Effects of Tapering on Performance

Optimization of Sprint Training Among European Coaches: Quality Over Quantity

PURPOSE

To describe how high-level European sprint coaches (from 100 to 400 m) work to improve important factors associated with the quality of the holistic training process and the quality of the specific training session.

METHODS

A descriptive analysis was conducted using questionnaires from 31 European elite sprint coaches (ie, training athletes defined as tiers 3, 4, and 5) who participated voluntarily.

RESULTS

The coaches used traditional periodization (45%) with a 10- to 15-day tapering phase (48%) that includes a reduction in volume, maintenance of intensity, and focus on correct technical execution. In the 3 mesophases, coaches prioritized the basic development of strength and sprint work in the first phases of the season and emphasized more sprint-specific work in the competitive phase. Before sessions, adjustments were made based on factors such as psychological (77%), technical (48%), and physical (39%) parameters. In-session load management relies on a combination of objective and subjective measures (55%), in which the dialogue with athletes (65%) was regarded as the main resource. Feedback during and after sessions covers technical (54%), psychological (48%), and physical (35%) aspects. Recovery protocols after sessions mainly involve rest and professional guidance (42%). For performance assessment and testing, coaches utilize countermovement jump (52%), force-velocity profile (45%), and 30-m flying (61%) as main tools.

CONCLUSIONS

European sprint coaches demonstrated a comprehensive approach to planning and management, shedding light on the multifaceted nature of their training methodologies and the diverse tools employed for athlete testing and monitoring.

Hair cortisol is a physiological indicator of training stress for female footballers

PURPOSE

Chronic physical stress in female athletes can reduce mental health and athletic performance. Therefore, a chronic physical stress assessment method is required.

METHODS

This study examined whether hair cortisol concentration (HCC) predicted chronic physical stress changes in female university football players. We took measurements in August and December, just before the Japan college national tournament.

RESULTS

Self-reported training load was significantly positively correlated with HCC. Self-reported training load had no significant relationship with fatigue as measured by the Profile of Mood States 2nd Edition or with the stressors from the Stressor Scale for College Students. HCC was negatively correlated with reaction time in the spatial Stroop task, although the repeated correlation analysis showed no significant relationship.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that the chronic physical stress experienced by female footballers cannot be predicted by psychological indicators; however, they can be predicted by HCC, which could be used to prevent overtraining in these athletes.

Increased training load promotes sleep propensity and slow-wave sleep in endurance runners: Can a high-heat-capacity mattress topper modulate this effect?

The present study aimed to: (1) investigate sleep architecture in response to an overload training and taper periods among endurance runners; and (2) assess the sleep benefits of a high-heat-capacity mattress topper. Twenty-one trained male endurance runners performed a 2-week usual training regimen (baseline) followed by 2-week overload and taper periods. From overload to the end of the taper period, they were assigned into two groups based on the mattress topper used: high-heat-capacity mattress topper (n = 11) or low-heat-capacity mattress topper (n = 10). Training load was assessed daily using the session rating of perceived exertion. Following each period, sleep was monitored by polysomnography, and nocturnal core body temperature was recorded throughout the night. Irrespective of the group, awakening episodes > 5 min decreased following overload compared with baseline (-0.48, p = 0.05). Independently of mattress topper, each 100 A.U. increase in 7-day training load prior to polysomnographic recording was associated with higher slow-wave sleep proportion (β = +0.13%; p = 0.05), lower sleep-onset latency (β = -0.49 min; p = 0.05), and a reduction in the probability of transition from N1 sleep stage to wakefulness (β = -0.12%; p = 0.05). Sleeping on a high-heat-capacity mattress topper did not affect any sleep variable compared with a low-heat-capacity mattress topper. Increased training loads promote slow-wave sleep and sleep propensity, highlighting the adaptative nature of sleep to diurnal activity and the role of sleep in physiological recovery. Further studies are required on the potential benefits of high-heat-capacity mattress toppers on sleep architecture among athletes.

Five Weeks of Sprint Interval Training Improve Muscle Glycolytic Content and Activity But Not Time to Task Failure in Severe-Intensity Exercise

PURPOSE

This study examined the impact of a 5-wk sprint interval training (SIT) intervention on time to task failure (TTF) during severe-intensity constant work rate (CWR) exercise, as well as in glycolytic enzymatic content and activity, and glycogen content.

METHODS

Fourteen active males were randomized into either a SIT group ( n = 8) composed of 15 SIT sessions over 5 wk, or a control group ( n = 6). At pretraining period, participants performed i) ramp incremental test to measure the cardiorespiratory function; ii) CWR cycling TTF at 150% of the power output (PO) at the respiratory compensation point (RCP-PO) with muscle biopsies at rest and immediately following task failure. After 5 wk, the same evaluations were repeated (i.e., exercise intensities matched to current training status), and an additional cycling CWR matched to pretraining 150% RCP-PO was performed only for TTF evaluation. The content and enzymatic activity of glycogen phosphorylase (GPhos), hexokinase (HK), phosphofructokinase (PFK), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), as well as the glycogen content, were analyzed. Content of monocarboxylate transporter isoform 4 (MCT4) and muscle buffering capacity were also measured.

RESULTS

Despite improvements in total work performed at CWR posttraining, no differences were observed for TTF. The GPhos, HK, PFK, and LDH content and activity, and glycogen content also improved after training only in the SIT group. Furthermore, the MCT4 concentrations and muscle buffering capacity were also improved only for the SIT group. However, no difference in glycogen depletion was observed between groups and time.

CONCLUSIONS

Five weeks of SIT improved the glycolytic pathway parameters and total work performed; however, glycogen depletion was not altered during CWR severe-intensity exercise, and TTF remained similar.

Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: Essential Papers in Sports and Exercise Physiology

PURPOSE

The purpose of this survey was to create a list of essential historical and contemporary readings for undergraduate and graduate students in the field of exercise physiology.

METHODS

Fifty-two exercise physiologists/sport scientists served as referees, and each nominated ∼25 papers for inclusion in the list. In total, 396 papers were nominated by the referees. This list was then sent back to the referees, with the instructions to nominate the "100 essential papers in sports and exercise physiology."

RESULTS

The referees cast 4722 votes. The 100 papers with the highest number of votes received 51% (2406) of the total number of votes. A total of 37 papers in the list of "100 essential papers" were published >50 years ago, and 63 papers were published since 1973.

CONCLUSIONS

This list of essential studies will provide a perspective on contemporary studies, the "giant's shoulders" to enable young scholars to "see further" or to understand where they have "come from." This compilation is also meant to impress on students that, given the (lack of) technology available in the past, some of the early science required enormous intuitive leaps on the part of historical scientists.

Quantitative Analysis of 92 12-Week Sub-elite Marathon Training Plans

BACKGROUND

A typical training plan is a mix of many training sessions with different intensities and durations to achieve a specific goal, like running a marathon in a certain time. Scientific publications provide little specific information to aid in writing a comprehensive training plan. This review aims to systematically and quantitatively analyse the last 12 weeks before a marathon as recommended in 92 sub-elite training plans.

METHODS

We retrieved 92 marathon training plans and linked their running training sessions to five intensity zones. Subsequently, each training plan was grouped based on the total running volume in peak week into high (> 90 km/week), middle (65-90 km/week), and low (< 65 km/week) training volume plan categories.

RESULTS

In the final 12 weeks before a race, recommended weekly running volume averaged 108 km, 59 km, and 43 km for high, middle, and low distance marathon training plans. The intensity distribution of these plans followed a pyramidal training structure with 15-67-10-5-3%, 14-63-18-2-3%, and 12-67-17-2-2% in zones 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, for high, middle, and low volume training plans, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

By quantitatively analysing 92 recommended marathon training plans, we can specify typical recommendations for the last 12 weeks before a marathon race. Whilst this approach has obvious limitations such as no evidence for the effectiveness of the training plans investigated, it is arguably a useful strategy to narrow the gap between science and practice.

The Training and Tapering Practices of Highland Games Heavy Event Athletes

ABSTRACT

Winwood, PW, Keogh, JW, Travis, SK, Grieve, I, and Pritchard, HJ. The training and tapering practices of Highland Games heavy event athletes. J Strength Cond Res 38(3): e116-e124, 2024-This study provides the first empirical evidence of how Highland Games heavy event athletes train and taper for Highland Games competitions. Athletes (n = 169) (mean ± SD: age 40.8 ± 10.7 years, height 181.2 ± 9.5 cm, weight 107.2 ± 23.0 kg, 18.8 ± 10.3 years of general resistance training, and 8.1 ± 6.9 years of competitive Highland Games experience) completed a self-reported 4-page online survey on training and tapering practices. Analysis by sex (male and female) and competitive standard (local or regional, national, and international) was conducted. Seventy-eight percent (n = 132) of athletes reported that they used a taper. Athletes stated that their taper length was 5.2 ± 3.5 days, with the step (36%) and linear tapers (33%) being the most performed. Athletes reported that their highest training volume and intensity were 5.5 and 3.8 weeks out (respectively) from competition, and all training ceased 2.4 ± 1.4 days before competition. Training volume decreased during the taper by 34%. Athletes typically stated that, tapering was performed to achieve recovery, peak performance, and injury prevention; training intensity, frequency, and duration stayed the same or decreased; game-specific training increased with reductions in traditional exercises; the caber toss, weight for height, and heavy weight throw were performed further out from competition than other events; muscular power and strength were the most common types of training performed; static stretching, foam rolling, and massage were strategies used in the taper; and poor tapering occurred because of life/work circumstances, lack of sleep/rest, or training too heavy/hard. These results may aid Highland Games athletes to optimize training and tapering variables leading to improved performances.

Effect of the pre-taper level of fatigue on the taper-induced changes in performance in elite swimmers

Introduction

In swimming, performance gains after tapering could be influenced by the pre-taper level of fatigue. Moreover, this level of fatigue could be associated with sleep. This study aimed to assess (1) the effect of tapering on performance according to the pre-taper level of fatigue in swimmers and (2) the association between sleep and pre-taper level of fatigue.

Methods

Physiological, psychological and biomechanical profiles were evaluated in 26 elite swimmers on 2 occasions to estimate the pre-taper level of fatigue: at T0 and T1, scheduled respectively 10 and 3 weeks before the main competition. Sleep quantity and quality were also evaluated at T0 and T1. Race time was officially assessed at T0, T1 and during the main competition. The level of significance was set at p ≤ .05.

Results

Fourteen swimmers (17 ± 2 years) were allocated to acute fatigue group (AF) and 12 swimmers (18 ± 2 years) to functional overreaching group (F-OR). From T1 to the main competition, performance was improved in AF (+1.80 ± 1.36%), while it was impaired in F-OR (-0.49 ± 1.58%, p < 0.05 vs. AF). Before taper period, total sleep time was lower in F-OR, as compared to AF. Conversely, the fragmentation index was higher in F-OR (p = .06). From wakefulness to sleep, body core temperature decreased in AF but not in F-OR.

Discussion

Performance gain after tapering was higher in AF swimmers than in overreached. Moreover, pre-taper sleep was poorer in overreached swimmers, which could contribute to their different response to the same training load. This poorer sleep could be linked to a lower regulation of internal temperature.

Optimizing performance and mood state in competitive swimmers through tapering strategies

Tapering is a concept that is of great importance in relation to performance, due of its great effect on the psychological and physical condition of the swimmer. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the effect of two-week of tapering characterized by a progressive training volume reduction on mood state and swimming performance in competitive swimmers. Twenty-four competitive male swimmers were randomly assigned into two groups. Experimental group (age = 16.9 ± 0.5 years) and control group (16.1 ± 0.4 years). The mood subscales (tension, depression, anger, fatigue, confusion and vigor), total mood disturbance and swimming performance (50-m front crawl) were measured in pre and posttest. Our findings revealed a significant improvement in mood subscales (20.8 to 47.8%), total mood disturbance (14.4%) and in swimming performance (3.5%) after 2 weeks of tapering training. A significant correlation was observed between the total mood disturbance and the 50 m front crawl (r = -0.63) only in the experimental group. It was concluded that a progressive reduction in training volume with a maintain of intensity could improve mood state and swimming performance. In addition, a change in total mood disturbance could affect swimming performance. Swimming coaches are advised to include tapering period according to the standards we mentioned earlier before competitive swimming to improve mental state, which helps the swimmers to overcome the negative influences of overtraining and therefore they can promote sprint-swimming performance.

Two Days Versus Four Days of Training Cessation Following a Step-Taper in Powerlifters

ABSTRACT

Burke, BI, Carroll, KM, Travis, SK, Stone, ME, and Stone, MH. Two days versus four days of training cessation following a step-taper in powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 37(12): e625-e632, 2023-Tapering and training cessation are methods of training load management aimed at optimizing athlete preparedness leading into competition. Such practices are often used by strength sport athletes such as powerlifters (i.e., athletes who compete in the back squat [BS], bench press [BP], and deadlift [DL]). The purpose of this study was to compare the differences in maximal strength, subjective recovery and stress state, and body composition alterations in strength athletes undergoing a 1-week step-taper followed by either a 2-day (2D) or 4-day (4D) period of training cessation. Twelve powerlifters (22.3 ± 2.1 yrs; 92.1 ± 20.4 kg; 174.8 ± 7.5 cm) completed a 6-week training protocol aimed at peaking 1 repetition maximum (1RM) strength on BS, BP, and DL. Body composition, subjective recovery and stress state, and 1RM on BS, BP, and DL were assessed before an overreach week (T1) and after the periods of training cessation (T2) for each group. Alpha criterion was set at p ≤ 0.05. There were significant increases in BP ( p = 0.032, g = 0.10), powerlifting total ( p = 0.014, g = 0.11), and DOTS score ( p = 0.006, g = 0.12) after 2D of cessation. However, after 4D of cessation, significant increases were only observed in DL ( p = 0.019, g = 0.11) along with significant decreases in BP ( p = 0.003, g = -0.13). There were no statistically significant changes in any other variable for either group indicating that BS, psychometric, and body composition data were maintained between T1 and T2. The results of this study support the use of 1-week step-tapers, followed by a short period of training cessation (2-4D) to maintain or improve maximal strength performance.

The Weekly Periodization of Top 5 Tour de France General Classification Finishers: A Multiple Case Study

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to describe individual training characteristics, racing strategies, and periodization in preparation for the Tour de France in 2 world-class road cyclists finishing in the top 5 of the general classification.

METHODS

Week-by-week power meter training and racing data of 2 (A and B) road cyclists (age: 29 and 23 y; maximum oxygen consumption: 83 and 81 mL·min-1·kg-1; and relative 20-min record power output: 6.9 and 6.5 W·kg-1) in the preparation phase (December-July/August) leading up to the Tour de France were retrospectively analyzed. Weekly volume and intensity distribution in power zones were considered.

RESULTS

Cyclists A and B completed 46 and 19 races, 22.5 (6.3) and 18.2 (5.1) h·wk-1, with a pyramidal intensity distribution of 81.0%-13.3%-5.7%, and 88.8%-7.9%-3.3% in zone 1-zone 2-zone 3. Cyclist B spent 14 days at altitude. Increased high-intensity volume and polarization index occurred during race weeks. During periods without racing, training intensity progressively increased. Strength training was performed during November and December but not during the following months. During tapering, total exercise volume and time at high intensity decreased.

CONCLUSION

These data provide novel insights into the periodization of world-class road cyclists in advance of a top 5 placing in the Tour de France general classification.

Higher training loads affect sleep in endurance runners: Can a high-heat-capacity mattress topper mitigate negative effects?

This study investigates the impact of a training program on sleep among endurance runners and the benefits of chronically using a high-heat-capacity mattress topper (HMT). Twenty-one trained male athletes performed a 2-week usual training regimen, sleeping on a Low-heat-capacity Mattress Topper (LMT), followed by 2-week overload and taper periods. From overload, participants were assigned into two groups based on the mattress topper used: HMT (n = 11) or LMT (n = 10). Irrespective of the group, overload increased general stress and stress-reaction symptoms evaluated by questionnaires, with no decline in performance on a graded-exercise treadmill test, the majority of participant being "non-overreached" (n = 14). From a daily perspective, each additional 100 A.U. in training load, assessed using the session rating of perceived exertion, was associated with an impairment in subsequent sleep efficiency (β = -0.2%; p < 0.01), wake after sleep onset (β =  +0.4 min; p < 0.05) and sleep onset latency (β =  +0.5 min; p < 0.05), which was unaffected by HMT use. Practitioners should be aware of sleep needs, especially during excessive training loads, whereas implementing individualised sleep strategies. Further studies should be conducted on potential benefits of HMT among athletes in various sleep conditions.

Advancing and critical appraisal of an integrative load monitoring approach in microcycles in professional soccer

Despite load monitoring being considered an integral part of targeted performance management, including injury and illness prevention, there is currently no consensus of an effective monitoring system in professional soccer. Thus, the aims were to apply an integrative load monitoring approach, previously established in rink-hockey, in professional soccer; extend this approach with further data (Short Recovery and Stress Scale); assess this (extended) approach, thereby further evaluating the relationship between the used external load (EL) measures (total distance, distance above 55% and 70% of individual maximal speed, number of accelerations and decelerations > 4 m/s2, total loading) and the internal load (IL) measure session rate of perceived exertion training load (sRPE-TL) as well as between the used EL measures and sRPE. This retrospective observational cohort study analyzed data from a Swiss team collected over a 14 week-period during the 2021/22 season. Based on our findings, the integrative approach tested proved to be an applicable load monitoring tool in professional soccer, placing players on a fitness-fatigue continuum throughout the different microcycle sessions without using tests, thus providing relevant information to individually tailor training programs. sRPE-TL (ρ [95% CI] = .55 [.51 to .59] to .87 [.85 to .88]; all p < .001) better reflected the EL experienced by players than sRPE (ρ [95% CI] = .45 [.40 to .50] to .71 [.69 to .75]; all p < .001) supporting the definition of sRPE-TL as a measure of IL. However, for even stronger relevance of the tested tool, further research is warranted, especially to ascertain its sensitivity and determine an optimal selection of EL and IL measures. In sum, the present data clearly demonstrate the importance of load management taking place at an individual level, even within team structures, thereby analyzing a set of both EL and IL measures.

Association between physical demands, skin temperature and wellbeing status in elite football players

The demanding nature of elite football requires players to be closely monitored to ensure optimal performance and minimize injury risk. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between physical demands, skin temperature, and well-being status in 30 elite football players over a 12-week competitive period. Thermography assessments, weekly Well-being questionnaires, and daily training and match load recordings were used to gather data. Results indicated that along the microcycles there was a decrease in high-intensity accelerations and decelerations distance completed, while maintaining other high-intensity actions. Furthermore, it was found that high-intensity movements contribute to the generation of thermal asymmetries in the thighs; the adductor thermal asymmetry showed a positive relationship with stress and muscle soreness, the knee thermal asymmetry had a positive relationship with fatigue and a negative relationship with rest and quality of rest, and finally the hamstrings muscles exhibited significant differences between the thermal asymmetry groups, with the high asymmetry completing less high intensity actions than the low asymmetry group. In conclusion, this study highlights the interconnections between physical demands, skin temperature, and well-being in elite football players and provides valuable insights for coaches and trainers in their efforts to optimize performance and health.

Validity and Accuracy of Impulse-Response Models for Modeling and Predicting Training Effects on Performance of Swimmers

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to compare the suitability of models for practical applications in training planning.

METHODS

We tested six impulse-response models, including Banister's model (Model Ba), a variable dose-response model (Model Bu), and indirect-response models differing in the way they account or not for the effect of previous training on the ability to respond effectively to a given session. Data from 11 swimmers were collected during 61 wk across two competitive seasons. Daily training load was calculated from the number of pool-kilometers and dry land workout equivalents, weighted according to intensity. Performance was determined from 50-m trials done during training sessions twice a week. Models were ranked on the base of Aikaike's information criterion along with measures of goodness of fit.

RESULTS

Models Ba and Bu gave the greatest Akaike weights, 0.339 ± 0.254 and 0.360 ± 0.296, respectively. Their estimates were used to determine the evolution of performance over time after a training session and the optimal characteristics of taper. The data of the first 20 wk were used to train these two models and predict performance for the after 8 wk (validation data set 1) and for the following season (validation data set 2). The mean absolute percentage error between real and predicted performance using Model Ba was 2.02% ± 0.65% and 2.69% ± 1.23% for validation data sets 1 and 2, respectively, and 2.17% ± 0.65% and 2.56% ± 0.79% with Model Bu.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings showed that although the two top-ranked models gave relevant approximations of the relationship between training and performance, their ability to predict future performance from past data was not satisfactory for individual training planning.

Using inertial measurement units for quantifying the most intense jumping movements occurring in professional male volleyball players

The purpose of this study was to use an inertial measurement unit (IMU) to analyze variations in the jump outcomes concerning weekly training days, and the dependencies between the number of jumps per minute and the jump height. An experimental research design was adopted across three weeks of the final play-off of a volleyball championship. Through an IMU, the external load of seven male elite volleyball athletes of a top rating team from Portuguese 1st Division (age: 30.5 ± 3.5 years; height: 200.2 ± 6.3 cm; body mass: 93.0 ± 8.1 kg; BMI: 23.1 ± 2.3 kg/m²) was monitored. Repeated measures ANOVA was executed to compare the outcomes between training days. It was observed a similar density of jumps during the week. However, when comparing MD-1 to MD-2, a more significant average number of jumps per minute was observed in MD-1 (1.3 ± 0.2 vs. 1.0 ± 0.2). Additionally, a positive, large and significant correlation was registered between the number of jumps and the height of the jump. Those results highlight the benefits of the specific training, leading to greater stimulation and improvement, in a game-like context, of the stretching-shortening cycle, observed in every jump action in volleyball.

The Tapering Practices of Competitive Weightlifters

ABSTRACT

Winwood, PW, Keogh, JW, Travis, SK, and Pritchard, HJ. The tapering practices of competitive weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res 37(4): 829-839, 2023-This study explored the tapering strategies of weightlifting athletes. Weightlifting athletes ( n = 146) (mean ± SD ; age: 29.2 ± 8.7 years, height: 172.5 ± 10.1 cm, body mass: 84.0 ± 17.2 kg, 4.7 ± 3.4 years of weightlifting training experience, and 3.9 ± 3.3 years of competitive weightlifting experience) completed a self-reported 4-page, 39-item internet survey on tapering practices. Subgroup analysis by sex (male and female) and competitive standard (local or regional, national and international level) was conducted. Ninety-nine percent ( n = 144) of weightlifting athletes reported they used a taper. Athletes stated that their typical taper length was 8.0 ± 4.4 days, with the linear (36%) and step tapers (33%) being the most performed. Training volume decreased during the taper by 43.1 ± 14.6%, and athletes ceased all training 1.5 ± 0.6 days out from competition. Muscular strength, light technique work, and aerobic conditioning were the most common types of training performed in the taper. Athletes typically stated that tapering was performed to achieve rest and recovery, physical preparation for peak performance and mental preparation; training intensity and training duration decreased whereas training frequency remained the same or decreased; traditional exercises were performed further out from competition than weightlifting exercises; assistance exercises and some strength work were reduced; nutritional changes, foam rolling, static stretching, and massage were strategies used in the taper; and poor tapering occurred because of training too heavy, too hard, or too light and life-work circumstances. These results may aid athletes and coaches in strength sports to optimize tapering variables leading to improved performances.

The Psychology of Athletic Tapering in Sport: A Scoping Review

Taper is a common training strategy used to reduce fatigue and enhance athletic performance. However, currently, no review has summarised what psychological research has been conducted examining taper, what this research shows and what future research needs to be undertaken to extend the field. Consequently, a scoping review was conducted with three aims: (a) to determine the characteristics of psychological research examining taper, (b) to summarise psychological research collected during taper with adult athletes and coaches, and (c) to identify gaps in psychological research examining taper. Forty-eight articles were identified following an exhaustive search strategy and charted following scoping review guidelines. Results showed most research was quantitative, used a longitudinal design, was conducted in swimming, triathlon, cycling or across multiple sports, and used a university-, regional- or national-level male athlete sample. Eight themes were developed to summarise the research: Mood, Perception of Effort, Perceived Fatigue and Wellness, Recovery-Stress, Taper as a Stressor, Stress Tolerance, Psychological Preparation and Cognitive Functioning. Additionally, four research recommendations were identified: (a) conducting exploratory research that examines the impact taper has on athletes' and coaches' competition preparation and stress experience, (b) asking more advanced psychological questions and conducting multi-disciplinary research, (c) including a more diverse participant sample in studies and (d) examining the impact of psychological interventions during taper. Overall, this scoping review has highlighted the limited research examining the psychology of taper and the need for focused research that asks more complex questions across diverse populations.

Effects of Training and Taper on Neuromuscular Fatigue Profile on 100-m Swimming Performance

This study aimed to investigate the effects of 6-week specific preparatory period and 2-week taper period on neuromuscular fatigue profile in 100-m front crawl swimming performance. Seventeen competitive-level young-adult swimmers performed a 100-m swimming performance at baseline and after 6-week specific preparatory followed by 2-week taper periods. Neuromuscular fatigue profile was assessed through percutaneous electrical stimuli on the femoral nerve during a maximal voluntary contraction performed before and immediately after each 100-m maximal effort. Performance improved (p=0.001) 2.24 and 3.06% after specific and taper, respectively. Potentiated peak force at post-effort condition decreased (p<0.001) 16.26% at baseline, 11.70% at specific, and 12.86% at taper period. Maximal voluntary contraction force also decreased (p<0.001) at post-effort condition by about 6.77 and 9.33% at baseline and specific period, respectively. Both variables did not present significant differences between times. No condition or time effects were observed to superimposed peak force and voluntary activation, both related to central fatigue. In conclusion, neuromuscular fatigue during 100-m swimming performance was exclusively developed by peripheral mechanisms regardless of the training period, and 2-week taper was able to prevent decreases in maximal voluntary contraction induced by 100-m maximal effort.

A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis on the Effects of Plyometric-Jump Training on the Physical Fitness of Combat Sport Athletes

We aimed to assess the athletic performance changes in combat sport athletes (CoSAs) after plyometric-jump training (PJT), compared to control conditions, through a systematic review with meta-analysis. Following PRISMA guidelines, three electronic databases were searched for includable articles, according to a PICOS approach. Using a random-effects model, Hedges' g effects sizes (ES) were calculated. Heterogeneity was assessed using the I² statistic, with values of <25%, 25-75%, and >75% representing low, moderate, and high levels of heterogeneity, respectively. Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. The certainty of evidence was assessed using the GRADE approach. Twelve eligible articles were identified for systematic review, seven of high quality and five of moderate quality, according to the PEDro scale. The studies recruited taekwondo, silat, wrestling, judo, fencing, and karate athletes (292 total participants), including specific-active and active controls. Most participants had a mean age of <18 years and were males (n = 225). Compared to the control, PJT programmes, involving 4-12 weeks and 2-3 sessions per week, induced small to moderate improvements (ES = 0.47 to 1.04) in athletes' maximal strength (e.g., 1RM squat), vertical jump height, change-of-direction speed, and specific performance (e.g., fencing movement velocity), although without meaningful effects on body mass, fat mass, and muscle mass (ES = 0.02 to -0.06). Most (7 of 8) outcomes attained low heterogeneity. The outcome-level GRADE analysis indicated a certainty of evidence from low to moderate. In conclusion, PJT, when compared to control conditions, may improve CoSA athletic performance.

Beneficial Performance Effects of Training Load Intensification Can Be Abolished by Functional Overreaching: Lessons From a Water Polo Study in Female Athletes

ABSTRACT

Brisola, GMP, Dutra, YM, Murias, JM, and Zagatto, AM. Beneficial performance effects of training load intensification can be abolished by functional overreaching: Lessons from a water polo study in female athletes. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-The purpose of this study was to compare the outcomes from 2 weeks of training load intensification strategy in female water polo players diagnosed with functional overreaching (F-OR) with no F-OR players (acute fatigue) on the performance outcomes and hormonal, immunological, and cardiac autonomic nervous system responses. Twenty-two female water polo players were allocated into control and intensification group during 7 weeks. The swimming performance, biochemical parameters, heart rate variability, profile of mood states, and upper respiratory tract infection symptoms were assessed twice before and twice after 2 weeks of intensification period. F-OR showed a worsening in total time of the repeated sprint ability (RSA) test compared with the control group and the acute fatigue group after intensification (p ≤ 0.035). Furthermore, after the tapering period, the F-OR group maintained worse total time of the RSA test than the acute fatigue group (p = 0.029). In addition, the acute fatigue group showed improvement in total time of the RSA test after intensification compared with the control group (p < 0.001). No significant interactions were found for the other parameters. Therefore, periods of intensification without the F-OR development can promote higher gains in the total time of the RSA test after intensification and tapering period.

Effects of tapering on performance in endurance athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To assess the responses to taper in endurance athletes using meta-analysis.

METHODS

Systematic searches were conducted in China National Knowledge Infrastructure, PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and EMBASE databases. Standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) of outcome measures were calculated as effect sizes.

RESULTS

14 studies were included in this meta-analysis. Significant improvements were found between pre- and post-tapering in time-trial (TT) performance (SMD = -0.45; P < 0.05) and time to exhaustion (TTE) performance (SMD = 1.28; P < 0.05). However, There were no improvements in maximal oxygen consumption ([Formula: see text]) and economy of movement (EM) (P > 0.05) between pre- and post-tapering. Further subgroup analysis showed that tapering combined with pre-taper overload training had a more significant effect on TT performance than conventional tapering (P < 0.05). A tapering strategy that reduced training volume by 41-60%, maintained training intensity and frequency, lasted ≤7 days, 8-14 days, or 15-21 days, used a progressive or step taper could significantly improve TT performance (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The tapering applied in conjunction with pre-taper overload training seems to be more conducive to maximize performance gains. Current evidence suggests that a ≤21-day taper, in which training volume is progressively reduced by 41-60% without changing training intensity or frequency, is an effective tapering strategy.

Effects of two low-volume high-intensity interval training protocols in professional soccer: sprint interval training versus small-sided games

BACKGROUND

The programming of training protocols within a high-intensity interval training (HIIT) framework with appropriate analysis of total training load could deliver optimal training adaptations. This study aims to compare the efficiency of two low-volume HIIT protocols integrated with the regular training regime in professional soccer players.

METHODS

Twenty-five participants aged 18.4-29.7 years were randomly assigned to one of two interventions involving straight-line sprint interval training (SIT, N.=13) or small-sided games (SSG, N.=12). Periodization was divided into two 3-week phases concluded by a 7-day taper. SIT first involved two-session·week^-1 of one set of 10·45-s sprints (at maximal intensity) and then three-session·week^-1 of two sets of 10·30-s sprints with a 0.75:1 and 1:1 recovery interval (slow running and stretching exercises), respectively. SSG in the first phase involved 5·3-min games of 4 vs. 4 and in the second phase 4·4-min games of 2 vs. 2 with 3-min recovery (practice drills at 60-70% HR<inf>max</inf>). Training load was controlled via session-RPE and HR-based methods. Pre- and postintervention testing included: countermovement jump height, 5-m and 30-m sprints performance, anaerobic power by the 10-s Wingate Anaerobic Test, maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O<inf>2max</inf>) and blood lactate concentration (BLa^-) determined by incremental exhaustive running test.

RESULTS

Two-way ANOVA showed group×time interaction effects for the 30-m sprint time (F<inf>(1,23)</inf>=3.023; P=0.049; η² P=0.116), BLa^- (F<inf>(1,23)</inf>=5.250; P=0.031; η² P=0.185), and V̇O<inf>2max</inf> (F<inf>(1,23)=</inf>4.648, P=0.044; η² P=0.157). SIT elicited greater enhancements in anaerobic performance (30-m sprint time and BLa^-), while SSG induced larger improvements in V̇O<inf>2max</inf>.

CONCLUSIONS

Comparable effects of SIT and SSG protocols were noted, however the aerobic capacity benefits provided by SSG warrant this HIIT protocol as a highly recommended training modality in the professional soccer.

Effects of Game Weekly Frequency on Subjective Training Load, Wellness, and Injury Rate in Male Elite Soccer Players

To compare the effects of playing one or two games per week on subjective perceived exertion (RPE) and (RPE-based) training load, monotony index, sleep, stress, fatigue, and muscle soreness (Hooper index), total mood disturbance, and injury rate in elite soccer players. Fourteen males from a first-division soccer club (age: 24.42 ± 4.80 years) competed in two games per week for six weeks and one game per week for twelve weeks (a total of 24 games). Paired t-tests and non-parametric Wilcoxon signed ranks evaluated the significance of the differences (p < 0.05). The main findings were that RPE was significantly larger when playing two games per week compared with one game. However, subject total and mean training load, mood disturbance, monotony, and subjective perception of sleep, stress, fatigue, muscle soreness monitoring (Hooper index), and the number of injuries were not different. The findings suggested that competing in two matches per week does not negatively influence injury rate and players’ perceptions of training load or wellness, even though players perceive two games per week as more physically demanding compared with one game per week.

Muscle Architectural and Force-Velocity Curve Adaptations following 10 Weeks of Training with Weightlifting Catching and Pulling Derivatives

The aims of this study were to examine the muscle architectural, rapid force production, and force-velocity curve adaptations following 10 weeks of resistance training with either submaximal weightlifting catching (CATCH) or pulling (PULL) derivatives or pulling derivatives with phase-specific loading (OL). 27 resistance-trained men were randomly assigned to the CATCH, PULL, or OL groups and completed pre- and post-intervention ultrasound, countermovement jump (CMJ), and isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP). Vastus lateralis and biceps femoris muscle thickness, pennation angle, and fascicle length, CMJ force at peak power, velocity at peak power, and peak power, and IMTP peak force and force at 100-, 150-, 200-, and 250 ms were assessed. There were no significant or meaningful differences in muscle architecture measures for any group (p > 0.05). The PULL group displayed small-moderate (g = 0.25-0.81) improvements in all CMJ variables while the CATCH group displayed trivial effects (g = 0.00-0.21). In addition, the OL group displayed trivial and small effects for CMJ force (g = -0.12-0.04) and velocity variables (g = 0.32-0.46), respectively. The OL group displayed moderate (g = 0.48-0.73) improvements in all IMTP variables while to PULL group displayed small-moderate (g = 0.47-0.55) improvements. The CATCH group displayed trivial-small (g = -0.39-0.15) decreases in IMTP performance. The PULL and OL groups displayed visible shifts in their force-velocity curves; however, these changes were not significant (p > 0.05). Performing weightlifting pulling derivatives with either submaximal or phase-specific loading may enhance rapid and peak force production characteristics. Strength and conditioning practitioners should load pulling derivatives based on the goals of each specific phase, but also allow their athletes ample exposure to achieve each goal.

How do world class top 5 Giro d'Italia finishers train? A qualitative multiple case study

The aim of this study was to describe individual training strategies in preparation to Giro d'Italia of three world class road cyclists who achieved a top 5 in the general classification. Day-to-day power meter training and racing data of three road cyclists (age: 26, 27, 25 years; relative maximum oxygen consumption: 81, 82, 80 ml·min^-1 ·kg^-1 ; relative 20-min record power output: 6.6, 6.6, 6.4 W kg^-1 ) of the 22 weeks (December-May) leading up to the top 5 in Giro d'Italia general classification were retrospectively analyzed. Weekly volume and intensity distribution were considered. Cyclists completed 17, 22, 29 races, trained averagely for 19.7 (7.9), 16.2 (7.0), 14.7 (6.2) hours per week, with a training intensity distribution of 91.3-6.5-2.2, 83.6-10.6-5.8, 86.7-8.9-4.4 in zone 1-zone 2-zone 3 before the Giro d'Italia. Two cyclists spent 55 and 39 days at altitude, one did not attend any altitude camp. Cyclists adopted an overall pyramidal intensity distribution with a relevant increase in high-intensity volume and polarization index in races weeks. Tapering phases seem to be dictated by race schedule instead of literature prescription, with no strength training performed by the three cyclists throughout the entire periodization.

The Training Characteristics of World-Class Distance Runners: An Integration of Scientific Literature and Results-Proven Practice

In this review we integrate the scientific literature and results-proven practice and outline a novel framework for understanding the training and development of elite long-distance performance. Herein, we describe how fundamental training characteristics and well-known training principles are applied. World-leading track runners (i.e., 5000 and 10,000 m) and marathon specialists participate in 9 ± 3 and 6 ± 2 (mean ± SD) annual competitions, respectively. The weekly running distance in the mid-preparation period is in the range 160–220 km for marathoners and 130–190 km for track runners. These differences are mainly explained by more running kilometers on each session for marathon runners. Both groups perform 11–14 sessions per week, and ≥ 80% of the total running volume is performed at low intensity throughout the training year. The training intensity distribution vary across mesocycles and differ between marathon and track runners, but common for both groups is that volume of race-pace running increases as the main competition approaches. The tapering process starts 7–10 days prior to the main competition. While the African runners live and train at high altitude (2000–2500 m above sea level) most of the year, most lowland athletes apply relatively long altitude camps during the preparation period. Overall, this review offers unique insights into the training characteristics of world-class distance runners by integrating scientific literature and results-proven practice, providing a point of departure for future studies related to the training and development in the Olympic long-distance events.

Effects of Plyometric Jump Training on Measures of Physical Fitness and Sport-Specific Performance of Water Sports Athletes: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis

Background

A growing body of literature is available regarding the effects of plyometric jump training (PJT) on measures of physical fitness (PF) and sport-specific performance (SSP) in-water sports athletes (WSA, i.e. those competing in sports that are practiced on [e.g. rowing] or in [e.g. swimming; water polo] water). Indeed, incoherent findings have been observed across individual studies making it difficult to provide the scientific community and coaches with consistent evidence. As such, a comprehensive systematic literature search should be conducted to clarify the existent evidence, identify the major gaps in the literature, and offer recommendations for future studies.

Aim

To examine the effects of PJT compared with active/specific-active controls on the PF (one-repetition maximum back squat strength, squat jump height, countermovement jump height, horizontal jump distance, body mass, fat mass, thigh girth) and SSP (in-water vertical jump, in-water agility, time trial) outcomes in WSA, through a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized and non-randomized controlled studies.

Methods

The electronic databases PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched up to January 2022. According to the PICOS approach, the eligibility criteria were: (population) healthy WSA; (intervention) PJT interventions involving unilateral and/or bilateral jumps, and a minimal duration of ≥ 3 weeks; (comparator) active (i.e. standard sports training) or specific-active (i.e. alternative training intervention) control group(s); (outcome) at least one measure of PF (e.g. jump height) and/or SSP (e.g. time trial) before and after training; and (study design) multi-groups randomized and non-randomized controlled trials. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. The DerSimonian and Laird random-effects model was used to compute the meta-analyses, reporting effect sizes (ES, i.e. Hedges’ g) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Certainty or confidence in the body of evidence for each outcome was assessed using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE), considering its five dimensions: risk of bias in studies, indirectness, inconsistency, imprecision, and risk of publication bias.

Results

A total of 11,028 studies were identified with 26 considered eligible for inclusion. The median PEDro score across the included studies was 5.5 (moderate-to-high methodological quality). The included studies involved a total of 618 WSA of both sexes (330 participants in the intervention groups [31 groups] and 288 participants in the control groups [26 groups]), aged between 10 and 26 years, and from different sports disciplines such as swimming, triathlon, rowing, artistic swimming, and water polo. The duration of the training programmes in the intervention and control groups ranged from 4 to 36 weeks. The results of the meta-analysis indicated no effects of PJT compared to control conditions (including specific-active controls) for in-water vertical jump or agility (ES =  − 0.15 to 0.03; p = 0.477 to 0.899), or for body mass, fat mass, and thigh girth (ES = 0.06 to 0.15; p = 0.452 to 0.841). In terms of measures of PF, moderate-to-large effects were noted in favour of the PJT groups compared to the control groups (including specific-active control groups) for one-repetition maximum back squat strength, horizontal jump distance, squat jump height, and countermovement jump height (ES = 0.67 to 1.47; p = 0.041 to < 0.001), in addition to a small effect noted in favour of the PJT for SSP time-trial speed (ES = 0.42; p = 0.005). Certainty of evidence across the included studies varied from very low-to-moderate.

Conclusions

PJT is more effective to improve measures of PF and SSP in WSA compared to control conditions involving traditional sport-specific training as well as alternative training interventions (e.g. resistance training). It is worth noting that the present findings are derived from 26 studies of moderate-to-high methodological quality, low-to-moderate impact of heterogeneity, and very low-to-moderate certainty of evidence based on GRADE.

Trial registration The protocol for this systematic review with meta-analysis was published in the Open Science platform (OSF) on January 23, 2022, under the registration doi https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/NWHS3 (internet archive link: https://archive.org/details/osf-registrations-nwhs3-v1).

Individualized Endurance Training Based on Recovery and Training Status in Recreational Runners

PURPOSE

Long-term development of endurance performance requires a proper balance between strain and recovery. Because responses and adaptations to training are highly individual, this study examined whether individually adjusted endurance training based on recovery and training status would lead to greater adaptations compared with a predefined program.

METHODS

Recreational runners were divided into predefined (PD; n = 14) or individualized (IND; n = 16) training groups. In IND, the training load was decreased, maintained, or increased twice a week based on nocturnal heart rate variability, perceived recovery, and heart rate-running speed index. Both groups performed 3-wk preparatory, 6-wk volume, and 6-wk interval periods. Incremental treadmill tests and 10-km running tests were performed before the preparatory period ( T0 ) and after the preparatory ( T1 ), volume ( T2 ), and interval ( T3 ) periods. The magnitude of training adaptations was defined based on the coefficient of variation between T0 and T1 tests (high >2×, low <0.5×).

RESULTS

Both groups improved ( P < 0.01) their maximal treadmill speed and 10-km time from T1 to T3 . The change in the 10-km time was greater in IND compared with PD (-6.2% ± 2.8% vs -2.9% ± 2.4%, P = 0.002). In addition, IND had more high responders (50% vs 29%) and fewer low responders (0% vs 21%) compared with PD in the change of maximal treadmill speed and 10-km performance (81% vs 23% and 13% vs 23%), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

PD and IND induced positive training adaptations, but the individualized training seemed more beneficial in endurance performance. Moreover, IND increased the likelihood of high response and decreased the occurrence of low response to endurance training.

Jump rope training effects on health- and sport-related physical fitness in young participants: A systematic review with meta-analysis

The aim of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to assess the available body of published peer-reviewed articles related on the effects of jump rope training (JRT) compared with active/passive controls on health- and sport-related physical fitness outcomes. Searches were conducted in three databases, including studies that satisfied the following criteria: i) healthy participants; ii) a JRT programprogramme; iii) active or traditional control group; iv) at least one measure related to health- and sport-related physical fitness; v) multi-arm trials. The random-effects model was used for the meta-analyses. Twenty-one moderate-high quality (i.e., PEDro scale) studies were meta-analysed, involving 1,021 participants (male, 50.4%). Eighteen studies included participants with a mean age <18 years old. The duration of the JRT interventions ranged from 6 to 40 weeks. Meta-analyses revealed improvements (i.e., p = 0.048 to <0.001; ES = 0.23-1.19; I² = 0.0-76.9%) in resting heart rate, body mass index, fat mass, cardiorespiratory endurance, lower- and upper-body maximal strength, jumping, range of motion, and sprinting. No significant JRT effects were noted for systolic-diastolic blood pressure, waist-hip circumference, bone or lean mass, or muscle endurance. In conclusion, JRT, when compared to active and passive controls, provides a range of small-moderate benefits that span health- and sport-related physical fitness outcomes.

Effect of Intensified Training on Cognitive Function, Psychological State & Performance in Trained Cyclists

AbstractAthletes often undertake intensified training loads prior to competition with the goal of functionally overreaching for temporary performance enhancement; however, little is known about the impact of this on cognitive function. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of intensified training-induced fatigue on cognitive function, psychological state, and performance in trained cyclists. Twenty-three trained male cyclists were randomly assigned to an intensified training group or a control group for two-weeks, followed by a two-week taper period. At baseline, one-week, two-weeks and post-taper, participants undertook a series of cognitive, performance, mood, and recovery-stress assessments. The training intervention significantly increased training volume, load, and strain by 108%, 116% and 151% respectively. Peak and mean power output on a maximal test and time trial significantly decreased by 4.8% and 9.4% following the two-week training intervention compared to baseline, in addition to a 169% change in total mood disturbance and significant disruption to recovery-stress balance. No change in any cognitive measure was observed across the study period. Following a two-week taper, performance, mood, and well-being measures returned to baseline. Two weeks of intensified training resulted in overreaching as identified by performance and psychological measures. Cognitive function was not sensitive to intensified training promoting caution with its use as a measure for the early identification of overreaching.

Programming Plyometric-Jump Training in Soccer: A Review

The aim of this review was to describe and summarize the scientific literature on programming parameters related to jump or plyometric training in male and female soccer players of different ages and fitness levels. A literature search was conducted in the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus using keywords related to the main topic of this study (e.g., “ballistic” and “plyometric”). According to the PICOS framework, the population for the review was restricted to soccer players, involved in jump or plyometric training. Among 7556 identified studies, 90 were eligible for inclusion. Only 12 studies were found for females. Most studies (n = 52) were conducted with youth male players. Moreover, only 35 studies determined the effectiveness of a given jump training programming factor. Based on the limited available research, it seems that a dose of 7 weeks (1−2 sessions per week), with ~80 jumps (specific of combined types) per session, using near-maximal or maximal intensity, with adequate recovery between repetitions (<15 s), sets (≥30 s) and sessions (≥24−48 h), using progressive overload and taper strategies, using appropriate surfaces (e.g., grass), and applied in a well-rested state, when combined with other training methods, would increase the outcome of effective and safe plyometric-jump training interventions aimed at improving soccer players physical fitness. In conclusion, jump training is an effective and easy-to-administer training approach for youth, adult, male and female soccer players. However, optimal programming for plyometric-jump training in soccer is yet to be determined in future research.

Physiological, Perceptual, and Performance Responses to the 2-Week Block of High- versus Low-Intensity Endurance Training

PURPOSE

This study examined the physiological, perceptual, and performance responses to a 2-wk block of increased training load and compared whether responses differ between high-intensity interval (HIIT) and low-intensity training (LIT).

METHODS

Thirty recreationally trained males and females performed a 2-wk block of 10 HIIT sessions (INT, n = 15) or 70% increased volume of LIT (VOL, n = 15). Running time in the 3000 m and basal serum and urine hormone concentrations were measured before (T1) and after the block (T2), and after a recovery week (T3). In addition, weekly averages of nocturnal heart rate variability (HRV) and perceived recovery were compared with the baseline.

RESULTS

Both groups improved their running time in the 3000 m from T1 to T2 (INT = -1.8% ± 1.6%, P = 0.003; VOL = -1.4% ± 1.7%, P = 0.017) and from T1 to T3 (INT = -2.5% ± 1.6%, P < 0.001; VOL = -2.2% ± 1.9%, P = 0.001). Resting norepinephrine concentration increased in INT from T1 to T2 (P = 0.01) and remained elevated at T3 (P = 0.018). The change in HRV from the baseline was different between the groups during the first week (INT = -1.0% ± 2.0% vs VOL = 1.8% ± 3.2%, P = 0.008). Muscle soreness increased only in INT (P < 0.001), and the change was different compared with VOL across the block and recovery weeks (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

HIIT and LIT blocks increased endurance performance in a short period. Although both protocols seemed to be tolerable for recreational athletes, a HIIT block may induce some negative responses such as increased muscle soreness and decreased parasympathetic activity.

The Current State of Subjective Training Load Monitoring: Follow-Up and Future Directions

This article addresses several key issues that have been raised related to subjective training load (TL) monitoring. These key issues include how TL is calculated if subjective TL can be used to model sports performance and where subjective TL monitoring fits into an overall decision-making framework for practitioners. Regarding how TL is calculated, there is conjecture over the most appropriate (1) acute and chronic period lengths, (2) smoothing methods for TL data and (3) change in TL measures (e.g., training stress balance (TSB), differential load, acute-to-chronic workload ratio). Variable selection procedures with measures of model-fit, like the Akaike Information Criterion, are suggested as a potential answer to these calculation issues with examples provided using datasets from two different groups of elite athletes prior to and during competition at the 2016 Olympic Games. Regarding using subjective TL to model sports performance, further examples using linear mixed models and the previously mentioned datasets are provided to illustrate possible practical interpretations of model results for coaches (e.g., ensuring TSB increases during a taper for improved performance). An overall decision-making framework for determining training interventions is also provided with context given to where subjective TL measures may fit within this framework and the determination if subjective measures are needed with TL monitoring for different sporting situations. Lastly, relevant practical recommendations (e.g., using validated scales and training coaches and athletes in their use) are provided to ensure subjective TL monitoring is used as effectively as possible along with recommendations for future research.

Relationship between training load and recovery in collegiate American football players during pre-season training

Background: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between training load and next-day recovery in collegiate American football (AF) players during pre-season.Methods: Seventeen athletes (Linemen, n = 6; Non-linemen, n = 11) participated in the 14-day study wearing monitoring (accelerometer + heart rate) sensors during on-field practice sessions throughout pre-season to assess the physiological (PL), mechanical load (ML) and recording of session RPE (sRPE load) immediately post-practice. Prior to practice, participants completed a drop-jump reactive strength index (RSI) test and reported perceived recovery status (PRS). Loaded counter movement vertical jump was assessed before and after pre-season.Results: For every one unit increase in sRPE load, RSI declined by 0.03. Non-linemen had a lower RSI value of 73.1 units compared to linemen. For every one unit increase in ML, the PRS decreased by 0.01. Non-linemen recorded higher average ML during week 2 (ES = 1.17) compared to linemen. Non-linemen recorded higher RSI values in weeks 1 (ES = -1.41) and 2 (ES = -1.72) compared to linemen. All training load and recovery parameters were lower week 2 compared to week 1 (p < 0.05) for all players.Conclusions: Next-day RSI values were influenced by sRPE load while next-day PRS appears to be more influenced by ML. No difference in PL or sRPE load was observed been groups despite non-linemen completing a higher ML throughout the preseason. A combination of training load and recovery metrics may be needed to monitor the fatigue and state of readiness of each player.

Characterizing the Tapering Practices of United States and Canadian Raw Powerlifters

ABSTRACT

Travis, SK, Pritchard, HJ, Mujika, I, Gentles, JA, Stone, MH, and Bazyler, CD. Characterizing the tapering practices of United States and Canadian raw powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 35(12S): S26-S35, 2021-The purpose of this study was to characterize the tapering practices used by North American powerlifters. A total of 364 powerlifters completed a 41-item survey encompassing demographics, general training, general tapering, and specific tapering practices. Nonparametric statistics were used to assess sex (male and female), competition level (regional/provincial, national, and international), and competition lift (squat, bench press, and deadlift). The highest training volume most frequently took place 5-8 weeks before competition, whereas the highest training intensity was completed 2 weeks before competition. A step taper was primarily used over 7-10 days while decreasing the training volume by 41-50% with varied intensity. The final heavy (>85% 1 repetition maximum [1RM]) back squat and deadlift sessions were completed 7-10 days before competition, whereas the final heavy bench press session was completed <7 days before competition. Final heavy lifts were completed at 90.0-92.5% 1RM but reduced to 75-80% 1RM for back squat and bench press and 70-75% for deadlift during the final training session of each lift. Set and repetition schemes during the taper varied between lifts with most frequent reports of 3 × 2, 3 × 3, and 3 × 1 for back squat, bench press, and deadlift, respectively. Training cessation durations before competition varied between deadlift (5.8 ± 2.5 days), back squat (4.1 ± 1.9 days), and bench press (3.9 ± 1.8 days). Complete training cessation was implemented 2.8 ± 1.1 days before competition and varied between sex and competition level. These findings provide novel insights into the tapering practices of North American powerlifters and can be used to inform powerlifting coaches and athlete's tapering decisions.

The Effect of the COVID-19 Lockdown on the Position-Specific Match Running Performance of Professional Football Players; Preliminary Observational Study

The COVID-19 pandemic interrupted professional football in the 2019/2020 season, and football experts anticipate that the consequences of lockdown measures will negatively affect the physical performance of players once competition restarts. This study aimed to evaluate position-specific match running performance (MRP) to determine the effect of COVID-19 lockdowns on the physical performance of professional football players. Players’ MRPs (n = 124) were observed in matches before and after the COVID-19 lockdown in the 2019/2020 season of the highest level of national competition in Croatia and were classified according to player position: central defenders (CD; n = 42), fullbacks (FB; n = 20), midfielders (MF; n = 46), and forwards (FW; n = 16). The MRPs were measured using Global Positioning System, and included the total distance covered, low-intensity running (≤14.3 km/h), running (14.4–19.7 km/h), high-intensity running (≥19.8 km/h), total accelerations (>0.5 m/s²), high-intensity accelerations (>3 m/s²), total decelerations (less than –0.5 m/s²), and high-intensity decelerations (less than –3 m/s²). The results indicated that, in matches after the COVID-19 lockdown, (i) CDs and FBs featured lower running and high-intensity running (t-value: from 2.05 to 3.51; all p < 0.05; moderate to large effect sizes), (ii) MFs covered a greater distance in low-intensity running and achieved a lower number of total accelerations, and total and high-intensity decelerations (t-value: from –3.54 to 2.46; all p < 0.05, moderate to large effect sizes), and (iii) FWs featured lower high-intensity running (t-value = 2.66, p = 0.02, large effect size). These findings demonstrate that the physical performances of football players from the Croatian first division significantly decreased in matches after the COVID-19 lockdown. A combination of inadequate adaptation to football-specific match demands and a crowded schedule after the competition was restarted most likely resulted in such an effect.

High-Intensity Conditioning for Combat Athletes: Practical Recommendations

Combat sports have been practiced for millennia and today are predominant sports at the Olympic games, with international organizations that host world, continental and national championships at amateur standard. There are also an increasing number of professional combat sports with global audiences. The growing popularity of professional combat sports and their importance at the Olympic games have led to an increase in scientific studies that characterize the physical, physiological, nutritional, biomechanical and training strategies of combat sports athletes. These studies characterize combat sports as high-intensity sports which require training strategies to develop the high-intensity capabilities of athletes. Therefore, the aim of this article is to (i) summarize the physiological demands of combat sports; (ii) present the primary considerations required to program high-intensity conditioning for athletes; (iii) define and present key high-intensity conditioning methods; and (iv) provide guidance for scientists and coaches to help prepare athletes under common but differing circumstances.

Dance Exposure, Individual Characteristics, and Injury Risk over Five Seasons in a Professional Ballet Company

PURPOSE

This study aimed to describe the relationships between dance exposure, dancer characteristics, and injury risk across five seasons in a professional ballet company.

METHODS

Dance exposure time and clinician-reported time-loss and medical attention injury data were prospectively collected from 118 professional dancers of The Royal Ballet between 2015/2016 and 2019/2020. Cox proportional hazards and shared frailty models were fitted to overuse and traumatic injuries; individualized robust Z-scores for 7- and 28-d accumulated exposure, and week-to-week change in exposure, age, sex, company rank, and injury history were included as time-varying covariates.

RESULTS

Across 381,710 h of exposure, 1332 medical attention and 427 time-loss injuries were observed. Positive relationships were observed between week-to-week change in exposure and overuse time-loss (+1 Z-score hazard ratio (HR), 1.27; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.06-1.53) and medical attention injury risk (+1 Z-score HR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.06-1.28). A negative relationship was observed between 7-d accumulated exposure and overuse medical attention injury risk (+1 Z-score HR, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.66-0.84). Overuse time-loss injury risk was greater in soloists compared with the corps de ballet (HR, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.01-2.15) and in dancers with a higher previous injury rate (+1 injury per 1000 h HR, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.02-1.10). Only age was associated with traumatic time-loss (+1-yr HR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.01-1.09) or medical attention injury risk (+1-yr HR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.01-1.07).

CONCLUSIONS

Professional ballet companies should implement training principles such as periodization and progression, particularly in the case of senior-ranking dancers, older dancers, and dancers with high rates of previous injury. These findings provide a basis for future prospective investigations into specific causal injury pathways.

Longer Disciplined Tapers Improve Marathon Performance for Recreational Runners

For marathoners the taper refers to a period of reduced training load in the weeks before race-day. It helps runners to recover from the stresses of weeks of high-volume, high-intensity training to enhance race-day performance. The aim of this study was to analyse the taper strategies of recreational runners to determine whether particular forms of taper were more or less favorable to race-day performance.

Methods: We analyzed the training activities of more than 158,000 recreational marathon runners to define tapers based on a decrease in training volume (weekly distance). We identified different types of taper based on a combination of duration (1–4 weeks of decreasing training) and discipline (strict tapers progressively decrease training in the weeks before the marathon, relaxed tapers do not) and we grouped runners based on their taper type to determine the popularity of different types of taper and their associated performance characteristics.

Results: Kruskal-Wallis tests (H(7)≥ 521.11, p < 0.001), followed by posthoc Dunns tests with a Bonferroni correction, confirmed that strict tapers were associated with better marathon performance than relaxed tapers (p < 0.001) and that longer tapers of up to 3 weeks were associated with better performance than shorter tapers (p < 0.001). Results indicated that strict 3-week tapers were associated with superior marathon finish-time benefits (a median finish-time saving of 5 min 32.4 s or 2.6%) compared with a minimal taper (p < 0.001). We further found that female runners were associated with greater finish-time benefits than men, for a given taper type ( ≤ 3-weeks in duration), based on Mann Whitney U tests of significance with p < 0.001.

Conclusion: The findings of this study for recreational runners are consistent with related studies on highly-trained athletes, where disciplined tapers were associated with comparable performance benefits. The findings also highlight how most recreational runners (64%) adopt less disciplined (2-week and 3-week) tapers and suggest that shifting to a more disciplined taper strategy could improve performance relative to the benefits of a less disciplined taper.

Time-Restricted Feeding and Aerobic Performance in Elite Runners: Ramadan Fasting as a Model

A distance runner's performance is generally limited by energy availability when competing or training. Modifying meal frequency and timing by abstaining from eating or drinking, from dawn to dusk, during Ramadan fasting is hypothesized to induce hypohydration and reduced caloric and nutrient intake. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of Ramadan fasting on runners' performances. Fifteen trained male distance runners who observed Ramadan participated in this study (Age = 23.9 ± 3.1 years; Peak VO₂ = 71.1 ± 3.4 ml/kg/min). Each participant reported to the human performance lab on two testing occasions (pre-Ramadan and the last week of Ramadan). In each visit, participants performed a graded exercise test on the treadmill (Conconi protocol) and their VO₂, Heart Rate, time to exhaustion, RPE, and running speed were recorded. Detailed anthropometrics, food records, and exercise logs were kept for the entire period of the study. Repeated measure ANOVA, paired t-test, and Cohen's effect size analysis were carried out. Results indicated no significant influence for Ramadan fasting on body mass (p = 0.201), body fat (p = 0.488), lean body mass (p = 0.525), VO₂max (p = 0.960), energy availability (p = 0.137), and protein intake (p = 0.124). However, carbohydrate (p = 0.026), lipid (p = 0.009), water (p < 0.001), and caloric intakes (p = 0.002) were significantly reduced during Ramadan Fasting. Daily training duration (p < 0.001) and exercise energy expenditure (p = 0.001) were also reduced after Ramadan. Time to exhaustion (p = 0.049), and maximal running speed (p = 0.048) were improved. Overall, time to exhaustion and maximal running speed of the distance runners was improved during Ramadan fasting, independent of changes in nutrients intake observed during the current study. With proper modulation of training, distance runners performance can be maintained or even slightly improved following the month of Ramadan fasting.

Relative Training Load and Match Outcome: Are Professional Soccer Players Actually Undertrained during the In-Season?

Previous studies examined training/match ratios (TMr) to determine the training load relative to the match load, but the influence of the relative training load (RTL) on success in soccer is still unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the possible influence of RTL on final match outcome in soccer (win, draw, and loss). Running performances (RP) of soccer players (n = 21) in the Croatian highest national soccer competition were analyzed during the season 2020–2021. Data were measured by the global positioning system in 14 official matches and 67 training sessions. RTL was assessed by TMr, which were calculated as the ratio of RP during training and match in the same week, evaluating the following measures: TDr (total distance ratio), LIDr (low-intensity distance ratio), RDr (running distance ratio), HIDr (high-intensity distance ratio), ACCr (total accelerations ratio), DECr (total decelerations ratio), HI-ACCr (high-intensity accelerations ratio), HI-DECr (high-intensity decelerations ratio). All TMr were examined separately for each training session within in-season microcycles (categorized as days before the match day, i.e., MD minus). Spearman correlations were used to identify association between match outcome and TMr. The results indicated negative associations between match outcome and TDr, LIDr, ACCr and DECr on MD-1 and MD-2). In contrast, positive associations were evidenced between match outcome, and HIDr on MD-3 and TDr, LIDr, ACCr and DECr on MD-5 (p < 0.05; all moderate correlations). These findings demonstrate that final match outcome in soccer was associated with greater RTL of (i) high-intensity running three days before the match, (ii) total and low-intensity running, accelerations and decelerations five days before the match, and (iii) lower RTL of total and low-intensity running, accelerations and decelerations one and two days before the match.

Reduced mood variability is associated with enhanced performance during ultrarunnning

Ultrarunning requires extraordinary endurance but the psychological factors involved in successful ultrarunning are not well understood. One widely held view is that fluctuations in mood play a pivotal role in performance during endurance events. However, this view is primarily based on comparisons of mood before and after marathons and shorter running events. Indeed, to date no study has explicitly examined mood changes during a competive ultramarathon. To address this issue, we measured mood fluctuations in athletes competing in the Hardmoors 60, a 100 km, single day continuous trail-ultramarathon, and examined how variation in mood related to performance, as measured by completion time. The key finding was that the variability of athletes Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) score was significantly and positively correlated with completion time, consistent with the idea that mood is an important factor in determining race performance. Athletes also experienced a significant increase in tension immediately prior to race onset. This effect was more pronounced in less experienced athletes and significantly attenuated by measurement stage 1 at 35.4 km, which suggests the effect was driven by the release of pre-competition anxiety. Depression, anger and TMD were significantly lower at the pre-race measurement compared to the baseline measurement taken the week before. Consistent with previous studies, there were also significant increases in fatigue, anger and TMD during the race. The data are interpreted in terms of the Psychobiological model of endurance and may have broader implications for the understanding of endurance performance in other domains.

Periodization and Block Periodization in Sports: Emphasis on Strength-Power Training-A Provocative and Challenging Narrative

ABSTRACT

Stone, MH, Hornsby, WG, Haff, GG, Fry, AC, Suarez, DG, Liu, J, Gonzalez-Rave, JM, and Pierce, KC. Periodization and block periodization in sports: emphasis on strength-power training-a provocative and challenging narrative. J Strength Cond Res 35(8): 2351-2371, 2021-Periodization can be defined as a logical sequential, phasic method of manipulating fitness and recovery phases to increase the potential for achieving specific performance goals while minimizing the potential for nonfunctional over-reaching, overtraining, and injury. Periodization deals with the micromanagement of timelines and fitness phases and is cyclic in nature. On the other hand, programming deals with the micromanagement of the training process and deals with exercise selection, volume, intensity, etc. Evidence indicates that a periodized training process coupled with appropriate programming can produce superior athletic enhancement compared with nonperiodized process. There are 2 models of periodization, traditional and block. Traditional can take different forms (i.e., reverse). Block periodization has 2 subtypes, single goal or factor (individual sports) and multiple goals or factors (team sports). Both models have strengths and weaknesses but can be "tailored" through creative programming to produce excellent results for specific sports.

Dose-Response Relationship Between Internal Training Load and Changes in Performance During the Preseason in Youth Soccer Players

ABSTRACT

Figueiredo, DH, Figueiredo, DH, Moreira, A, Gonçalves, HR, and Dourado, AC. Dose-response relationship between internal training load and changes in performance during the preseason in youth soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 35(8): 2294-2301, 2021-The aim of this study was to describe training intensity distribution based on the session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) and heart rate (HR) methods and examine the dose-response relation between internal training load (ITL) and change in performance of 16 youth soccer players (mean ± SD age: 18.75 ± 0.68 years, height: 175.3 ± 5.5 cm, body mass: 68.7 ± 6.5 kg, and body fat: 10.7 ± 1.2%) belonging to a Brazilian first division team during a 3-week preseason. The sRPE and HR data were registered daily to calculate the ITL and the training intensity distribution, in 3 intensity zones (low, moderate, and high). The Yo-yo Intermittent Recovery Level 1 (Yo-yo IR1) was evaluated before and after experimental period. The total time spent in the low-intensity zone (HR method) was greater (p < 0.01) compared with the moderate- and high-intensity zones. No difference was observed between training intensity zones determined by the sRPE method (p > 0.05). Negative correlations were observed between weekly mean sRPE-TL (r = -0.69), Edward's-TL (r = -0.50), and change in Yo-yo IR1. Linear regression indicated that weekly mean sRPE-TL (F1;14 = 13.3; p < 0.01) and Edward's-TL (F1;14 = 4.8; p < 0.05) predicted 48.7 and 25.5% of the variance in performance change, respectively. Stepwise linear regression revealed that these 2-predictor variables (F2;13 = 18.9; p < 0.001) explained 74.5% of the variance in performance change. The results suggest that the sRPE and HR methods cannot be used interchangeably to determine training intensity distribution. Moreover, sRPE-TL seems to be more effective than the HR-based TL method to predict changes in performance in youth soccer players.

The Relationship between Training Load Measures and Next-Day Well-Being in Rugby Union Players

The aim of this study is to identify the relationship between different internal and external load measures and next day subjective wellbeing. With institutional ethics approval, ten academy rugby union players (Five forwards, and five backs) with a local National League One club agreed to participate in the study (aged; 18.4 ± 1.0 years, height; 181.3 ± 5.9 cm, body mass 85.9 ± 13.0 kg, VO2max 56.2 ± 6.8 mL·kg−1·min−1). Before the 6-week in-season data collection period, participants completed an incremental treadmill test to determine lactate thresholds at 2 mmol·L−1 (LT) and 4 mmol·L−1 and the heart rate blood lactate (HR-BLa) profile for individualized training impulse (iTRIMP) calculations. Internal training load was quantified using Banister’s TRIMP, Edward’s TRIMP, Lucia’s TRIMP, individualised TRIMP and session-RPE. External training load was reported using total distance, PlayerLoadTM, high-speed distances (HSD) > 18 km∙h−1 and >15 km∙h−1, and individualized high-speed distance (iHSD) based on each player’s velocity at OBLA. On arrival and prior to all training sessions players completed a well-being questionnaire (WB). Bayesian linear mixed model analysis identified that a range of internal and external load measures explained between 30% and 37% of next-day total wellbeing and between 65% and 67% of next-day perceived stress. All other internal and external load measures demonstrated very weak to moderate relationships (R2 = 0.08 to 0.39) with all other wellbeing components. Internal sRPE, iTRIMP and bTRIMP loads alongside external HSD loads provide coaches with the most practical measures to influence players’ perceived wellbeing.

The influence of exercise training volume alterations on the gut microbiome in highly-trained middle-distance runners

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of training volume alterations on diversity and composition of the gut microbiome in a free-living cohort of middle-distance runners. Fourteen highly-trained middle-distance runners (n = 8 men; [Formula: see text]O_2peak = 70.1 ± 4.3 ml·kg·min^-1; n = 6 women, [Formula: see text]O_2peak: 59.0 ± 3.2 ml·kg·min^-1) completed three weeks of normal training (NormTr), three weeks of high-volume training (HVolTr; a 10, 20 and 30% increase in training volume during each successive week from NormTr), and a one-week taper (TaperTr; 55% exponential reduction in training volume from HVolTr week three). Faecal samples were collected before and immediately after each training phase to quantify alpha-diversity and composition of the gut microbiome. A three-day diet record was collected during each training phase and a maximal incremental running test was completed after each training phase. Results showed no significant changes in nutritional intake, alpha-diversity, or global microbial composition following HVolTr or TaperTr compared to NormTr (p's > 0.05). Following HVolTr, there was a significant decrease in Pasterellaceae (p = 0.03), Lachnoclostridium (p = 0.02), Haemophilus (p = 0.03), S. parasagunis (p = 0.02), and H. parainfluenzae (p = 0.03), while R. callidus (p = 0.03) significantly increased. These changes did not return to NormTr levels following TaperTr. This study shows that the alpha-diversity and global composition of the gut microbiome were unaffected by changes in training volume. However, an increase in training volume led to several changes at the lower taxonomy levels that did not return to pre-HVolTr levels following a taper period.