Xia
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiao Chen Shi
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Bao Cai Xie
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Meng Qing Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xin Yi Chu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Guo He Cai
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Min Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shi Zhen Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Grant A. Mitchell
- Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Paediatrics, Université de Montréal and Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Wei Jun Pang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiang Wei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
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Brix K, Szumska J, Weber J, Qatato M, Venugopalan V, Al-Hashimi A, Rehders M. Auto-Regulation of the Thyroid Gland Beyond Classical Pathways. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2020; 128:437-445. [PMID: 32074633 DOI: 10.1055/a-1080-2969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This mini-review asks how self-regulation of the thyroid gland is realized at the cellular and molecular levels by canonical and non-canonical means. Canonical pathways of thyroid regulation comprise thyroid stimulating hormone-triggered receptor signaling. As part of non-canonical regulation, we hypothesized an interplay between protease-mediated thyroglobulin processing and thyroid hormone release into the circulation by means of thyroid hormone transporters like Mct8. We proposed a sensing mechanism by different thyroid hormone transporters, present in specific subcellular locations of thyroid epithelial cells, selectively monitoring individual steps of thyroglobulin processing, and thus, the cellular thyroid hormone status. Indeed, we found that proteases and thyroid hormone transporters are functionally inter-connected, however, in a counter-intuitive manner fostering self-thyrotoxicity in particular in Mct8- and/or Mct10-deficient mice. Furthermore, the possible role of the G protein-coupled receptor Taar1 is discussed, because we detected Taar1 at cilia of the apical plasma membrane of thyrocytes in vitro and in situ. Eventually, through pheno-typing Taar1-deficient mice, we identified a co-regulatory role of Taar1 and the thyroid stimulating hormone receptors. Recently, we showed that inhibition of thyroglobulin-processing enzymes results in disappearance of cilia from the apical pole of thyrocytes, while Taar1 is re-located to the endoplasmic reticulum. This pathway features a connection between thyrotropin-stimulated secretion of proteases into the thyroid follicle lumen and substrate-mediated self-assisted control of initially peri-cellular thyroglobulin processing, before its reinternalization by endocytosis, followed by extensive endo-lysosomal liberation of thyroid hormones, which are then released from thyroid follicles by means of thyroid hormone transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaudia Brix
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Joanna Szumska
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen, Bremen, Germany.,Present address of JS is Department of Internal Medicine III, Cardiology, Angiology and Respiratory Medicine, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jonas Weber
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Maria Qatato
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Vaishnavi Venugopalan
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Alaa Al-Hashimi
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Maren Rehders
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen, Bremen, Germany
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Gachkar S, Oelkrug R, Herrmann B, Scanlan TS, Sun Q, Biebermann H, Hoefig CS, Schomburg L, Mittag J. N- and O-Acetylated 3-Iodothyronamines Have No Metabolic or Thermogenic Effects in Male Mice. Eur Thyroid J 2020; 9:57-66. [PMID: 32257954 PMCID: PMC7109410 DOI: 10.1159/000504887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Injection of 3-iodothyronamine into experimental animals profoundly affects their metabolism and body temperature. As 3-iodothyronamine is rapidly acetylated in vivo after injection, it was hypothesized that the metabolites N- or O-acetyl-3-iodothyronamines could constitute the active hormones. METHODS Adult male mice were injected once daily with one of the metabolites (5 mg/kg body weight intraperitoneally dissolved in 60% DMSO in PBS) or solvent. Metabolism was monitored by indirect calorimetry, body temperature by infrared thermography, and body composition by nuclear magnetic resonance analysis. Signaling activities in brown fat or liver were assessed by studying target gene transcription by qPCR including uncoupling protein 1 or deiodinase type 1 or 2, and Western blot. RESULTS The markers of metabolism, body composition, or temperature tested were similar in the mice injected with solvent and those injected with one of the acetylated 3-iodothyronamines. CONCLUSIONS In our experimental setup, N- and O-acetyl-3-iodothyronamine do not constitute compounds contributing to the metabolic or temperature effects described for 3-iodothyronamine. The acetylation of 3-iodothyronamine observed in vivo may thus rather serve degradation and elimination purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sogol Gachkar
- Molecular Endocrinology, Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Rebecca Oelkrug
- Molecular Endocrinology, Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Beate Herrmann
- Molecular Endocrinology, Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Thomas S. Scanlan
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Qian Sun
- Institute for Experimental Endocrinology, Charité − Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Heike Biebermann
- Institute of Experimental Pediatric Endocrinology, Charité − Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Carolin S. Hoefig
- Institute for Experimental Endocrinology, Charité − Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lutz Schomburg
- Institute for Experimental Endocrinology, Charité − Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jens Mittag
- Molecular Endocrinology, Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
- *Prof. Dr. Jens Mittag, Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, Ratzeburger Allee 160, Haus 66, DE–23562 Lübeck (Germany), E-Mail
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Köhrle J, Lehmphul I, Pietzner M, Renko K, Rijntjes E, Richards K, Anselmo J, Danielsen M, Jonklaas J. 3,5-T2-A Janus-Faced Thyroid Hormone Metabolite Exerts Both Canonical T3-Mimetic Endocrine and Intracrine Hepatic Action. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 10:787. [PMID: 31969860 PMCID: PMC6960127 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last decades, thyroid hormone metabolites (THMs) received marked attention as it has been demonstrated that they are bioactive compounds. Their concentrations were determined by immunoassay or mass-spectrometry methods. Among those metabolites, 3,5-diiodothyronine (3,5-T2), occurs at low nanomolar concentrations in human serum, but might reach tissue concentrations similar to those of T4 and T3, at least based on data from rodent models. However, the immunoassay-based measurements in human sera revealed remarkable variations depending on antibodies used in the assays and thus need to be interpreted with caution. In clinical experimental approaches in euthyroid volunteers and hypothyroid patients using the immunoassay as the analytical tool no evidence of formation of 3,5-T2 from its putative precursors T4 or T3 was found, nor was any support found for the assumption that 3,5-T2 might represent a direct precursor for serum 3-T1-AM generated by combined deiodination and decarboxylation from 3,5-T2, as previously documented for mouse intestinal mucosa. We hypothesized that lowered endogenous production of 3,5-T2 in patients requiring T4 replacement therapy after thyroidectomy or for treatment of autoimmune thyroid disease, compared to production of 3,5-T2 in individuals with intact thyroid glands might contribute to the discontent seen in a subset of patients with this therapeutic regimen. So far, our observations do not support this assumption. However, the unexpected association between high serum 3,5-T2 and elevated urinary concentrations of metabolites related to coffee consumption requires further studies for an explanation. Elevated 3,5-T2 serum concentrations were found in several situations including impaired renal function, chronic dialysis, sepsis, non-survival in the ICU as well as post-operative atrial fibrillation (POAF) in studies using a monoclonal antibody-based chemoluminescence immunoassay. Pilot analysis of human sera using LC-linear-ion-trap-mass-spectrometry yielded 3,5-T2 concentrations below the limit of quantification in the majority of cases, thus the divergent results of both methods need to be reconciliated by further studies. Although positive anti-steatotic effects have been observed in rodent models, use of 3,5-T2 as a muscle anabolic, slimming or fitness drug, easily obtained without medical prescription, must be advised against, considering its potency in suppressing the HPT axis and causing adverse cardiac side effects. 3,5-T2 escapes regular detection by commercially available clinical routine assays used for thyroid function tests, which may be seriously disrupted in individuals self-administering 3,5-T2 obtained over-the counter or from other sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef Köhrle
- Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ina Lehmphul
- Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Maik Pietzner
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Kostja Renko
- Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Eddy Rijntjes
- Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Keith Richards
- Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - João Anselmo
- Endocrinology Department, Hospital Divino Espirito Santo, Ponta Delgada, Portugal
| | - Mark Danielsen
- Division of Endocrinology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Jacqueline Jonklaas
- Division of Endocrinology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States
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Actions of Trace Amines in the Brain-Gut-Microbiome Axis via Trace Amine-Associated Receptor-1 (TAAR1). Cell Mol Neurobiol 2019; 40:191-201. [DOI: 10.1007/s10571-019-00772-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Biebermann H, Kleinau G. 3-Iodothyronamine Induces Diverse Signaling Effects at Different Aminergic and Non-Aminergic G-Protein Coupled Receptors. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2019; 128:395-400. [PMID: 31698479 DOI: 10.1055/a-1022-1554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The thyroid hormone metabolite 3-iodothyronamine (3-T1AM) exerts diverse physiological reactions such as a decrease of body temperature, and negative inotropic and chronotropic effects. This observed pleomorphic effect in physiology can be barely explained by interaction with only one target protein such as the trace-amine receptor 1 (TAAR1), a class A G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR). Moreover, Taar1 knock-out mice still react to 3-T1AM through physiological responses with a rapid decrease in body temperature. These facts propelled our group and others to search for further targets for this molecule.The group of TAARs evolved early in evolution and, according to sequence similarities, they are closely related to adrenoceptors and other aminergic receptors. Therefore, several of these receptors were characterized by their potential to interplay with 3-T1AM. Indeed, 3-T1AM acts as a positive allosteric modulator on the beta2-adrenoceptor (ADRB2) and as a biased agonist on the serotonin receptor 1B (5HT1b) and the alpha2-adrenoceptor (ADRA2A). In addition, 3-T1AM was reported to be a weak antagonist at a non-aminergic muscarinic receptor (M3).These findings impressively reflect that such trace amines can unselectively and simultaneously function at different receptors expressed by one cell or at different tissues. In conclusion, the role of 3-T1AM is hypothesized to concert the fine-tuning of specific cell reactions by the accentuation of certain pathways dependent on distinct receptors. 3-T1AM acts as a regulator of signals by blocking, modulating, or inducing simultaneously distinct intracellular signaling cascades via different GPCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Biebermann
- Institute of Experimental Pediatric Endocrinology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gunnar Kleinau
- Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Group Protein X-ray Crystallography and Signal Transduction, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
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Abstract
The field of thyroid hormone signaling has grown more complex in recent years. In particular, it has been suggested that some thyroid hormone derivatives, tentatively named "novel thyroid hormones" or "active thyroid hormone metabolites", may act as independent chemical messengers. They include 3,5-diiodothyronine (T2), 3-iodothyronamine (T1AM), and several iodothyroacetic acids, i.e., 3,5,3',5'-thyroacetic acid (TA4), 3,5,3'-thyroacetic acid (TA3), and 3-thyroacetic acid (TA1). We summarize the present knowledge on these compounds, namely their biosynthetic pathways, endogenous levels, molecular targets, and the functional effects elicited in experimental preparations or intact animals after exogenous administration. Their physiological and pathophysiological role is discussed, and potential therapeutic applications are outlined. The requirements needed to qualify these substances as chemical messengers must still be validated, although promising evidence has been collected. At present, the best candidate to the role of independent chemical messenger appears to be T1AM, and its most interesting effects concern metabolism and brain function. The responses elicited in experimental animals have suggested potential therapeutic applications. TA3 has an established role in thyroid hormone resistance syndromes, and is under investigation in Allen-Herndon-Dudley syndrome. Other potential targets are represented by obesity and dyslipidemia (for T2 and T1AM); dementia and degenerative brain disease (for T1AM and TA1); cancer (for T1AM and TA4). Another intriguing and unexplored question is the potential relevance of these metabolites in the clinical picture of hypothyroidism and in the response to replacement therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Zucchi
- Department of Pathology, Laboratory of Biochemistry, University of Pisa, Via Roma 55, Pisa, 56126, Italy.
| | | | - Federica Saponaro
- Department of Pathology, Laboratory of Biochemistry, University of Pisa, Via Roma 55, Pisa, 56126, Italy
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21
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Senese R, Cioffi F, Petito G, Goglia F, Lanni A. Thyroid hormone metabolites and analogues. Endocrine 2019; 66:105-114. [PMID: 31359245 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-019-02025-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Several metabolic products that derive from L-thyroxine (T4) and 3,3'5-L-triiodothyronine (T3), the main thyroid hormones secreted by the thyroid gland, possess biologic activities. Among these metabolites or derivatives showing physiological actions some have received greater attention: diiodothyronines, iodothyronamines, acetic acid analogues. It is known that increased thyroid hormone (T3 and T4) levels can improve serum lipid profiles and reduce body fat. These positive effects are, however, counterbalanced by adverse effects on the heart, muscle and bone, limiting their use. In addition to the naturally occurring metabolites, thyroid hormone analogues have been developed that either have selective effects on specific tissues or bind selectively to thyroid hormone receptor (TR) isoform. Among these GC-1, KB141, KB2115, and DITPA were deeply investigated and displayed promising therapeutic results in the potential treatment of conditions such as dyslipidemias and obesity. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of metabolites and analogues of T4 and T3 with reference to their possible clinical application in the treatment of human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalba Senese
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania "L. Vanvitelli", Caserta, Italy
| | - Federica Cioffi
- Department of Sciences and Technologies, University of Sannio, Benevento, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Petito
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania "L. Vanvitelli", Caserta, Italy
| | - Fernando Goglia
- Department of Sciences and Technologies, University of Sannio, Benevento, Italy
| | - Antonia Lanni
- Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Campania "L. Vanvitelli", Caserta, Italy.
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Köhrle J. The Colorful Diversity of Thyroid Hormone Metabolites. Eur Thyroid J 2019; 8:115-129. [PMID: 31259154 PMCID: PMC6587369 DOI: 10.1159/000497141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the discovery of L-thyroxine, the main secretory product of the thyroid gland, and its major metabolite T3, which exerts the majority of thyroid hormone action via ligand-dependent modulation of the function of T3 receptors in nuclei, mitochondria, and other subcellular compartments, various other T4-derived endogenous metabolites have been identified in blood and tissues of humans, animals, and early protochordates. This review addresses major historical milestones and experimental findings resulting in the discovery of the key enzymes of thyroid hormone metabolism, the three selenoprotein deiodinases, as well as the decarboxylases and amine oxidases involved in formation and degradation of recently identified endogenous thyroid hormone metabolites, i.e. 3-iodothyronamine and 3-thyroacetic acid. The concerted action of deiodinases 2 and 3 in regulation of local T3 availability is discussed. Special attention is given to the role of the thyromimetic "hot" metabolite 3,5-T2 and the "cool" 3-iodothyronamine, especially after administration of pharmacological doses of these endogenous thyroid hormone metabolites in various animal experimental models. In addition, available information on the biological roles of the two major acetic acid derivatives of thyroid hormones, i.e. Tetrac and Triac, as well as sulfated metabolites of thyroid hormones is reviewed. This review addresses the consequences of the existence of this broad spectrum of endogenous thyroid hormone metabolites, the "thyronome," beyond the classical thyroid hormone profile comprising T4, T3, and rT3 for appropriate analytical coverage and clinical diagnostics using mass spectrometry versus immunoassays for determination of total and free concentrations of thyroid hormone metabolites in blood and tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef Köhrle
- *Josef Köhrle, Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité Campus Virchow-Klinikum (CVK), Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, DE–13353 Berlin (Germany), E-Mail
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23
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la Cour JL, Christensen HM, Köhrle J, Lehmphul I, Kistorp C, Nygaard B, Faber J. Association Between 3-Iodothyronamine (T1am) Concentrations and Left Ventricular Function in Chronic Heart Failure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2019; 104:1232-1238. [PMID: 30383216 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2018-01466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/13/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Thyroid hormone metabolites might affect the heart. The endogenous aminergic metabolite 3-iodothyronamine (T1am) reduces left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) in rodents. OBJECTIVE To investigate concentration of T1am and its association with LVEF and biomarkers of heart function in patients with chronic heart failure (CHF) without thyroid disease, including patients with cardiac cachexia (nonedematous weight loss >5% over 6 months). METHODS Cross-sectional study. CHF was characterized by LVEF <45% and symptoms. Three groups were included (n = 19 in each group, matched on age, sex, and kidney function): patients with cachexia (CAC), patients without (non-CAC), and control (C) patients with prior myocardial infarction and LVEF >45%. T1am was measured by a monoclonal antibody-based chemiluminescence immunoassay. N-amino terminal pro-BNP (NT-proBNP) concentrations were also analyzed. RESULTS Mean (SD) LVEF: CAC, 32 ± 9%; non-CAC, 38 ± 8%; and C, 60 ± 8% (P < 0.0001). TSH, T4, and T3 levels did not differ between groups and did not correlate to T1am. Serum T1am (nmol/L) concentrations were higher in CHF: CAC (mean ± SD), 12.4 ± 6.6; non-CAC, 9.1 ± 5; and C, 7.3 ± 2.9. A negative association between T1am and LVEF was present after adjusting for sex, age, T3, and estimated glomerular filtration rate (P = 0.03). Further, serum T1am levels tended to be associated with NT-proBNP (P = 0.053). CONCLUSION Serum T1am levels were increased in patients with CHF and numerically highest (although nonsignificant) in patients with cardiac cachexia. Increasing T1am concentrations were independently associated with reduced LVEF, suggesting a direct effect on the human heart.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Heidi M Christensen
- Department of Endocrinology, Herlev University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Herlev University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
| | - Josef Köhrle
- Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ina Lehmphul
- Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Caroline Kistorp
- Department of Endocrinology, Herlev University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Birte Nygaard
- Department of Endocrinology, Herlev University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jens Faber
- Department of Endocrinology, Herlev University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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24
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Köhrle J, Biebermann H. 3-Iodothyronamine-A Thyroid Hormone Metabolite With Distinct Target Profiles and Mode of Action. Endocr Rev 2019; 40:602-630. [PMID: 30649231 DOI: 10.1210/er.2018-00182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The rediscovery of the group of thyronamines (TAMs), especially the first detailed description of their most prominent congener 3-iodothyronamine (3T1AM) 14 years ago, boosted research on this thyroid hormone metabolite tremendously. TAMs exert actions partly opposite to and distinct from known functions of thyroid hormones. These fascinating metabolic, anapyrexic, cytoprotective, and brain effects quickly evoked the hope to use hormone-derived TAMs as a therapeutic option. The G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) TAAR1, a member of the trace amine-associated receptor (TAAR) family, was identified as the first target and effector of TAM action. The initial enthusiasm on pharmacological actions of exogenous TAMs elicited many questions, such as sites of biosynthesis, analytics, modes of action, inactivation, and role of TAMs in (patho)physiology. Meanwhile, it became clear that TAMs not only interact with TAAR1 or other TAAR family members but also with several aminergic receptors and non-GPCR targets such as transient receptor potential channels, mitochondrial proteins, and the serum TAM-binding protein apolipoprotein B100, thus classifying 3T1AM as a multitarget ligand. The physiological mode of action of TAMs is still controversial because regulation of endogenous TAM production and the sites of its biosynthesis are not fully elucidated. Methods for 3T1AM analytics need further validation, as they revealed different blood and tissue concentrations depending on detection principles used such as monoclonal antibody-based immunoassay vs liquid chromatography- matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry or time-of-flight mass spectrometry. In this review, we comprehensively summarize and critically evaluate current basic, translational, and clinical knowledge on 3T1AM and its main metabolite 3-iodothyroacetic acid, focusing on endocrine-relevant aspects and open but highly challenging issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef Köhrle
- Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Heike Biebermann
- Institut für Experimentelle Pädiatrische Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
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25
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Abstract
Trace amines are endogenous compounds classically regarded as comprising β-phenylethyalmine, p-tyramine, tryptamine, p-octopamine, and some of their metabolites. They are also abundant in common foodstuffs and can be produced and degraded by the constitutive microbiota. The ability to use trace amines has arisen at least twice during evolution, with distinct receptor families present in invertebrates and vertebrates. The term "trace amine" was coined to reflect the low tissue levels in mammals; however, invertebrates have relatively high levels where they function like mammalian adrenergic systems, involved in "fight-or-flight" responses. Vertebrates express a family of receptors termed trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs). Humans possess six functional isoforms (TAAR1, TAAR2, TAAR5, TAAR6, TAAR8, and TAAR9), whereas some fish species express over 100. With the exception of TAAR1, TAARs are expressed in olfactory epithelium neurons, where they detect diverse ethological signals including predators, spoiled food, migratory cues, and pheromones. Outside the olfactory system, TAAR1 is the most thoroughly studied and has both central and peripheral roles. In the brain, TAAR1 acts as a rheostat of dopaminergic, glutamatergic, and serotonergic neurotransmission and has been identified as a novel therapeutic target for schizophrenia, depression, and addiction. In the periphery, TAAR1 regulates nutrient-induced hormone secretion, suggesting its potential as a novel therapeutic target for diabetes and obesity. TAAR1 may also regulate immune responses by regulating leukocyte differentiation and activation. This article provides a comprehensive review of the current state of knowledge of the evolution, physiologic functions, pharmacology, molecular mechanisms, and therapeutic potential of trace amines and their receptors in vertebrates and invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raul R Gainetdinov
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia (R.R.G.); Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology (Skoltech), Moscow, Russia (R.R.G.); Neuroscience, Ophthalmology, and Rare Diseases Discovery and Translational Area, pRED, Roche Innovation Centre Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland (M.C.H.); and Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada (M.D.B.)
| | - Marius C Hoener
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia (R.R.G.); Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology (Skoltech), Moscow, Russia (R.R.G.); Neuroscience, Ophthalmology, and Rare Diseases Discovery and Translational Area, pRED, Roche Innovation Centre Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland (M.C.H.); and Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada (M.D.B.)
| | - Mark D Berry
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia (R.R.G.); Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology (Skoltech), Moscow, Russia (R.R.G.); Neuroscience, Ophthalmology, and Rare Diseases Discovery and Translational Area, pRED, Roche Innovation Centre Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland (M.C.H.); and Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada (M.D.B.)
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26
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Abstract
About two third of the human microbial commensal community, namely the gut microbiota, is hosted by the gastrointestinal tract which represents the largest interface of the organism to the external environment. This microbial community co-evolved in a symbiotic relationship with the human beings. Growing evidence support the notion that the microbiota plays a significant role in maintaining nutritional, metabolic and immunologic homeostasis in the host. Microbiota, beside the expected role in maintaining gastrointestinal homeostasis also exerts metabolic functions in nutrients digestion and absorption, detoxification and vitamins' synthesis. Intestinal microbiota is also key in the correct development of the lymphoid system, 70% of which resides at the intestinal level. Available studies, both in murine models and humans, have shown an altered ratio between the different phyla, which characterize a" normal" gut microbiota, in a number of different disorders including obesity, to which a significant part of the studies on intestinal microbiota has been addressed so far. These variations in gut microbiota composition, known as dysbiosis, has been also described in patients bearing intestinal autoimmune diseases as well as type 1 diabetes mellitus, systemic sclerosis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Being Hashimoto's thyroiditis the most frequent autoimmune disorder worldwide, the analysis of the reciprocal influence with intestinal microbiota gained interest. The whole thyroid peripheral homeostasis may be sensitive to microbiota changes but there is also evidence that the genesis and progression of autoimmune thyroid disorders may be significantly affected from a changing intestinal microbial composition or even from overt dysbiosis. In this brief review, we focused on the main features which characterize the reciprocal influence between microbiota and thyroid autoimmunity described in the most recent literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Virili
- Endocrinology Section, Department of Medico-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Latina, Italy.
- Endocrinology Unit, Santa Maria Goretti Hospital, Latina, Italy.
| | - Poupak Fallahi
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, I-56126, Pisa, Italy
| | - Alessandro Antonelli
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Salvatore Benvenga
- Interdepartmental Program of Molecular & Clinical Endocrinology, and Women's Endocrine Health, University Hospital "G. Martino", Messina, Italy
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, Policlinico Universitario G. Martino, Messina, Italy
| | - Marco Centanni
- Endocrinology Section, Department of Medico-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Latina, Italy
- Endocrinology Unit, Santa Maria Goretti Hospital, Latina, Italy
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27
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Schwartz MD, Canales JJ, Zucchi R, Espinoza S, Sukhanov I, Gainetdinov RR. Trace amine-associated receptor 1: a multimodal therapeutic target for neuropsychiatric diseases. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2018; 22:513-526. [DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2018.1480723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Juan J. Canales
- Division of Psychology, School of Medicine, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | | | - Stefano Espinoza
- Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Neuroscience and Brain Technologies Dept., Genoa, Italy
| | - Ilya Sukhanov
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pavlov Medical University, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Raul R. Gainetdinov
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia
- Center for Translational Biomedicine, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia
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28
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Lehmphul I, Hoefig CS, Köhrle J. 3-Iodothyronamine reduces insulin secretion in vitro via a mitochondrial mechanism. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2018; 460:219-228. [PMID: 28754352 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE 3-iodothyronamine (3-T1AM), a decarboxylated and deiodinated thyroid hormone metabolite, leads at pharmacological doses to hypoinsulinemia, hyperglucagonemia and hyperglycemia in vivo. As the pancreatic Langerhans islets express thyroid hormone transmembrane transporters (THTT), we tested the hypothesis that not only plasma membrane-mediated 3-T1AM binding to and activation of G-protein coupled receptors, but also 3-T1AM metabolite(s) generated by 3-T1AM uptake and metabolism might decrease glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). METHODS Murine pancreatic β-cells MIN6 were characterized for gene expression of THTT, deiodinases and monoamine oxidases. 3-T1AM uptake and intracellular metabolism to the corresponding 3-iodothyroacetic acid were analysed by liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) at different time points in cells as well as the conditioned medium. Mitochondrial activity, especially ATP-production, was monitored real-time after 3-T1AM application using Seahorse Bioanalyzer technique. Effect of 3-T1AM on GSIS into the culture medium was assayed by ELISA. RESULTS MIN6 cells express classical THTT, proposed to transport 3-T1AM, as well as 3-T1AM metabolizing enzymes comparable to murine primary pancreatic islets. 3-T1AM accumulates in MIN6 cells and is metabolized by intracellular MaoB to 3-iodothyroacetic, which in turn is rapidly exported. 3-T1AM decreases mitochondrial ATP-production concentration dependently. GSIS is diminished by 3-T1AM treatment. Using LC-MS/MS, no further 3-T1AM metabolites except 3-iodothyroacetic were detectable. CONCLUSIONS This data provides a first link between cellular 3-T1AM uptake and regulation of mitochondrial energy metabolism in ß-cells, resulting in reduced insulin secretion. We conclude that MIN6 is an appropriate cell model to study 3-T1AM-dependent (intra-)cellular biochemical mechanisms affecting insulin production in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ina Lehmphul
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Carolin S Hoefig
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Josef Köhrle
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
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29
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Abstract
More than a century after the discovery of L-Thyroxine, the main thyroid hormone secreted solely by the thyroid gland, several metabolites of this iodinated, tyrosine-derived ancestral hormone have been identified. These are utilized as hormones during development, differentiation, metamorphosis, and regulation of most biochemical reactions in vertebrates and their precursor species. Among those metabolites are the thyromimetically active 3,3',5-Triiodo-L-thyronine (T3) and 3,5-Diiodo-L-thronine, reverse-T3 (3,3',5'-Triiodo-L-thyronine) with still unclear function, the recently re-discovered thyronamines (e.g., 3-Iodo-thyronamine), which exert in part T3-antagonistic functions, the thyroacetic acids (e.g., Tetrac and Triac), as well as various sulfated or glucuronidated metabolites of this panel of iodinated signaling compounds. In the blood most of these hydrophobic metabolites are tightly bound to the serum distributor proteins thyroxine binding globulin (TBG), transthyretin (TTR), albumin or apolipoprotein B100. Cellular import and export of these charged, highly hydrophobic amino acid derivatives requires a number of cell-membrane transporters or facilitators such as MCT8 or MCT10 and members of the OATP and LAT families of transporters. Depending on their structure, the thyroid hormone metabolites exert their cellular action by binding and thus modulating the function of various receptors systems (e.g., ανβ3 integrin receptor and transient receptor potential channels (TRPM8) of the cell membrane), in part linked to intracellular downstream kinase signaling cascades, and several isoforms of membrane-associated, mitochondrial or nuclear thyroid hormone receptors (TR), which are members of the c-erbA family of ligand-modulated transcription factors. Intracellular deiodinase selenoenzymes, which obligatory are membrane integrated enzymes, ornithine decarboxylase and monoamine oxidases control local availability of biologically active thyroid hormone metabolites. Inactivation of thyroid hormone metabolites occurs mainly by deiodination, sulfation or glucuronidation, reactions which favor their renal or fecal elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef Köhrle
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zuBerlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Berlin, Germany.
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30
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Louzada RA, Carvalho DP. Similarities and Differences in the Peripheral Actions of Thyroid Hormones and Their Metabolites. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018; 9:394. [PMID: 30072951 PMCID: PMC6060242 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Thyroxine (T4) and 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) are secreted by the thyroid gland, while T3 is also generated from the peripheral metabolism of T4 by iodothyronine deiodinases types I and II. Several conditions like stress, diseases, and physical exercise can promote changes in local TH metabolism, leading to different target tissue effects that depend on the presence of tissue-specific enzymatic activities. The newly discovered physiological and pharmacological actions of T4 and T3 metabolites, such as 3,5-diiodothyronine (3,5-T2), and 3-iodothyronamine (T1AM) are of great interest. A classical thyroid hormone effect is the ability of T3 to increase oxygen consumption in almost all cell types studied. Approximately 30 years ago, a seminal report has shown that 3,5-T2 increased oxygen consumption more rapidly than T3 in hepatocytes. Other studies demonstrated that exogenous 3,5-T2 administration was able to increase whole body energy expenditure in rodents and humans. In fact, 3,5-T2 treatment prevents diabetic nephropathy, hepatic steatosis induced by high fat diet, insulin resistance, and weight gain during aging in Wistar male rats. The regulation of mitochondria is likely one of the most important actions of T3 and its metabolite 3,5-T2, which was able to restore the thermogenic program of brown adipose tissue (BAT) in hypothyroid rats, just as T3 does, while T1AM administration induced rapid hypothermia. T3 increases heart rate and cardiac contractility, which are hallmark effects of hyperthyroidism involved in cardiac arrhythmia. These deleterious cardiac effects were not observed with the use of 3,5-T2 pharmacological doses, and in contrast T1AM was shown to promote a negative inotropic and chronotropic action at micromolar concentrations in isolated hearts. Furthermore, T1AM has a cardioprotective effect in a model of ischemic/reperfusion injury in isolated hearts, such as occurs with T3 administration. Despite the encouraging possible therapeutic use of TH metabolites, further studies are needed to better understand their peripheral effects, when compared to T3 itself, in order to establish their risk and benefit. On this basis, the main peripheral effects of thyroid hormones and their metabolites in tissues, such as heart, liver, skeletal muscle, and BAT are discussed herein.
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31
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Chiellini G, Bellusci L, Sabatini M, Zucchi R. Thyronamines and Analogues - The Route from Rediscovery to Translational Research on Thyronergic Amines. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017; 458:149-155. [PMID: 28069535 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Thyronamines are a novel class of endogenous signaling compounds, structurally related to thyroid hormones (THs). Specific thyronamines, particularly 3-iodothyronamine (T1AM), stimulate with nanomolar affinity trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), a G protein-coupled membrane receptor, and may also interact with other TAAR subtypes (particularly TAAR5), adrenergic receptors (particularly α2 receptors), amine transporters, and mitochondrial proteins. In addition to its structural similarities with THs, T1AM also contains the arylethylamine scaffold as in monoamine neurotransmitters, implicating an intriguing role for T1AM as both a neuromodulator and a hormone-like molecule constituting a part of thyroid hormone signaling. A large number of T1AM derivatives have already been synthesized. We discuss the different chemical strategies followed to obtain thyronamine analogues, their potency at TAAR1, and their structure-activity relationship. Preliminary characterization of the functional effects of these synthetic compounds is also provided.
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32
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van der Spek AH, Fliers E, Boelen A. The classic pathways of thyroid hormone metabolism. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017; 458:29-38. [PMID: 28109953 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (TH) are crucial for growth and development and play an important role in energy homeostasis. Although serum TH levels are relatively constant in the physiological state, TH bioavailability at the tissue and cellular level is dependent on local TH metabolism. Circulating TH produced by the thyroid can be metabolized by a number of different pathways resulting in 1) activation of TH 2) deactivation of TH or 3) excretion of TH and subsequent metabolites. These pathways play an essential role in determining local TH levels and action. The major classical pathways of TH metabolism are deiodination, sulfation, glucuronidation, and ether-link cleavage. This review provides an overview of these pathways, their relative contributions to TH levels in the serum and in various organs and the changes in these pathways elicited by fasting and illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne H van der Spek
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eric Fliers
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anita Boelen
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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33
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Wirth EK, Meyer F. Neuronal effects of thyroid hormone metabolites. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017; 458:136-142. [PMID: 28088465 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Revised: 01/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones and their metabolites are active regulators of gene expression, mitochondrial function and various other physiological actions in different organs and tissues. These actions are mediated by a spatio-temporal regulation of thyroid hormones and metabolites within a target cell. This spatio-temporal resolution as well as classical and non-classical actions of thyroid hormones and metabolites is accomplished and regulated on multiple levels as uptake, local activation and signaling of thyroid hormones. In this review, we will give an overview of the systems involved in regulating the presence and activity of thyroid hormones and their metabolites within the brain, specifically in neurons. While a wealth of data on thyroxin (T4) and 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) in the brain has been generated, research into the presence of action of other thyroid hormone metabolites is still sparse and requires further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva K Wirth
- Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Franziska Meyer
- Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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34
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Groeneweg S, Peeters RP, Visser TJ, Visser WE. Triiodothyroacetic acid in health and disease. J Endocrinol 2017; 234:R99-R121. [PMID: 28576869 DOI: 10.1530/joe-17-0113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone (TH) is crucial for development and metabolism of many tissues. The physiological relevance and therapeutic potential of TH analogs have gained attention in the field for many years. In particular, the relevance and use of 3,3',5-triiodothyroacetic acid (Triac, TA3) has been explored over the last decades. Although TA3 closely resembles the bioactive hormone T3, differences in transmembrane transport and receptor isoform-specific transcriptional activation potency exist. For these reasons, the application of TA3 as a treatment for resistance to TH (RTH) syndromes, especially MCT8 deficiency, is topic of ongoing research. This review is a summary of all currently available literature about the formation, metabolism, action and therapeutic applications of TA3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Groeneweg
- Department of Internal Medicine and Academic Center for Thyroid DiseasesErasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Robin P Peeters
- Department of Internal Medicine and Academic Center for Thyroid DiseasesErasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Theo J Visser
- Department of Internal Medicine and Academic Center for Thyroid DiseasesErasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - W Edward Visser
- Department of Internal Medicine and Academic Center for Thyroid DiseasesErasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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35
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Gachkar S, Oelkrug R, Martinez-Sanchez N, Rial-Pensado E, Warner A, Hoefig CS, López M, Mittag J. 3-Iodothyronamine Induces Tail Vasodilation Through Central Action in Male Mice. Endocrinology 2017; 158:1977-1984. [PMID: 28368510 DOI: 10.1210/en.2016-1951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
3-Iodothyronamine (3-T1AM) is an endogenous thyroid hormone (TH)-derived metabolite that induces severe hypothermia in mice after systemic administration; however, the underlying mechanisms have remained enigmatic. We show here that the rapid 3-T1AM-induced loss in body temperature is a consequence of peripheral vasodilation and subsequent heat loss (e.g., over the tail surface). The condition is subsequently intensified by hypomotility and a lack of brown adipose tissue activation. Although the possible 3-T1AM targets trace amine-associated receptor 1 or α2a-adrenergic receptor were detected in tail artery and aorta respectively, myograph studies did not show any direct effect of 3-T1AM on vasodilation, suggesting that its actions are likely indirect. Intracerebroventricular application of 3-T1AM, however, replicated the phenotype of tail vasodilation and body temperature decline and led to neuronal activation in the hypothalamus, suggesting that the metabolite causes tail vasodilation through a hypothalamic signaling pathway. Consequently, the 3-T1AM response constitutes anapyrexia rather than hypothermia and closely resembles the heat-stress response mediated by hypothalamic temperature-sensitive neurons. Our results thus underline the well-known role of the hypothalamus as the body's thermostat and suggest an additional molecular link between TH signaling and the central control of body temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sogol Gachkar
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, Medizinische Klinik I, University of Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | - Rebecca Oelkrug
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, Medizinische Klinik I, University of Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
| | - Noelia Martinez-Sanchez
- NeurObesity Group, Department of Physiology, Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Eva Rial-Pensado
- NeurObesity Group, Department of Physiology, Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Amy Warner
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Carolin S Hoefig
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
- Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Miguel López
- NeurObesity Group, Department of Physiology, Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela-Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERobn), 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Jens Mittag
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, Medizinische Klinik I, University of Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany
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Schanze N, Jacobi SF, Rijntjes E, Mergler S, Del Olmo M, Hoefig CS, Khajavi N, Lehmphul I, Biebermann H, Mittag J, Köhrle J. 3-Iodothyronamine Decreases Expression of Genes Involved in Iodide Metabolism in Mouse Thyroids and Inhibits Iodide Uptake in PCCL3 Thyrocytes. Thyroid 2017; 27:11-22. [PMID: 27788620 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2016.0182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 3-Iodothyronamine (3-T1AM) is an endogenous decarboxylated thyroid hormone (TH) metabolite. Pharmacological doses of 3-T1AM decrease heart rate, body temperature, and metabolic rate in rodents-effects that are contrary to classic TH excess. Furthermore, a single dose of 3-T1AM was shown to suppress the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis in rats. It was hypothesized that 3-T1AM might play a role in the fine-tuning of TH action and might have a direct regulatory effect on the thyroid gland. METHODS This study tested whether repeated 3-T1AM treatment interfered with thyroid function and the HPT axis in mice. Therefore, male C57BL/6 mice were intraperitoneally injected with 5 mg/kg of 3-T1AM or vehicle daily for seven days. Additionally, the effects of 3-T1AM on the differentiated rat thyrocyte cell line PCCL3 were analyzed. RESULTS Repeated administration of 3-T1AM decreased thyroidal mRNA content of the sodium iodide symporter (Nis), thyroglobulin, and pendrin in mice. No interference with the HPT axis was observed, as determined by unaltered pituitary mRNA levels of triiodothyronine-responsive genes, including thyrotropin subunit β. Furthermore, 3-T1AM treatment did not change transcript levels of hepatic triiodothyronine-responsive genes, such as deiodinase 1. In line with this, serum TH concentrations were not changed after the treatment period of seven days. In concordance with the in vivo findings, 3-T1AM decreased the thyrotropin-dependent expression of Nis and functional iodide uptake in PCCL3 cells in vitro. Additionally, uptake and metabolism of 3-T1AM by PCCL3 cells was observed, as well as 3-T1AM-dependent changes in intracellular Ca2+ concentration that might be involved in mediating the reported effects. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, 3-T1AM application decreased expression of selected TH synthesis genes by acting directly on the thyroid gland, and it might therefore affect TH synthesis without involvement of the HPT axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Schanze
- 1 Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
- 2 Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Simon Friedrich Jacobi
- 2 Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
- 3 Institut für Experimentelle Pädiatrische Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Eddy Rijntjes
- 1 Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Mergler
- 4 Experimentelle Ophthalmologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Marta Del Olmo
- 1 Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Carolin Stephanie Hoefig
- 1 Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
- 2 Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Noushafarin Khajavi
- 3 Institut für Experimentelle Pädiatrische Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Ina Lehmphul
- 1 Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Heike Biebermann
- 3 Institut für Experimentelle Pädiatrische Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Jens Mittag
- 2 Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
- 5 Molecular Endocrinology, Universitätsklinikum Schleswig-Holstein , Medizinische Klinik I/CBBM, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Josef Köhrle
- 1 Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
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Glossmann HH, Lutz OMD. Torpor: The Rise and Fall of 3-Monoiodothyronamine from Brain to Gut-From Gut to Brain? Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2017; 8:118. [PMID: 28620354 PMCID: PMC5450037 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
3-Monoiodothyronamine (T1AM), first isolated from rat brain, is reported to be an endogenous, rapidly acting metabolite of thyroxine. One of its numerous effects is the induction of a "torpor-like" state in experimental animals. A critical analysis of T1AM, to serve as an endogenous cryogen, is given. The proposed biosynthetic pathway for formation of T1AM, which includes deiodinases and ornithine decarboxylase in the upper intestinum, is an unusual one. To reach the brain via systemic circulation, enterohepatic recycling and passage through the liver may occur. The possible role of gut microbiota is discussed. T1AM concentrations in human serum, measured by a specific monoclonal assay are up to three orders of magnitude higher compared to values obtained by MS/MS technology. The difference is explained by the presence of a high-affinity binder for T1AM (Apolipoprotein B-100) in serum, which permits the immunoassay to measure the total concentration of the analyte but limits MS/MS technology to detect only the unbound (free) analyte, a view, which is contested here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hartmut H. Glossmann
- Institut für Biochemische Pharmakologie, Innsbruck, Austria
- *Correspondence: Hartmut H. Glossmann,
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Weiner J, Kranz M, Klöting N, Kunath A, Steinhoff K, Rijntjes E, Köhrle J, Zeisig V, Hankir M, Gebhardt C, Deuther-Conrad W, Heiker JT, Kralisch S, Stumvoll M, Blüher M, Sabri O, Hesse S, Brust P, Tönjes A, Krause K. Thyroid hormone status defines brown adipose tissue activity and browning of white adipose tissues in mice. Sci Rep 2016; 6:38124. [PMID: 27941950 PMCID: PMC5150531 DOI: 10.1038/srep38124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to determine the effect of thyroid hormone dysfunction on brown adipose tissue activity and white adipose tissue browning in mice. Twenty randomized female C57BL/6NTac mice per treatment group housed at room temperature were rendered hypothyroid or hyperthyroid. In-vivo small animal 18F-FDG PET/MRI was performed to determine the effects of hypo- and hyperthyroidism on BAT mass and BAT activity. Ex-vivo14C-acetate loading assay and assessment of thermogenic gene and protein expression permitted analysis of oxidative and thermogenic capacities of WAT and BAT of eu-, hyper and hypothyroid mice. 18F-FDG PET/MRI revealed a lack of brown adipose tissue activity in hypothyroid mice, whereas hyperthyroid mice displayed increased BAT mass alongside enhanced 18F-FDG uptake. In white adipose tissue of both, hyper- and hypothyroid mice, we found a significant induction of thermogenic genes together with multilocular adipocytes expressing UCP1. Taken together, these results suggest that both the hyperthyroid and hypothyroid state stimulate WAT thermogenesis most likely as a consequence of enhanced adrenergic signaling or compensation for impaired BAT function, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Weiner
- Department of Endocrinology and Nephrology, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Mathias Kranz
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research, Research Site Leipzig, Department of Neuroradiopharmaceuticals, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Nora Klöting
- Department of Endocrinology and Nephrology, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany.,University of Leipzig, IFB Adiposity Diseases, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anne Kunath
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Leipzig, Germany
| | - Karen Steinhoff
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Eddy Rijntjes
- Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Charité University Hospital, Berlin, Germany
| | - Josef Köhrle
- Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Charité University Hospital, Berlin, Germany
| | - Vilia Zeisig
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Mohammed Hankir
- University of Leipzig, IFB Adiposity Diseases, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Claudia Gebhardt
- Department of Endocrinology and Nephrology, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Winnie Deuther-Conrad
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research, Research Site Leipzig, Department of Neuroradiopharmaceuticals, Leipzig, Germany
| | - John T Heiker
- Department of Endocrinology and Nephrology, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Susan Kralisch
- Department of Endocrinology and Nephrology, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany.,University of Leipzig, IFB Adiposity Diseases, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Michael Stumvoll
- Department of Endocrinology and Nephrology, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany.,University of Leipzig, IFB Adiposity Diseases, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Matthias Blüher
- Department of Endocrinology and Nephrology, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany.,University of Leipzig, IFB Adiposity Diseases, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Osama Sabri
- University of Leipzig, IFB Adiposity Diseases, Leipzig, Germany.,Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Swen Hesse
- University of Leipzig, IFB Adiposity Diseases, Leipzig, Germany.,Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Peter Brust
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Institute of Radiopharmaceutical Cancer Research, Research Site Leipzig, Department of Neuroradiopharmaceuticals, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anke Tönjes
- Department of Endocrinology and Nephrology, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Kerstin Krause
- Department of Endocrinology and Nephrology, University Hospital, Leipzig, Germany
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Hoefig CS, Zucchi R, Köhrle J. Thyronamines and Derivatives: Physiological Relevance, Pharmacological Actions, and Future Research Directions. Thyroid 2016; 26:1656-1673. [PMID: 27650974 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2016.0178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Thyronamines (3-T1AM, T0AM) are endogenous compounds probably derived from L-thyroxine or its intermediate metabolites. Combined activities of intestinal deiodinases and ornithine decarboxylase generate 3-T1AM in vitro. Alternatively, 3-T1AM might be formed by the thyroid gland and secreted into the blood. 3-T1AM and T0AM concentrations have been determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis (LC-MS/MS) in tissues, serum, and cell lines. However, large variations of 3-T1AM concentrations in human serum were reported by LC-MS/MS compared with a monoclonal antibody-based immunoassay. These differences might be caused by strong binding of the highly hydrophobic 3-T1AM to apolipoprotein B100. Pharmacological administration of 3-T1AM results in dose-dependent reversible effects on body temperature, cardiac function, energy metabolism, and neurological functions. The physiological relevance of these actions is unclear, but may occur at tissue concentrations close to the estimated endogenous concentrations of 3-T1AM or its metabolites T0AM or thyroacetic acid (TA1). A number of putative receptors, binding sites, and cellular target molecules mediating actions of the multi-target ligand 3-T1AM have been proposed. Among those are members of the trace amine associated receptor family, the adrenergic receptor ADRα2a, and the thermosensitive transient receptor potential melastatin 8 channel. Preclinical studies employing various animal experimental models are in progress, and more stable receptor-selective agonistic and antagonistic analogues of 3-T1AM are now available for testing. The potent endogenous thyroid hormone-derived biogenic amine 3-T1AM exerts marked cryogenic, metabolic, cardiac and central actions and represents a valuable lead compound linking endocrine, metabolic, and neuroscience research to advance development of new drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Stephanie Hoefig
- 1 Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie Charité, Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Riccardo Zucchi
- 2 Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Pathology, University of Pisa , Pisa, Italy
| | - Josef Köhrle
- 1 Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie Charité, Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
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40
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Langouche L, Lehmphul I, Perre SV, Köhrle J, Van den Berghe G. Circulating 3-T1AM and 3,5-T2 in Critically Ill Patients: A Cross-Sectional Observational Study. Thyroid 2016; 26:1674-1680. [PMID: 27676423 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2016.0214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Critical illness is hallmarked by low circulating thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) concentrations, in the presence of elevated reverse T3 (rT3) and low-normal thyrotropin (TSH), referred to as nonthyroidal illness (NTI). Thyroid hormone (TH) metabolism is substantially increased during NTI, in part explained by enhanced deiodinase 3 (D3) activity. T4- and T3-sulfate concentrations are elevated, due to suppressed D1 activity in the presence of unaltered sulfotransferase activity, and 3,3'-diiodothyronine (3,3'-T2) concentrations are normal. To elucidate further the driving forces behind increased TH metabolism during NTI, two other potential T4 metabolites-3,5-diiodothyronine (3,5-T2) and 3-iodothyronamine (3-T1AM)-were measured and related to their potential TH precursors. METHODS Morning blood samples were collected cross-sectionally from 83 critically ill patients on a University Hospital intensive care unit and from 38 demographically matched healthy volunteers. Serum TH and binding proteins were quantified with commercial assays, and 3,5-T2 and 3-T1AM with in-house developed immunoassays. RESULTS Critically ill patients revealed, besides the NTI, a median 44% lower serum 3-T1AM concentration (p < 0.0001) and a 30% higher serum 3,5-T2 concentration (p = 0.01) than healthy volunteers did. Non-survivors and patients diagnosed with sepsis upon admission to the intensive-care unit had significantly higher 3,5-T2 (p ≤ 0.01) but comparable 3-T1AM (p > 0.2) concentrations than other patients did. Multivariable linear regression analysis adjusted for potential precursors revealed that the reduced serum 3-T1AM was positively correlated with the low serum T3 (p < 0.001) but unrelated to serum T4 or rT3. The elevated 3,5-T2 concentration did not independently correlate with TH. CONCLUSIONS Increased TH metabolism during NTI could not be explained by increased conversion to 3-T1AM, as circulating 3-T1AM was suppressed in proportion to the concomitantly low T3 concentrations. Increased conversion of T4 and/or T3 to 3,5-T2 could be possible, as serum 3,5-T2 concentrations were elevated. Whether 3-T1AM or 3,5-T2 plays a functional role during critical illness needs further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lies Langouche
- 1 Clinical Division and Laboratory of Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ina Lehmphul
- 2 Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Sarah Vander Perre
- 1 Clinical Division and Laboratory of Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium
| | - Josef Köhrle
- 2 Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Greet Van den Berghe
- 1 Clinical Division and Laboratory of Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium
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41
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Laurino A, Matucci R, Vistoli G, Raimondi L. 3-iodothyronamine (T1AM), a novel antagonist of muscarinic receptors. Eur J Pharmacol 2016; 793:35-42. [PMID: 27815171 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2016.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Revised: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
3-iodothyronamine (T1AM) is a trace amine suspected to derive from thyroid hormone metabolism. T1AM was described as a ligand of G-protein coupled monoaminergic receptors, including trace amine associated receptors, suggesting the amine may exert a modulatory role on the monoaminergic transmission. Nothing is known on the possibility that T1AM could also modulate the cholinergic transmission interacting with muscarinic receptors. We evaluated whether T1AM (10nM-100μM) was able to i) displace [3H]-NMS (0.20nM) binding to membrane preparations from CHO cells stably transfected with human muscarinic receptor subtypes (M1-M5); ii) modify basal or acetylcholine induced pERK1/2 levels in CHO expressing the human muscarinic type 3 receptor subtype by Western blot iii) modify basal and carbachol-induced contraction of isolated rat urinary bladder. T1AM fitting within rat muscarinic type 3 receptor was simulated by Docking studies. T1AM recognized all muscarinic receptor subtypes (pKi values in the micromolar range). Interacting at type 3, T1AM reduced acetylcholine-increased pERK1/2 levels. T1AM reduced carbachol-induced contraction of the rat urinary bladder. The fenoxyl residue and the iodide ion were found essential for establishing contacts with the active site of the rat muscarinic type 3 receptor subtype. Our results indicate that T1AM binds at muscarinic receptors behaving as a weak, not selective, antagonist. This finding adds knowledge on the pharmacodynamics features of T1AM and it may prompt investigation on novel pharmacological effects of T1AM at conditions of hyper-activation of the muscarinic tone including the overactive urinary bladder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annunziatina Laurino
- Dept. of NEUROFARBA, Section of Pharmacology, University of Florence, 50139 Florence, Italy
| | - Rosanna Matucci
- Dept. of NEUROFARBA, Section of Pharmacology, University of Florence, 50139 Florence, Italy
| | - Giulio Vistoli
- Dept. of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Milan, 20100 Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Raimondi
- Dept. of NEUROFARBA, Section of Pharmacology, University of Florence, 50139 Florence, Italy.
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Abstract
The hypermetabolic effects of thyroid hormones (THs), the major endocrine regulators of metabolic rate, are widely recognized. Although, the cellular mechanisms underlying these effects have been extensively investigated, much has yet to be learned about how TH regulates diverse cellular functions. THs have a profound impact on mitochondria, the organelles responsible for the majority of cellular energy production, and several studies have been devoted to understand the respective importance of the nuclear and mitochondrial pathways for organelle activity. During the last decades, several new aspects of both THs (i.e., metabolism, transport, mechanisms of action, and the existence of metabolically active TH derivatives) and mitochondria (i.e., dynamics, respiratory chain organization in supercomplexes, and the discovery of uncoupling proteins other than uncoupling protein 1) have emerged, thus opening new perspectives to the investigation of the complex relationship between thyroid and the mitochondrial compartment. In this review, in the light of an historical background, we attempt to point out the present findings regarding thyroid physiology and the emerging recognition that mitochondrial dynamics as well as the arrangement of the electron transport chain in mitochondrial cristae contribute to the mitochondrial activity. We unravel the genomic and nongenomic mechanisms so far studied as well as the effects of THs on mitochondrial energetics and, principally, uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation via various mechanisms involving uncoupling proteins. The emergence of new approaches to the question as to what extent and how the action of TH can affect mitochondria is highlighted. © 2016 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 6:1591-1607, 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia Lanni
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Seconda Università degli Studi di Napoli, Caserta, Italy
| | - Maria Moreno
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie, Università degli Studi del Sannio, Benevento, Italy
| | - Fernando Goglia
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie, Università degli Studi del Sannio, Benevento, Italy
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Gnocchi D, Steffensen KR, Bruscalupi G, Parini P. Emerging role of thyroid hormone metabolites. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2016; 217:184-216. [PMID: 26748938 DOI: 10.1111/apha.12648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2015] [Revised: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (THs) are essential for the regulation of development and metabolism in key organs. THs produce biological effects both by directly affecting gene expression through the interaction with nuclear receptors (genomic effects) and by activating protein kinases and/or ion channels (short-term effects). Such activations can be either direct, in the case of ion channels, or mediated by membrane or cytoplasmic receptors. Short-term-activated signalling pathways often play a role in the regulation of genomic effects. Several TH intermediate metabolites, which were previously considered without biological activity, have now been associated with a broad range of actions, mostly attributable to short-term effects. Here, we give an overview of the physiological roles and mechanisms of action of THs, focusing on the emerging position that TH metabolites are acquiring as important regulators of physiology and metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. Gnocchi
- Division of Clinical Chemistry; Department of Laboratory Medicine; Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge; Stockholm Sweden
| | - K. R. Steffensen
- Division of Clinical Chemistry; Department of Laboratory Medicine; Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge; Stockholm Sweden
| | - G. Bruscalupi
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology ‘Charles Darwin’; Sapienza University of Rome; Rome Italy
| | - P. Parini
- Division of Clinical Chemistry; Department of Laboratory Medicine; Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge; Stockholm Sweden
- Metabolism Unit; Department of Medicine; Karolinska Institutet at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge; Stockholm Sweden
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Mondal S, Raja K, Schweizer U, Mugesh G. Chemie und Biologie der Schilddrüsenhormon-Biosynthese und -Wirkung. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201601116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Santanu Mondal
- Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry; Indian Institute of Science; Bangalore Indien
| | - Karuppusamy Raja
- Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry; Indian Institute of Science; Bangalore Indien
| | - Ulrich Schweizer
- Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn; Institut für Biochemie und Molekularbiologie; Nussallee 11 53115 Bonn Deutschland
| | - Govindasamy Mugesh
- Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry; Indian Institute of Science; Bangalore Indien
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Mondal S, Raja K, Schweizer U, Mugesh G. Chemistry and Biology in the Biosynthesis and Action of Thyroid Hormones. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:7606-30. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201601116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Santanu Mondal
- Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry; Indian Institute of Science; Bangalore India
| | - Karuppusamy Raja
- Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry; Indian Institute of Science; Bangalore India
| | - Ulrich Schweizer
- Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn; Institut für Biochemie und Molekularbiologie; Nussallee 11 53115 Bonn Germany
| | - Govindasamy Mugesh
- Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry; Indian Institute of Science; Bangalore India
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Hypothyroidism is currently a condition that can be treated, but not cured. Although levothyroxine reverses stigmata of hypothyroidism in most individuals, some patients feel dissatisfied with 'monotherapy', and this has stimulated interest in 'combination therapy' with both levothyroxine and liothyronine. AREAS COVERED A search of PubMed was conducted using terms including hypothyroidism, treatment, benefits, risks, and safety. Based on the articles identified, the body of evidence regarding the efficacy of traditional levothyroxine is reviewed. Concerns with levothyroxine therapy including impaired quality of life in treated patients, thyroxine-predominant hormone ratios, and inadvertent iatrogenic thyroid disease are discussed. The trials of combination therapy performed since 1999 were reviewed. The heterogeneity of these trials, both in terms of design and results, is discussed. The potential for new trials to determine whether combination therapy can reverse the dissatisfaction associated with monotherapy, while avoiding non-physiologic hormone ratios, inadvertent thyrotoxicosis, and unacceptable side effects is discussed. Expert commentary: Research regarding which therapy fully reverses hypothyroidism at a tissue and cellular level is ongoing. The field would be advanced by the development of an extended release preparation of liothyronine. In the future regeneration of functional thyroid follicles from stem cells may offer hope for curing hypothyroidism.
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Mondal S, Mugesh G. Biomimetic deiodination of thyroid hormones and iodothyronamines – a structure–activity relationship study. Org Biomol Chem 2016; 14:9490-9500. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ob01375a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Deiodination of thyroid hormones and their decarboxylated metabolites, iodothyronamines by a series ofperi-substituted selenium-containing naphthalene derivatives has been described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santanu Mondal
- Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Science
- Bangalore 560012
- India
| | - Govindasamy Mugesh
- Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Science
- Bangalore 560012
- India
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Hoermann R, Midgley JEM, Larisch R, Dietrich JW. Homeostatic Control of the Thyroid-Pituitary Axis: Perspectives for Diagnosis and Treatment. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2015; 6:177. [PMID: 26635726 PMCID: PMC4653296 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2015.00177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The long-held concept of a proportional negative feedback control between the thyroid and pituitary glands requires reconsideration in the light of more recent studies. Homeostatic equilibria depend on dynamic inter-relationships between thyroid hormones and pituitary thyrotropin (TSH). They display a high degree of individuality, thyroid-state-related hierarchy, and adaptive conditionality. Molecular mechanisms involve multiple feedback loops on several levels of organization, different time scales, and varying conditions of their optimum operation, including a proposed feedforward motif. This supports the concept of a dampened response and multistep regulation, making the interactions between TSH, FT4, and FT3 situational and mathematically more complex. As a homeostatically integrated parameter, TSH becomes neither normatively fixed nor a precise marker of euthyroidism. This is exemplified by the therapeutic situation with l-thyroxine (l-T4) where TSH levels defined for optimum health may not apply equivalently during treatment. In particular, an FT3-FT4 dissociation, discernible FT3-TSH disjoint, and conversion inefficiency have been recognized in l-T4-treated athyreotic patients. In addition to regulating T4 production, TSH appears to play an essential role in maintaining T3 homeostasis by directly controlling deiodinase activity. While still allowing for tissue-specific variation, this questions the currently assumed independence of the local T3 supply. Rather it integrates peripheral and central elements into an overarching control system. On l-T4 treatment, altered equilibria have been shown to give rise to lower circulating FT3 concentrations in the presence of normal serum TSH. While data on T3 in tissues are largely lacking in humans, rodent models suggest that the disequilibria may reflect widespread T3 deficiencies at the tissue level in various organs. As a consequence, the use of TSH, valuable though it is in many situations, should be scaled back to a supporting role that is more representative of its conditional interplay with peripheral thyroid hormones. This reopens the debate on the measurement of free thyroid hormones and encourages the identification of suitable biomarkers. Homeostatic principles conjoin all thyroid parameters into an adaptive context, demanding a more flexible interpretation in the accurate diagnosis and treatment of thyroid dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudolf Hoermann
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Klinikum Luedenscheid, Luedenscheid, Germany
| | | | - Rolf Larisch
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Klinikum Luedenscheid, Luedenscheid, Germany
| | - Johannes W. Dietrich
- Medical Department I, Endocrinology and Diabetology, Bergmannsheil University Hospitals, Ruhr University of Bochum, Bochum, Germany
- Ruhr Center for Rare Diseases (CeSER), Ruhr University of Bochum and Witten/Herdecke University, Bochum, Germany
- *Correspondence: Johannes W. Dietrich,
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