The Physiological Profile of a Multiple Tour de France Winning Cyclist

Racing Demands for Winning a Grand Tour: Differences and Similarities Between a Female and a Male Winner

PURPOSE

To describe and compare the race characteristics, demands, and durability profile of a male and a female Grand Tour winner.

METHODS

Overall and stage-type-specific (ie, time trials, flat, semimountainous, and mountain) demands and race characteristics during 2 Grand Tours were determined and compared between the female and male cyclists. In addition, relative power output distribution and pacing, percentage of functional threshold power (FTP), and changes in maximal mean power outputs (MMPs) with increasing levels of kilojoules burned were determined.

RESULTS

Although many differences were found between course and absolute racing demands between the male (FTP: 413 W; critical power: 417 W) and female (FTP: 297 W; critical power: 297 W) cyclists, similar power distributions and pacing strategies were found if data were expressed relatively. However, the female cyclist rode a higher percentage of her FTP during the first 2 quarters of flat stages (14.7%-15.1%) and the last quarter of mountain stages (9.8%) than the male cyclist. Decrements in MMPs were only observed after burning 30 kJ·kg-1 in the female and 45 kJ·kg-1 in the male Grand Tour winner.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the male and female Grand Tour winners produced very high 20- to 60-minute MMPs, whereas decrements in MMPs were only observed after having burned 75% (female) and 80% (male) of total kilojoules burned during a stage. These are the latest and lowest in MMPs reported in the scientific literature and highlight the importance of durability in combination with excellent climbing and time-trial skills, which are needed to be able to win a Grand Tour.

Effects of acute and multi-day low-dose sodium bicarbonate intake on high-intensity endurance exercise performance in male recreational cyclists

PURPOSE

This study aimed to compare the effects of acute and multi-day low-dose sodium bicarbonate (SB) intake on high-intensity endurance exercise performance.

METHODS

In a randomized, double-blind, cross-over design, twelve recreational male cyclists (age: 31.17 ± 4.91 years; V ˙ O2peak: 47.98 ± 7.68 ml·kg-1·min-1) completed three endurance performance tests following acute SB (ASB, 0.2 g·kg-1 SB), multi-day SB (MSB, 0.2 g·kg-1·day-1 SB for four days), and placebo (PLA) intake. The high-intensity endurance performance was assessed with a cycling exercise test, wherein participants cycled on a bicycle ergometer at 95% of the predetermined anaerobic threshold for 30 min, followed by a time-to-exhaustion test at 110% of the anaerobic threshold. Data were analyzed using one-way and two-way repeated-measures ANOVA.

RESULTS

Significant main effects of supplementation protocol were evident in pre-exercise bicarbonate concentrations (F = 27.93; p < 0.01; partial eta squared (η2) = 0.72; false discovery rate (FDR)-adjusted p value = 0.001). Prior to performance test, blood bicarbonate concentrations were significantly higher in MSB (25.78 ± 1.63 mmol·L-1 [95% CI 26.55-28.44] (p < 0.001; FDR-adjusted p value = 0.001)) and ASB (27.49 ± 1.49 mmol·L-1 [95% CI 24.75-26.81] (p < 0.001; FDR-adjusted p value = 0.007)) compared to PLA (23.75 ± 1.40 mmol·L-1 [95% CI 22.86 to 24.64]). Time-to-exhaustion increased in MSB (54.27 ± 9.20 min [95% CI 48.43-60.12]) compared to PLA (49.75 ± 10.80 min [95% CI 42.89-56.62]) (p = 0.048); however, this increase in MSB did not reach the significance threshold of 1% FDR (FDR-adjusted p value = 0.040). No significant difference was noted in exhaustion times between ASB (51.15 ± 8.39 min [95% CI 45.82-56.48]) and PLA (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Both acute and multi-day administration of low-dose SB improves buffering system in cyclists; nevertheless, neither intervention demonstrates sufficient efficacy in enhancing high-intensity endurance performance.

Ultra-Cycling- Past, Present, Future: A Narrative Review

BACKGROUND

Ultra-endurance events are gaining popularity in multiple exercise disciplines, including cycling. With increasing numbers of ultra-cycling events, aspects influencing participation and performance are of interest to the cycling community.

MAIN BODY

The aim of this narrative review was, therefore, to assess the types of races offered, the characteristics of the cyclists, the fluid and energy balance during the race, the body mass changes after the race, and the parameters that may enhance performance based on existing literature. A literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar using the search terms 'ultracycling', 'ultra cycling', 'ultra-cycling', 'ultra-endurance biking', 'ultra-bikers' and 'prolonged cycling'. The search yielded 948 results, of which 111 were relevant for this review. The studies were classified according to their research focus and the results were summarized. The results demonstrated changes in physiological parameters, immunological and oxidative processes, as well as in fluid and energy balance. While the individual race with the most published studies was the Race Across America, most races were conducted in Europe, and a trend for an increase in European participants in international races was observed. Performance seems to be affected by characteristics such as age and sex but not by anthropometric parameters such as skin fold thickness. The optimum age for the top performance was around 40 years. Most participants in ultra-cycling events were male, but the number of female athletes has been increasing over the past years. Female athletes are understudied due to their later entry and less prominent participation in ultra-cycling races. A post-race energy deficit after ultra-cycling events was observed.

CONCLUSION

Future studies need to investigate the causes for the observed optimum race age around 40 years of age as well as the optimum nutritional supply to close the observed energy gap under consideration of the individual race lengths and conditions. Another research gap to be filled by future studies is the development of strategies to tackle inflammatory processes during the race that may persist in the post-race period.

Impact of Isolated Exercise-Induced Small Airway Dysfunction on Exercise Performance in Professional Male Cyclists

BACKGROUND

Professional cycling puts significant demands on the respiratory system. Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) is a common problem in professional athletes. Small airways may be affected in isolation or in combination with a reduction in forced expiratory volume at the first second (FEV1). This study aimed to investigate isolated exercise-induced small airway dysfunction (SAD) in professional cyclists and assess the impact of this phenomenon on exercise capacity in this population.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This research was conducted on professional cyclists with no history of asthma or atopy. Anthropometric characteristics were recorded, the training age was determined, and spirometry and specific markers, such as fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) and immunoglobulin E (IgE), were measured for all participants. All of the cyclists underwent cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) followed by spirometry.

RESULTS

Compared with the controls, 1-FEV3/FVC (the fraction of the FVC that was not expired during the first 3 s of the FVC) was greater in athletes with EIB, but also in those with isolated exercise-induced SAD. The exercise capacity was lower in cyclists with isolated exercise-induced SAD than in the controls, but was similar to that in cyclists with EIB. This phenomenon appeared to be associated with a worse ventilatory reserve (VE/MVV%).

CONCLUSIONS

According to our data, it appears that professional cyclists may experience no beneficial impacts on their respiratory system. Strenuous endurance exercise can induce airway injury, which is followed by a restorative process. The repeated cycle of injury and repair can trigger the release of pro-inflammatory mediators, the disruption of the airway epithelial barrier, and plasma exudation, which gradually give rise to airway hyper-responsiveness, exercise-induced bronchoconstriction, intrabronchial inflammation, peribronchial fibrosis, and respiratory symptoms. The small airways may be affected in isolation or in combination with a reduction in FEV1. Cyclists with isolated exercise-induced SAD had lower exercise capacity than those in the control group.

Influence of Conventional Resistance Training Compared to Core Exercises on Road Cycling Power Output

Conventional strength training and core exercises are commonly prescribed to improve cycling performance. Although previous studies have explored the utility of strength training in various cycling populations, this intervention has never been compared to core exercises. Thirty-six trained road cyclists were divided into three groups of 12 participants that performed either no strength training, conventional strength training, or core exercises, in all cases together with their regular cycling training during a 12-week period. Peak power outputs (POs) across different durations (five seconds, 60 seconds, five minutes, and 20 minutes) were recorded before and after the intervention. The results of the present study showed higher increases in relative PO with conventional strength training when compared to core training and no strength training for all measured durations: five-second Δ = 1.25 W/kg vs 0.47 W/kg and -0.17 W/kg; 60-second (Δ = 0.51 W/kg vs 0.13 W/kg and 0.02 W/kg; five-minute Δ = 0.22 W/kg vs 0.06 W/kg and 0.05 W/kg; and 20-minute Δ = 0.22 W/kg vs 0.07 W/kg and 0.06 W/kg. According to the data obtained in this study, conventional strength training is superior to core exercises, and no strength training was performed by trained road cyclists. Accordingly, it is recommended that this population incorporates strength training during their regular weekly workouts.

Making History in 1 h: How Sex, Aging, Technology, and Elevation Affect the Cycling Hour Record

PURPOSE

The purpose of this article was to analyze more than a century of cycling hour records (CHR) to examine the effects of sex, age, and altitude on cycling performance. Our hypotheses were that men's performance (distance) would exceed those of women by more than 10% but would decline at similar rates with aging and that altitude would have a small benefit, which might reach a maximum.

METHODS

Data were cultivated from the Facebook World Hour Record Discussion Group's crowd-sourced database of more than 600-known-hour records and verified through extensive online research and/or personal communication. Regression and statistical modeling were produced using STATA v15.0. R2 values were used to ascertain model quality, with four distinct models being produced for comparisons. Alpha was set at 0.05 significance for all tests.

RESULTS

R2 values ranged from 65% to 74.9%. Women's distances were 10.8% shorter ( P < 0.001) than those of men, but the difference was narrower than either the historical elite women's difference of 14.2% or the 2022 record difference of 13.3%. Age-related decline modeling indicates performance declines significantly past age 40 yr at a rate of 1.08% per year. Altitude had a significant ( P < 0.001) marginal improvement up to 1000 m before declining. The marginal benefits of altitude were small, but this is consistent with the finding benefits reach a maximum at a moderate altitude with "benefits" becoming ambiguous starting at ~1000 m. Technological advancement was estimated to be a small but significant ( P < 0.001) improvement of ~0.18% per year.

CONCLUSIONS

Across decades of CHR data in well-trained endurance cyclists, men are only ~11% faster, and this difference remains stable until at least age 80 yr. CHR attempts greater than 500 m likely offer at best a small advantage. Despite small year-on-year improvements, the CHR has likely improved more than 10 km because of technological advancements.

Training characteristics and performance of two male elite short-distance triathletes: From junior to "world-class"

OBJECTIVE

The sports-science literature lacks data on training and performance characteristics of international elite athletes over multiple seasons. The present case study provided general training characteristics and performance data of two male short-distance triathletes in the Junior, U23, and international Elite categories.

METHODS

General training and performance data of two male elite triathletes were described in swimming, cycling, and running segments from the 2015 to 2022 season. The training load was presented using the ECO model while the training intensity distribution (TID) was a triphasic model.

RESULTS

Both triathletes increased their performance throughout the seasons. Triathlete A increased his VO2max in cycling by 20.6%, in running by 16.7%. His power at VO2max and his speed at VO2max by 18.9% and 11.0%, respectively. Triathlete B improved his VO2max by 17.8% in cycling, by 16.1% in running and his power at VO2max by 24%, and his speed at VO2max by 14.3%. The triathletes trained on average 14-17 h a week. The TID model was polarized.

CONCLUSIONS

To achieve the top international level, it is necessary to consider the following measures: training load progression; improvements in physiological variables; and participation in international events starting from youth categories.

From juniors to seniors: changes in training characteristics and aerobic power in 17 world-class cross-country skiers

Purpose: To compare training characteristics and aerobic power (VO2max) between the most successful junior and senior seasons of world-class cross-country (XC) skiers and to identify differences between sexes and among sprint and distance skiers. Methods: Retrospective analysis was conducted on self-reported training and VO2max tests of ten male and seven female world-class XC-skiers, collectively holding 38 Olympic medals. Training was categorized by form (endurance, strength, speed, other) and mode (specific, unspecific) and was divided into low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT). Results: Total training increased by 203 ± 130 h (35% ± 31%, p < .001, large effect) and 78 ± 69 sessions (21% ± 24%, p < .001, very large effect). Junior training volume (658 ± 107 h) did not correlate with senior volume (861 ± 74 h) but correlated negatively with changes in volume (r = -.822, p < .001). No sex differences were observed related to total volume, but distance skiers increased their total volume more than sprint skiers (p = .037, large effect). Endurance training increased by 197 ± 117 h (p < .001; large effect) tied to increased low-intensity training (186 ± 115 h, p < .001; large effect) and moderate-intensity training (13 ± 7 h, p < .001; large effect). Training intensity distribution (% LIT/MIT/HIT) was 91/3/6 in junior and 92/4/4 in senior season. Women demonstrated greater increase of unspecific modes (100 ± 58 vs. 37 ± 44 h, p = .022; large effect) and strength training (25 ± 23 vs. -3 ± 17 h, p = .010, large effect). Men improved absolute (8% ± 5%; p = .009; large effect) and relative VO2max (6% ± 4%; p = .016; large effect) from junior to senior, while women only increased relative VO2max (7% ± 5%, p = .012; large effect). Conclusion: This study provides novel information regarding changes in training characteristics and aerobic power from junior to senior age in world-class XC-skiers. Overall, the enhanced training volume during this transition was primarily driven by increased LIT and MIT and the exceptionally high relative VO2max at junior age further increased in both sexes.

Effect of hot water immersion on acute physiological responses following resistance exercise

Purpose: Hot water immersion (HWI) is a strategy theorised to enhance exercise recovery. However, the acute physiological responses to HWI following resistance exercise are yet to be determined. Methods: The effect of HWI on intramuscular temperature (IMT), muscle function, muscle soreness and blood markers of muscle cell disruption and inflammatory processes after resistance exercise was assessed. Sixteen resistance trained males performed resistance exercise, followed by either 10 min HWI at 40°C or 10 min passive recovery (PAS). Results: Post-intervention, the increase in IMT at all depths was greater for HWI compared to PAS, however this difference had disappeared by 1 h post at depths of 1 and 2 cm, and by 2 h post at a depth of 3 cm. There were no differences between groups for muscle function, muscle soreness or any blood markers. Conclusion: These results suggest that HWI is a viable means of heat therapy to support a greater IMT following resistance exercise. Recovery of muscle function and muscle soreness is independent of acute changes in IMT associated with HWI.

Effect of Hydration on Pulmonary Function and Development of Exercise-Induced Bronchoconstriction among Professional Male Cyclists

BACKGROUND

Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) is a common problem in elite athletes. Classical pathways in the development of EIB include the osmotic and thermal theory as well as the presence of epithelial injury in the airway, with local water loss being the main trigger of EIB. This study aimed to investigate the effects of systemic hydration on pulmonary function and to establish whether it can reverse dehydration-induced alterations in pulmonary function.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This follow-up study was performed among professional cyclists, without a history of asthma and/or atopy. Anthropometric characteristics were recorded for all participants, and the training age was determined. In addition, pulmonary function tests and specific markers such as fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) and immunoglobulin E (IgE) were measured. All the athletes underwent body composition analysis and cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET). After CPET, spirometry was followed at the 3rd, 5th, 10th, 15th, and 30th min. This study was divided into two phases: before and after hydration. Cyclists, who experienced a decrease in Forced Expiratory Volume in one second (FEV₁) ≥ 10% and/or Maximal Mild-Expiratory Flow Rate (MEF_25-75) ≥ 20% after CPET in relation to the results of the spirometry before CPET, repeated the test in 15-20 days, following instructions for hydration.

RESULTS

One hundred male cyclists (n = 100) participated in Phase A. After exercise, there was a decrease in all spirometric parameters (p < 0.001). In Phase B, after hydration, in all comparisons, the changes in spirometric values were significantly lower than those in Phase A (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study suggest that professional cyclists have non-beneficial effects on respiratory function. Additionally, we found that systemic hydration has a positive effect on spirometry in cyclists. Of particular interest are small airways, which appear to be affected independently or in combination with the decrease in FEV₁. Our data suggest that pulmonary function improves systemic after hydration.

Invited review: The speed-duration relationship across the animal kingdom

The parameters of the hyperbolic speed-duration relationship (the asymptote critical speed, CS, and the curvature constant, D') provide estimates of the maximal steady state speed (CS) and the distance an animal can run, swim, or fly at speeds above CS before it is forced to slow down or stop (D'). The speed-duration relationship has been directly studied in humans, horses, mice and rats. The technical difficulties with treadmill running in dogs and the relatively short greyhound race durations means that, perhaps surprisingly, it has not been assessed in dogs. The endurance capabilities of lizards, crabs and salamanders has also been measured, and the speed-duration relationship can be calculated from these data. These analyses show that 1) raising environmental temperature from 25 °C to 40 °C in lizards can double the CS with no change in D'; 2) that lungless salamanders have an extremely low critical speed due, most likely, to O₂ diffusion limitations associated with cutaneous respiration; and 3) the painted ghost crab possesses the highest endurance parameter ratio (D'/CS) yet recorded (470 s), allowing it to maintain high speeds for extended periods. Although the speed-duration relationship has not been measured in fish, the sustainable swimming speed has been quantified in a range of species and is conceptually similar to the maximal steady state in humans. The high aerobic power of birds and low metabolic cost of transport during flight permits the extreme feats of endurance observed in bird migrations. However, the parameters of the avian speed-duration relationship have not been quantified.

The Efficacy of Chlorella Supplementation on Multiple Indices of Cycling Performance

This study investigated the effects of chlorella supplementation on submaximal endurance, time trial performance, lactate threshold, and power indices during a repeated sprint performance test by fourteen male trained cyclists. Participants ingested 6 g/day of chlorella or placebo for 21-days in a double-blinded randomized counter-balanced cross-over design, with a fourteen-day washout period between trials. Each completed a 2-day testing period comprising a 1-hour submaximal endurance test at 55% external power output max and a 16.1 km time trial (Day-1), followed by a lactate threshold (Dmax) and repeated sprint performance tests (3 X 20 s sprints interspersed by 4-mins) (Day-2). Heart rate (b.min-1), RER, V̇O2 (ml·kg-1·min-1), lactate and glucose (mmol/L), time (secs), power output (W/kg), and hemoglobin (g/L) were compared across conditions. Following chlorella supplementation (chlorella vs. placebo for each measurement) average lactate and heart rate were significantly lower (p < 0.05) during submaximal endurance tests (1.68 ± 0.50 mmol/L vs. 1.91 ± 0.65 mmol/L & 138 ± 11b.min-1 vs. 144 ± 10b.min-1), average power and peak power (W/kg) were significantly higher during repeated sprint bouts (9.5 ± 0.7 W/kg vs. 9.0 ± 0.7 W/kg & 12.0 ± 1.2 W/kg vs. 11.4 ± 1.4 W/kg), hemoglobin significantly increased (149.1 ± 10.3 g/L) in comparison to placebo (143.4 ± 8.7 g/L) (p = 0.05). No differences existed between conditions for all oxygen consumption values, 16.1 km time trial measures and lactate threshold tests (p > 0.05). In conclusion, chlorella may pose as an additional supplement for cyclists to consider, particularly for those cyclists who want to improve their sprinting.

Reliability of Biomarkers of Physiological Stress at Rest and Post-exertional Heat Stress

The purpose of this study was to assess the reliability of blood biomarkers that can signify exercise-induced heat stress in hot conditions. Fourteen males completed two heat stress tests separated by 5-7 days. Venous blood was drawn pre- and post- heat stress for the concentration of normetanephrine, metanephrine, serum osmolality, copeptin, kidney-injury molecule 1, and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin. No biomarker, except copeptin, displayed systematic trial order bias (p≥0.05). Normetanephrine, copeptin and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin presented acceptable reliability (CV range: 0.9-14.3%), while greater variability was present in metanephrine, osmolality and kidney-injury molecule 1 (CV range: 28.6-43.2%). Normetanephrine exhibited the largest increase (p<0.001) in response to heat stress (trial 1=1048±461 pmol. L^-1; trial 2=1067±408 pmol. L^-1), whilst kidney-injury molecule 1 presented trivial changes (trial 1=-4±20 ng. L^-1; trial 2=2 ± 16 ng. L^-1, p>0.05). Normetanephrine, copeptin, and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin demonstrated good reliability and sensitivity to an acute bout of heat stress. These biomarkers may be suitable for application in laboratory and field research to understand the efficacy of interventions that can attenuate the risk of thermal injury whilst exercising in the heat.

A quadriceps femoris motor pattern for efficient cycling

In cycling, propulsion is generated by the muscles of the lower limbs and hips. After the first reports of pedal/crank force measurements in the late 1960s, it has been assumed that highly trained athletes have better power transfer to the pedals than recreational cyclists. However, motor patterns indicating higher levels of performance are unknown. To compare leg muscle activation between trained (3.5-4.2 W/kgbw) and highly trained (4.3-5.1 W/kgbw) athletes we applied electromyography, lactate, and bi-pedal/crank force measurements during a maximal power test, an individual lactate threshold test and a constant power test. We show that specific activation patterns of the rectus femoris (RF) and vastus lateralis (VL) impact on individual performance during high-intensity cycling. In highly trained cyclists, we found a strong activation of the RF during hip flexion. This results in reduced negative force in the fourth quadrant of the pedal cycle. Furthermore, we discovered that pre-activation of the RF during hip flexion reduces force loss at the top dead center (TDC) and can improve force development during subsequent leg extension. Finally, we found that a higher performance level is associated with earlier and more intense coactivation of the RF and VL. This quadriceps femoris recruitment pattern improves force transmission and maintains propulsion at the TDC of the pedal cycle. Our results demonstrate neuromuscular adaptations in cycling that can be utilized to optimize training interventions in sports and rehabilitation.

Relationship between Oxygen Uptake Reserve and Heart Rate Reserve in Young Male Tennis Players: Implications for Physical Fitness Monitoring

The aims of this study were to (i) verify the relationship between reserve oxygen uptake (VO_reserve) and reserve heart rate (HR_reserve) in young male tennis players, and (ii) understand the relationship between oxygen uptake (VO₂) measured at the end of a tennis drill and recovery heart rate (HR_recovery) after the tennis drill. Ten young male tennis players (16.64 ± 1.69 years; 62.36 ± 6.53 kg of body mass; 175.91 ± 5.26 cm of height) were recruited from the National Tennis Association. Players were instructed to perform a tennis drill based on an incremental intensity protocol. Afterward, three levels of intensity were used based on VO_2reserve and HR_reserve. A significant variance was observed between levels (VO_2reserve and HR_reserve = p < 0.001). VO_2reserve presented a significant and high agreement with HR_reserve. The mean data revealed non-significant differences (p > 0.05), a very high relationship of linear regression (R² = 82.4%, p < 0.001), and high agreement in Bland Altman plots. VO_2, at the highest level of intensity (>93%), presented a significant correlation with HR_recovery during the immediate 30 s after the drill (r_s = 0.468, p = 0.028). Tennis coaches or instructors must be aware of the differences between monitoring or prescribing training intensities based on HR_reserve or HR_max. They can also use HR_recovery for 30 s immediately after exercise to verify and understand the variation in their players' cardiorespiratory capacities.

Elite versus non-elite cyclist - Stepping up to the international/elite ranks from U23 cycling

This study investigated the physiological, performance and training characteristics of U23 cyclists and assessed the requirements of stepping up to the elite/international ranks. Twenty highly trained U23 cyclists (age, 22.1 ± 0.8 years; body mass, 69.1 ± 6.8 kg; VO_2max, 76.1 ± 3.9 ml·kg^-1·min^-1) participated in this study. The cyclists were a posteriori divided into two groups based on whether or not they stepped up to elite/international level cycling (U23_ELITE vs. U23_NON-ELITE). Physiological, performance and training and racing characteristics were determined and compared between groups. U23_ELITE demonstrated higher absolute peak power output (p = .016), 2 min (p = .026) 5 min (p = .042) and 12 min (p ≤ .001) power output as well as higher absolute critical power (p = .002). Further, U23_ELITE recorded more accumulated hours (p ≤ .001), covered distance (p ≤ .001), climbing metres (p ≤ .001), total sessions (p ≤ .001), total work (p ≤ .001) and scored more UCI points (p ≤ .001). These findings indicate that U23_ELITE substantially differed from U23_NON-ELITE regarding physiological, performance and training and racing characteristics derived from laboratory and field. These variables should be considered by practitioners supporting young cyclists throughout their development towards the elite/international ranks.

Road to Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games: Training Characteristics of a World Class Male Triathlete

There is a growing interest in the scientific literature for reporting top-class endurance athletes training programs. This case study reports on the training program of a world-class male triathlete preparing to compete in the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games. A macrocycle of 43 weeks is presented. The triathlete performed 14.74 ± 3.01 h of weekly endurance training volume. Training intensity distribution (TID) was 81.93% ± 6.74%/7.16% ± 2.03%/10.91% ± 6.90% for zones 1 (low intensity, VT2) respectively. Pyramidal TID model is observed during the initial stages of the periodization and Polarized TID model is observed at the end of the macrocycle. The triathlete's peak ⩒O2 was increased by 20% on cycling and by 14% on running. Peak power was increased by 3.13% on cycling test and peak speed by 9.71% on running test. Finally, the triathlete placed 12th in Olympic distance and 10th in Mixed Relay in Tokyo 2020 Olympic games.

Professional cyclists have lower levels of bone markers than amateurs. Is there a risk of osteoporosis in cyclist?

Currently, there is a greater number of amateurs that practice cycling. However, there is no clear evidence regarding bone health in amateur cyclists compared to professional cyclists, as the latter has shown to have lower bone mineral content and density. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify the differences in bone variables between professional (PRO) and amateur (AMA) road cyclists, and to see if these differences were related to differences in cycling performance. A parallel trial was carried out with 15 AMA and 10 PRO cyclists. All cyclists visited the laboratory twice: 1) in a fasted state, body composition measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and 2) physiological variables measured using an incremental test until exhaustion. Significantly lower values were found in bone mineral density, bone mineral content and fat free mass in PRO compared to AMA (p < 0.05). In addition, significantly higher power was produced in ventilatory thresholds 1 and 2 (VT1 and VT2) and VO_2MAX in PRO compared to AMA (p < 0.05). Overall, PRO cyclists had lower values in bone health and muscle mass but better results in performance compared to AMA.

Nutritional Considerations for Para-Cycling Athletes: A Narrative Review

Para-cycling is a sport including athletes with different disabilities competing on the track and on the roads using bicycles, tandems, tricycles, and handbikes. Scientific literature in this special population is scarce, especially in the field of sports nutrition. This review summarizes the physiological aspects and demands of para-cycling. This information together with the existing literature on nutritional interventions in this population, helps to discuss the nutritional considerations. To date, only a limited amount of recommendations are available for this population. In most para-cycling athletes, a reduction in active muscle mass and consequently a reduction in resting energy expenditure occurs, except for visually impaired athletes. Furthermore, carbohydrate and protein intake and hydration, supplementation, heat, and weight loss need to be tailored to the disability-specific adaptations such as the reduced active muscle mass, neurogenic bladder, and bowel, a reduced metabolic cost during exercise, and a higher risk of micronutrient deficiency.

Twenty-one days of spirulina supplementation lowers heart rate during submaximal cycling and augments power output during repeated sprints in trained cyclists

Spirulina supplementation has been reported to improve time to exhaustion and maximal oxygen consumption (V̇O2max). However, there is limited information on its influence over the multiple intensities experienced by cyclists during training and competition. Fifteen trained males (age 40 ± 8 years, V̇O2max 51.14 ± 6.43 mL/min/kg) ingested 6 g/day of spirulina or placebo for 21 days in a double-blinded randomised crossover design, with a 14-day washout period between trials. Participants completed a 1-hour submaximal endurance test at 55% external power output max and a 16.1-km time trial (day 1), followed by a lactate threshold test and repeated sprint performance tests (RSPTs) (day 2). Heart rate (bpm), respiratory exchange ratio, oxygen consumption (mL/min/kg), lactate and glucose (mmol/L), time (seconds), power output (W), and hemoglobin (g/L) were compared across conditions. Following spirulina supplementation, lactate and heart rate were significantly lower (P < 0.05) during submaximal endurance tests (2.05 ± 0.80 mmol/L vs 2.39 ± 0.89 mmol/L and 139 ± 11 bpm vs 144 ± 12 bpm), hemoglobin was significantly higher (152.6 ± 9.0 g/L) than placebo (143.2 ± 8.5 g/L), and peak and average power were significantly higher during RSPTs (968 ± 177 W vs 929 ± 149 W and 770 ± 117 W vs 738 ± 86 W). No differences existed between conditions for all oxygen consumption values, 16.1-km time trial measures, and lactate threshold tests (P > 0.05). Spirulina supplementation reduces homeostatic disturbances during submaximal exercise and augments power output during RSPTs. Novelty: Spirulina supplementation lowers heart rate and blood lactate during ∼1-hour submaximal cycling. Spirulina supplementation elicits significant augmentations in hemoglobin and power outputs during RSPTs.

Under the Hood: Skeletal Muscle Determinants of Endurance Performance

In the past decades, researchers have extensively studied (elite) athletes' physiological responses to understand how to maximize their endurance performance. In endurance sports, whole-body measurements such as the maximal oxygen consumption, lactate threshold, and efficiency/economy play a key role in performance. Although these determinants are known to interact, it has also been demonstrated that athletes rarely excel in all three. The leading question is how athletes reach exceptional values in one or all of these determinants to optimize their endurance performance, and how such performance can be explained by (combinations of) underlying physiological determinants. In this review, we advance on Joyner and Coyle's conceptual framework of endurance performance, by integrating a meta-analysis of the interrelationships, and corresponding effect sizes between endurance performance and its key physiological determinants at the macroscopic (whole-body) and the microscopic level (muscle tissue, i.e., muscle fiber oxidative capacity, oxygen supply, muscle fiber size, and fiber type). Moreover, we discuss how these physiological determinants can be improved by training and what potential physiological challenges endurance athletes may face when trying to maximize their performance. This review highlights that integrative assessment of skeletal muscle determinants points toward efficient type-I fibers with a high mitochondrial oxidative capacity and strongly encourages well-adjusted capillarization and myoglobin concentrations to accommodate the required oxygen flux during endurance performance, especially in large muscle fibers. Optimisation of endurance performance requires careful design of training interventions that fine tune modulation of exercise intensity, frequency and duration, and particularly periodisation with respect to the skeletal muscle determinants.

Climbing Performance in U23 and Professional Cyclists during a Multi-stage Race

The aim of this study was to analyze climbing performance across two editions of a professional multistage race, and assess the influence of climb category, prior workload, and intensity measures on climbing performance in U23 and professional cyclists. Nine U23 cyclists (age 20.8±0.9 years) and 8 professional cyclists (28.1±3.2 years) participated in this study. Data were divided into four types: overall race performance, climb category, climbing performance metrics (power output, ascent velocity, speed), and workload and intensity measures. Differences in performance metrics and workload and intensity measures between groups were investigated. Power output, ascent velocity, speed were higher in professionals than U23 cyclists for Cat 1 and Cat 2 (p≤0.001-0.016). Workload and intensity measures (Work_total, Work_total∙km^-1, Elevation_gain, eTRIMP and eTRIMP∙km^-1) were higher in U23 compared to professionals (p=0.002-0.014). Climbing performance metrics were significantly predicted by prior workload and intensity measures for Cat 1 and 2 (R²=0.27-0.89, p≤0.001-0.030) but not Cat 3. These findings reveal that climbing performance in professional road cycling is influenced by climb categorization as well as prior workload and intensity measures. Combined, these findings suggest that Cat 1 and 2 climbing performance could be predicted from workload and intensity measures.

Power Profiling, Workload Characteristics, and Race Performance of U23 and Professional Cyclists During the Multistage Race Tour of the Alps

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to compare the power profile, internal and external workloads, and racing performance between U23 and professional cyclists and between varying rider types across 2 editions of a professional multistage race.

METHODS

Nine U23 cyclists from a Union Cycliste Internationale "Continental Team" (age 20.8 [0.9] y; body mass 71.2 [6.3] kg) and 8 professional cyclists (28.1 [3.2] y; 63.0 [4.6] kg) participated in this study. Rider types were defined as all-rounders, general classification (GC) riders, and domestiques. Data were collected during 2 editions of a 5-day professional multistage race and split into the following 4 categories: power profile, external and internal workloads, and race performance.

RESULTS

The professional group, including domestiques and GC riders, recorded higher relative power profile values after certain amounts of total work (1000-3000 kJ) than the U23 group or all-rounders (P ≤ .001-.049). No significant differences were found for external workload measures between U23 and professional cyclists, nor among rider types. Internal workloads were higher in U23 cyclists and all-rounders (P ≤ .001-.043) compared with professionals, domestiques, and GC riders, respectively. The power profile significantly predicted percentage general classification and Union Cycliste Internationale points (R2 = .90-.99), whereas external and internal workloads did not.

CONCLUSION

These findings reveal that the power profile represents a practical tool to discriminate between professionals and U23 cyclists as well as rider types. The power profile after 1000 to 3000 kJ of total work could be used by practitioners to evaluate the readiness of U23 cyclists to move into the professional ranks, as well as differentiate between rider types.

Elevated peak systolic blood pressure in endurance-trained athletes: Physiology or pathology?

Blood pressure is a function of cardiac output and peripheral vascular resistance. During graded exercise testing (GXT), systolic blood pressure (SBP) is expected to increase gradually along with work rate, oxygen consumption, heart rate, and cardiac output. Individuals exposed to chronic endurance training attain a greater exercise SBP than in their untrained state and sedentary counterparts, but it is currently unknown what is considered a safe upper limit. This review discusses key studies examining blood pressure response in sedentary individuals and athletes. We highlight the physiological characteristics of highly fit individuals in terms of cardiovascular physiology and exercise blood pressure and review the state of the current literature regarding the safety of high SBP during exercise in this particular subgroup. Findings from this review indicate that a consensus on what is a normal SBP response to exercise in highly fit subjects and direct causation linking high GXT SBP to pathology is lacking. Consequently, applying GXT SBP guidelines developed for a "normal" population to endurance-trained individuals appears unsupported at this time. Lack of evidence for poor outcomes leads us to infer that elevated peak SBP in this subgroup could more likely reflect an adaptive response to training, rather than a pathological outcome. Future studies should track clinical outcomes of those achieving elevated SBP and develop athlete-specific guidelines.

Respiratory impact of a grand tour: insight from professional cycling

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the respiratory function and symptom perception in professional cyclists completing a Grand Tour (GT).

METHODS

Nine male cyclists completed La Vuelta or Tour de France (2018/19). At study entry, airway inflammation was measured via fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO). Respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function were assessed prior to the first stage (Pre-GT), at the second rest day (Mid-GT) and prior to the final stage of the GT (Late-GT). Sniff nasal inspiratory pressure (SNIP) was assessed at pre and late-GT timepoints.

RESULTS

Seven cyclists reported respiratory symptoms during the race (with a prominence of upper airway issues). Symptom severity increased either mid or late-GT for most cyclists. A decline in FEV₁ from pre-to-mid GT (- 0.27 ± 0.24 l, - 5.7%) (P = 0.02) and pre-to-late GT (- 0.27 ± 0.13 l, - 5.7%) (P < 0.001) was observed. Similarly, a decline in FVC (- 0.22 ± 0.17 l, - 3.7%) (P = 0.01) and FEF_25-75 (- 0.49 ± 0.34 l/s, - 11%) (P = 0.02) was observed pre-to-late GT. Overall, eight (89%) and six (67%) demonstrated a clinically meaningful decline (> 200 ml) in FEV₁ and FVC during the GT follow-up, respectively. SNIP remained unchanged pre-to-late GT (n = 5), however, a positive correlation was observed between ΔSNIP and ΔFVC (r = 0.99, P = 0.002).

CONCLUSION

GT competition is associated with a high prevalence of upper respiratory symptoms and a meaningful decline in lung function in professional cyclists. Further research is now required to understand the underpinning physiological mechanisms and determine the impact on overall respiratory health and elite cycling performance and recovery.

The Physical Demands and Power Profile of Professional Men's Cycling Races: An Updated Review

BACKGROUND

A variety of intensity, load, and performance measures (eg, "power profile") have been used to characterize the demands of professional cycling races with differing stage types. An increased understanding of the characteristics of these races could provide valuable insight for practitioners toward the design of training strategies to optimally prepare for these demands. However, current reviews within this area are outdated and do not include a recent influx of new articles describing the demands of professional cycling races.

PURPOSE

To provide an updated overview of the intensity and load demands and power profile of professional cycling races. Typically adopted measures are introduced and their results summarized.

CONCLUSION

There is a clear trend in the research that stage type significantly influences the intensity, load, and power profile of races with more elevation gain typically resulting in a higher intensity and load and longer-duration power outputs (ie, >10 min). Flat and semimountainous stages are characterized by higher maximal mean power outputs over shorter durations (ie, <2 min). Furthermore, single-day races tend to have a higher (daily) intensity and load compared with stages within multiday races. Nevertheless, while the presented mean (grouped) data provide some indications on the demands of these races and differences between varying competition elements, a limited amount of research is available describing the "race-winning efforts" in these races, and this is proposed as an important area for future research. Finally, practitioners should consider the limitations of each metric individually, and a multivariable approach to analyzing races is advocated.

Echocardiographic changes following active heat acclimation

Heat adaption through acclimatisation or acclimation improves cardiovascular stability by maintaining cardiac output due to compensatory increases in stroke volume. The main aim of this study was to assess whether 2D transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) could be used to confirm differences in resting echocardiographic parameters, before and after active heat acclimation (HA). Thirteen male endurance trained cyclists underwent a resting blinded TTE before and after randomisation to either 5 consecutive daily exertional heat exposures of controlled hyperthermia at 32°C with 70% relative humidity (RH) (HOT) or 5-days of exercise in temperate (21°C with 36% RH) environmental conditions (TEMP). Measures of HA included heart rate, gastrointestinal temperature, skin temperature, sweat loss, total non-urinary fluid loss (TNUFL), plasma volume and participant's ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). Following HA, the HOT group demonstrated increased sweat loss (p = 0.01) and TNUFL (p = 0.01) in comparison to the TEMP group with a significantly decreased RPE (p = 0.01). On TTE, post exposure, there was a significant comparative increase in the HOT group in left ventricular end diastolic volume (p = 0.029), SV (p = 0.009), left atrial volume (p = 0.005), inferior vena cava diameter (p = 0.041), and a significant difference in mean peak diastolic mitral annular velocity (e’) (p = 0.044). Cardiovascular adaptations to HA appear to be predominantly mediated by improvements in increased preload and ventricular compliance. TTE is a useful tool to demonstrate and quantify cardiac HA.

•

There are echocardiographic differences in comparing an isothermic heat acclimation regime to equivalent temperate exercise.

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Heat acclimation results in an increased LA volume, LVEDV, stroke volume, IVC diameter and LV diastolic function (e’).

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The increase in LA volume and IVC diameter would suggest an increase in preload secondary to increased plasma volume.

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The rise in the speed of early LV relaxation (e’) during diastole reflects increased LV compliance or reduced LV stiffness.

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This gives further insight into the cardiovascular adaptations to heat acclimation.

Rapid gut microbiome changes in a world-class ultramarathon runner

The human gut microbiome is a dynamic ecosystem with prolific health connotations. Physical activity is emerging as a potent regulator of human microbiome composition. This study examined changes in the gut microbiome of a world‐class ultramarathon runner before and after competing in the Western States Endurance Run (WSER), a 163 km mountain footrace. Anthropometrics and body composition were assessed and the ultramarathoner's submaximal and maximal performance profiles were evaluated. Gut microbiome analyses were performed at four time‐points: 21 weeks and 2 weeks before and 2 hours and 10 days after WSER. Aerobic power (VO₂max) was 4.24 L/min (66.7 ml kg⁻¹ min⁻¹), and running economy (51.1 ml kg⁻¹ min⁻¹ at 268 m/min) and lactate threshold (~83% VO₂max) values were comparable to that of highly trained distance runners. Two hours post‐race, considerable changes in the ultrarunners’ gut microbiome were observed. Alpha diversity (Shannon Diversity Index) increased from 2.73 to 2.80 and phylum‐level bacterial composition (Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio) rose from 4.4 to 14.2. Underlying these macro‐level microbial alterations were demonstrable increases in select bacterial genera such as Veillonella (+14,229%) and Streptococcus (+438%) concomitant with reductions in Alloprevotella (−79%) and Subdolingranulum (−50%). To our knowledge, this case study shows the most rapid and pronounced shifts in human gut microbiome composition after acute exercise in the human literature. These findings provide yet another example of how exercise can be a powerful modulator of human health.

Power Assessment in Road Cycling: A Narrative Review

Nowadays, the evaluation of physiological characteristics and training load quantification in road cycling is frequently performed through power meter data analyses, but the scientific evidence behind this tool is scarce and often contradictory. The aim of this paper is to review the literature related to power profiling, functional threshold testing, and performance assessment based on power meter data. A literature search was conducted following preferred reporting items for review statement (PRISMA) on the topic of {“cyclist” OR “cycling” AND “functional threshold” OR “power meter”}. The reviewed evidence provided important insights regarding power meter-based training: (a) functional threshold testing is closely related to laboratory markers of steady state; (b) the 20-min protocol represents the most researched option for functional threshold testing, although shorter durations may be used if verified on an individual basis; (c) power profiling obtained through the recovery of recorded power outputs allows the categorization and assessment of the cyclist’s fitness level; and (d) power meters represent an alternative to laboratory tests for the assessment of the relationship between power output and cadence. This review elucidates the increasing amount of studies related to power profiling, functional threshold testing, and performance assessment based on power meter data, highlighting the opportunity for the expanding knowledge that power meters have brought in the road cycling field.

Energy Expenditure Equation Choice: Effects on Cycling Efficiency and its Reliability

PURPOSE

There are several published equations to calculate energy expenditure (EE) from gas exchanges. The authors assessed whether using different EE equations would affect gross efficiency (GE) estimates and their reliability.

METHODS

Eleven male and 3 female cyclists (age 33 [10] y; height: 178 [11] cm; body mass: 76.0 [15.1] kg; maximal oxygen uptake: 51.4 [5.1] mL·kg-1·min-1; peak power output: 4.69 [0.45] W·kg-1) completed 5 visits to the laboratory on separate occasions. In the first visit, participants completed a maximal ramp test to characterize their physiological profile. In visits 2 to 5, participants performed 4 identical submaximal exercise trials to assess GE and its reliability. Each trial included three 7-minute bouts at 60%, 70%, and 80% of the gas exchange threshold. EE was calculated with 4 equations by Péronnet and Massicotte, Lusk, Brouwer, and Garby and Astrup.

RESULTS

All 4 EE equations produced GE estimates that differed from each other (all P < .001). Reliability parameters were only affected when the typical error was expressed in absolute GE units, suggesting a negligible effect-related to the magnitude of GE produced by each EE equation. The mean coefficient of variation for GE across different exercise intensities and calculation methods was 4.2%.

CONCLUSIONS

Although changing the EE equation does not affect GE reliability, exercise scientists and coaches should be aware that different EE equations produce different GE estimates. Researchers are advised to share their raw data to allow for GE recalculation, enabling comparison between previous and future studies.

Effect of Ten Weeks of Creatine Monohydrate Plus HMB Supplementation on Athletic Performance Tests in Elite Male Endurance Athletes

Creatine monohydrate (CrM) and β-hydroxy β-methylbutyrate (HMB) are common ergogenic aids in the field of sports and are frequently used in an isolated way. However, there are a few studies that have investigated the effect of combining both supplements on different variables related to performance, with controversial results. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy and the degree of potentiation of 10 weeks of CrM plus HMB supplementation on sports performance, which was measured by an incremental test to exhaustion in elite male traditional rowers. In this placebo-controlled, double-blind trial, 10-week study, participants (n = 28) were randomized to a placebo group (PLG; n = 7), CrM group (0.04 g/kg/day of CrM; n = 7), HMB group (3 g/day of HMB; n = 7) and CrM-HMB group (0.04 g/kg/day of CrM plus 3 g/day of HMB; n = 7). Before and after 10 weeks of different treatments, an incremental test was performed on a rowing ergometer to calculate the power that each rower obtained at the anaerobic threshold (WAT), and at 4 mmol (W4) and 8 mmol (W8) of blood lactate concentration. There were no significant differences in WAT and W4 among groups or in body composition. However, it was observed that the aerobic power achieved at W8 was significantly higher in the CrM-HMB group than in the PLG, CrM and HMB groups (p < 0.001; η2p = 0.766). Likewise, a synergistic effect of combined supplementation was found for the sum of the two supplements separately at WAT (CrM-HMBG = 403.19% vs. CrMG+HMBG = 337.52%), W4 (CrM-HMBG = 2736.17% vs. CrMG+HMBG = 1705.32%) and W8 (CrM-HMBG = 1293.4% vs. CrMG+HMBG = 877.56%). In summary, CrM plus HMB supplementation over 10 weeks showed a synergistic effect on aerobic power (measured as WAT, W4, and W8) during an incremental test but had no influence muscle mass.

Identification of Potential Performance-Related Predictors in Young Competitive Athletes

Introduction

Systematic training is an essential demand for the individual success of an athlete. However, similar training modalities cause individual responses, and finally, decide on athletes’ success or failure. To predict performance development, potential influencing parameters should be known. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify performance-related parameters in young competitive athletes.

Methods

Individual performance developments of 146 young athletes (m: n = 96, f: n = 50, age V1: 14.7 ± 1.7 years) of four different sports (soccer: n = 45, cycling: n = 48, swimming: n = 18, cross-country skiing: n = 35) were evaluated by analysis of 356 visits in total (exercise intervention periods, 289 ± 112 d). At V1 and V2 several performance parameters were determined. Based on the relative performance progress (Δ), potential influencing predictors were analyzed: training load, health sense, stress level, clinical complaints, hemoglobin, vitamin D, hs-CRP and EBV serostatus. Data were collected within a controlled, prospective study on young athletes, which was conducted between 2010 and 2014.

Results

Athletes improved their performance by 4.7 ± 10.7%. In total, 66.3% of all athletes represented a positive performance progress. This group demonstrated, despite similar training loads (p = 0.207), enhanced health senses (p = 0.001) and lower stress levels (p = 0.002). In contrast, compared to athletes with an impaired performance progress, no differences in hemoglobin values (m: p = 0.926, f: p = 0.578), vitamin D levels (0.787) and EBV serostatus (p = 0.842) were found. Performance progress was dependent on extents of health senses (p = 0.040) and stress levels (p = 0.045). Furthermore, the combination of declined health senses and rised stress levels was associated with an impaired performance development (p = 0.018) and higher prevalences of clinical complaints (p < 0.001) above all, in contrast to hs-CRP (p = 0.168).

Discussion

Athletes with an improved performance progress reported less pronounced subjective sensations and complaints. In contrast, objective known performance-related indicators, offered no differences. Therefore, subjective self-reported data, reflecting health and stress status, should be additionally considered to regulate training, modify intensities, and finally, predict and ensure an optimal performance advance.

Gross Efficiency and The Relationship with Maximum Oxygen Uptake in Young Elite Cyclists During the Competitive Season

This study assessed gross efficiency (GE) during a single competitive season and determined the relationship between GE and maximum oxygen uptake (V̇O_2max) in young elite cyclists (n = 15, 20.1 ± 1.4 yrs, 177.5 ± 5.7 cm, 68.3 ± 6.2 kg, 45.2 ± 7.5 mm of six skinfolds) during a competitive season. Participants completed at two occasions (T1 = April; T2 = July), a progressive bike protocol (initial intensity = 100 W, 35 W increments every 3 min) until volitional exhaustion to assess V̇O_2max and submaximal variables. A single capillary blood sample was drawn from the left earlobe immediately after completion of each exercise load to determine lactate thresholds. Cyclists' GE was calculated as ([work accomplished/energy expended] x 100). No significant differences were obtained in GE at any workload between T1 and T2 or in the mean GE between T1 (19.3%) and T2 (19.4%) testing (p = 0.93). No significant association was found between mean GE and V̇O_2max at either T1 (r = -0.28, p = 0.30), or T2 (r = -0.27, p = 0.32). GE of young elite cyclists might not vary during the most important phase of the training season and GE was not related to V̇O_2max. A lower accumulated volume and intensity of training of these cyclists may account for their lower GE in comparison to older professional cyclists and might not have been enough to foster higher increases of GE in cyclists with lower V̇O_2max.

Case Studies in Physiology: Temporal changes in determinants of aerobic performance in individual going from alpine skier to world junior champion time trial cyclist

This paper reports temporal changes in physiological measurements of exercise performance in a young man transitioning from alpine skiing until he became a world junior champion time trial cyclist after only 3 yr of bike-specific training. At the time he became World Champion he also achieved among the highest reported maximal oxygen uptake (V̇o_2max) value, 96.7 ml·min^-1·kg^-1, or 7,397 ml/min in absolute terms at 76.5 kg, which had increased by 29.6% from 74.6 ml·min^-1·kg^-1 pre-bike-specific training. After 15 mo with almost no structured exercise training, V̇o_2max returned to 77.0 mL·min^-1·kg^-1 and was similar to the value reported before specific bike training, albeit with absolute term (6,205 ml/min) still being 11.3% higher. Part of the explanation for his athletic achievements is likely also related to the up to 20.9% improvement in Power@4 mmol/l (W). Although genetic profiles of endurance athletes have not generated data suggesting a shared genetic signature associated with elite endurance performance, this case study highlights the importance of intrinsic biological factors in elite endurance performance.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study shows that very high V̇o_2max values (>70 ml·min^-1·kg^-1) can be found in individuals not previously specializing in aerobic training and that values of >90 ml·min^-1·kg^-1, as well as a cycling world junior champion title, can be achieved in such individuals with just 3 yr of dedicated exercise training.

Effects of a 2-km Swim on Markers of Cycling Performance in Elite Age-Group Triathletes

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a 2-km swim on markers of subsequent cycling performance in well-trained, age-group triathletes. Fifteen participants (10 males, five females, 38.3 ± 8.4 years) performed two progressive cycling tests between two and ten days apart, one of which was immediately following a 2-km swim (33.7 ± 4.1 min). Cycling power at 4-mM blood lactate concentration decreased after swimming by an average of 3.8% (p = 0.03, 95% CI −7.7, 0.2%), while heart rate during submaximal cycling (220 W for males, 150 W for females) increased by an average of 4.0% (p = 0.02, 95% CI 1.7, 9.7%), compared to cycling without prior swimming. Maximal oxygen consumption decreased by an average of 4.0% (p = 0.01, 95% CI −6.5, −1.4%), and peak power decreased by an average of 4.5% (p < 0.01, 95% CI −7.3, −2.3%) after swimming, compared to cycling without prior swimming. Results from this study suggest that markers of submaximal and maximal cycling are impaired following a 2-km swim.

Leukocyte telomere length in the Thoroughbred racehorse

Thoroughbred racehorses possess superior cardiorespiratory fitness levels and are at the pinnacle of athletic performance compared to other breeds of horses. Although equine athletes have undergone years of artificial selection for racing performance, musculoskeletal injuries and illnesses are common and concerns relating to animal welfare have been proposed. Leukocyte telomere length is indicative of biological age, and accelerated telomere shortening occurs with excess physical and psychological stress. This study was designed to explore the association between leukocyte telomere length, biological factors (age, sex and coat colour), training status, winnings and race history parameters. Blood was collected from 146 Thoroughbred racehorses from around Geelong, Victoria, Australia. DNA was extracted from leukocytes; telomere length was measured using qPCR and analysed in context with traits obtained from the Racing Australia website. Age was inversely correlated with telomere length (r = -0.194, P = 0.019). The oldest horses (≥11 years) in the highest age quartile possessed shorter telomeres compared to younger horses in the first, second and third quartiles (≤2, 3-5 and 6-10 years respectively; P < 0.05). No statistically significant associations were observed between telomere length and biological factors, training status, winnings or race history parameters in age-adjusted analyses. The study findings suggest that Thoroughbred horses may undergo age-related telomere shortening similar to other mixed breeds and humans. Despite concerns from some quarters regarding the welfare of racehorses, there was a lack of accelerated biological ageing observed in the present study, as indicated by leukocyte telomere length.

New Records in Human Power

Maximal aerobic and anaerobic power are crucial performance determinants in most sport disciplines. Numerous studies have published power data from elite athletes over the years, particularly in runners, cyclists, rowers, and cross-country (XC) skiers. This invited review defines the current "world records" in human upper limits of aerobic and anaerobic power. Currently, [Formula: see text]max values of ∼7.5 and 7.0 L·min^-1 in male XC skiers and rowers, respectively, and/or ∼90 mL·kg^-1·min^-1 in XC skiers, cyclists, and runners can be described as upper human limits for aerobic power. Corresponding values for women are slightly below 5.0 L·min^-1 in rowers and XC skiers and ∼80 mL·kg^-1·min^-1 in XC skiers and runners. Extremely powerful male athletes may reach ∼85 W·kg^-1 in countermovement jump (peak vertical power) and ∼36 W·kg^-1 in sprint running (peak horizontal power), cycling (instantaneous power during force-velocity testing from a standing position), and rowing (instantaneous power). Similarly, their female counterparts may reach ∼70 W·kg^-1 in countermovement jump and ∼30 W·kg^-1 in sprint running, cycling, and rowing. The presented values can serve as reference values for practitioners and scientists working with elite athletes. However, several methodological considerations should be taken into account when interpreting the results. For example, calibrated apparatus and strict procedures are required to ensure high measurement validity and reliability, and the sampling rate for anaerobic power assessments must be strictly predetermined and carefully measured. Doping is also a potential confounding factor when interpreting the human upper limits of aerobic and anaerobic power.

Characteristics and Challenges of Open-Water Swimming Performance: A Review

CONTEXT

Although the popularity of open-water swimming (OWS) events has significantly increased in the last decades, specific studies regarding performance of elite or age-group athletes in these events are scarce.

PURPOSE

To analyze the existing literature on OWS.

METHODS

Relevant literature was located via computer-generated citations. During August 2016, online computer searches on PubMed and Scopus databases were conducted to locate published research.

RESULTS

The number of participants in ultraendurance swimming events has substantially increased in the last 10 y. In elite athletes there is a higher overall competitive level of women than of men. The body composition of female athletes (different percentage and distribution of fat tissue) shows several advantages (more buoyancy and less drag) in aquatic conditions that determine the small difference between males and females. The main physiological characteristics of open-water swimmers (OW swimmers) are the ability to swim at high percentage of [Formula: see text] (80-90%) for many hours. Furthermore, to sustain high velocity for many hours, endurance swimmers need a high propelling efficiency and a low energy cost.

CONCLUSION

Open-water races may be characterized by extreme environmental conditions (water temperature, tides, currents, and waves) that have an overall impact on performance, influencing tactics and pacing. Future studies are needed to study OWS in both training and competition.

The Training Characteristics of the World's Most Successful Female Cross-Country Skier

The main aim of this study was to investigate the training characteristics of the most successful female cross-country skier ever during the best period of her career. The participant won six gold medals at the Olympic Games, 18 gold medals at the World Championship, and 110 World Cup victories. Day-to-day training diary data, interviews, and physiological tests were analyzed. Training data was systemized by training form (endurance, strength, and speed), intensity [low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT)], and mode (running, cycling, and skiing/roller skiing), followed by a division into different periodization phases. Specific sessions utilized in the various periodization periods and the day-to-day periodization of training, in connection with altitude camps and tapering toward major championships, were also analyzed. Following a 12-year nonlinear increase in training load, the annual training volume during the five consecutive successful years stabilized at 937 ± 25 h, distributed across 543 ± 9 sessions. During these 5 years, total training time was distributed as 90.6% endurance-, 8.0% strength-, and 1.4% speed-training, with endurance-training time consisting of 92.3 ± 0.3% LIT, 2.9 ± 0.5% MIT, and 4.8 ± 0.5% HIT. Total LIT-time consisted of 21% warm-up, 14% sessions <90 min, and 65% long-duration sessions >90 min. While the total number of LIT sessions remained stable across phases (32 sessions), total LIT-time was reduced from GP (76 h/month) to SP (68 h/month) and CP (55 h/month). MIT-time decreased from GP (2.8 h/month) to SP (2.2 h/month) and CP (1 h/month). HIT-time increased from GP (2.8 h/month) to SP (3.2 h/month) and CP (4.7 h/month). Altitude training accounted for 18-25% of annual training volume and performed across relatively short training camps (≤16 days) with a clear reduction of HIT training, but increased total and LIT volume compared to sea-level training. Training before international championships included a 2-week increase in LIT and strength volume followed by a gradual reduction of training volume and increased HIT during the last week. This study provides unique data on the world's most successful female cross-country skier's long-term training process, including novel information about the distribution of and interplay between sessions of different forms, intensities, and exercise modes throughout the annual season.

Considerations on the Assessment and Use of Cycling Performance Metrics and their Integration in the Athlete's Biological Passport

Over the past few decades the possibility to capture real-time data from road cyclists has drastically improved. Given the increasing pressure for improved transparency and openness, there has been an increase in publication of cyclists' physiological and performance data. Recently, it has been suggested that the use of such performance biometrics may be used to strengthen the sensitivity and applicability of the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) and aid in the fight against doping. This is an interesting concept which has merit, although there are several important factors that need to be considered. These factors include accuracy of the data collected and validity (and reliability) of the subsequent performance modeling. In order to guarantee high quality standards, the implementation of well-structured Quality-Systems within sporting organizations should be considered, and external certifications may be required. Various modeling techniques have been developed, many of which are based on fundamental intensity/time relationships. These models have increased our understanding of performance but are currently limited in their application, for example due to the largely unaccounted effects of environmental factors such as, heat and altitude. In conclusion, in order to use power data as a performance biometric to be integrated in the biological passport, a number of actions must be taken to ensure accuracy of the data and better understand road cycling performance in the field. This article aims to outline considerations in the quantification of cycling performance, also presenting an alternative method (i.e., monitoring race results) to allow for determination of unusual performance improvements.

Measurement of sodium concentration in sweat samples: comparison of 5 analytical techniques

Sweat sodium concentration (SSC) can be determined using different analytical techniques (ATs), which may have implications for athletes and scientists. This study compared the SSC measured with 5 ATs: ion chromatography (IChr), flame photometry (FP), direct (DISE) and indirect (IISE) ion-selective electrode, and ion conductivity (IC). Seventy sweat samples collected from 14 athletes were analyzed with 5 instruments: the 883 Basic IC Plus (IChr, reference instrument), AAnalyst 200 (FP), Cobas 6000 (IISE), Sweat-Chek (IC), and B-722 Laqua Twin (DISE). Instruments showed excellent relative (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) ≥ 0.999) and absolute (coefficient of variation (CV) ≤ 2.6%) reliability. Relative validity was also excellent between ATs (ICC ≥ 0.961). In regards to the inter-AT absolute validity, compared with IChr, standard error of the estimates were similar among ATs (2.8-3.8 mmol/L), but CV was lowest with DISE (3.9%), intermediate with IISE (7.6%), and FP (6.9%) and highest with IC (12.3%). In conclusion, SSC varies depending on the AT used to analyze samples. Therefore, results obtained from different ATs are scarcely comparable and should not be used interchangeably. Nevertheless, taking into account the normal variability in SSC (∼±12%), the imprecision of the recommendations deriving from FP, IISE, IC, and DISE should have trivial health and physiological consequences under most exercise circumstances.