The seed extract of Cassia obtusifolia ameliorates learning and memory impairments induced by scopolamine or transient cerebral hypoperfusion in mice

Sevoflurane-induced cognitive effect on α7-nicotine receptor and M1 acetylcholine receptor expression in the hippocampus of aged rats

BACKGROUND

Sevoflurane treatment increases the incidence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD), and patients with POCD show a decline in cognitive abilities compared to preoperative levels.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to investigate whether the activation of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) and the expression of M1 acetylcholine receptor (mAChR M1) in the hippocampus affects the cognitive function of aged rats.

METHODS

Forty-eight Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats of 1-week- and 12-months-old were divided into eight groups: four groups for α7nAChR and four groups for mAChR M1, respectively. All SD rats received 1.0-02% sevoflurane for α7nAChR and 1.0-02% sevoflurane for mAChR M1 for 2-6 h, respectively. The Y-maze test was used to assess the ability to learn and memory after receiving sevoflurane for 7 days at the same moment portion. RT-PCR was used to determine the expression of α7nAChR and mAChR M1 in the hippocampus of rats.

RESULTS

The α7nAChR mitigated the formation of sevoflurane-induced memory impairment by modulating the translocation of NR2B from the intracellular reservoir to the cell surface reservoir within the hippocampus. Next, sevoflurane-induced decline of cognitive function and significantly decreased mAChR M1 expression at mRNA levels.

CONCLUSION

α7nAChR regulates the trafficking of NR2B in the hippocampus of rats via the Src-family tyrosine kinase (SFK) pathway. This regulation is associated with cognitive deficits induced by sevoflurane in hippocampal development. Sevoflurane affects the cognitive function of rats by suppressing the mAChR M1 expression at mRNA levels in the hippocampus.

Inhibitory effects of cassiae semen extract on the formation of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4,5-b] pyridine (PhIP) in model system

Introduction

2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazole [4,5-b] pyridine (PhIP), a heterocyclic amine (HAA), is found in meat products heated at high temperatures. However, PhIP is a mutagenic and potential carcinogenic compound. Cassiae semen, a type of medicine and food homology plant, is abundant in China and has been less applied for inhibiting heterocyclic amines.

Methods

To investigate the inhibitory effect of cassiae semen extract on PhIP formation within a model system and elucidate the inhibitory mechanism, an ultrasonic-assisted method with 70% ethanol was used to obtain cassiae semen extract, which was added to a model system (0.6 mmol of phenylalanine: creatinine, 1:1). PhIP was analyzed by LC-MS to determine inhibitory effect. The byproducts of the system and the mechanism of PhIP inhibition were verified by adding the extract to a model mixture of phenylacetaldehyde, phenylacetaldehyde and creatinine.

Results

The results indicated that PhIP production decreased as the concentration of cassiae semen extract increased, and the highest inhibition rate was 91.9%. Byproduct (E), with a mass-charge ratio of m/z 199.9, was detected in the phenylalanine and creatinine model system but was not detected in the other systems. The cassiae semen extract may have reacted with phenylalanine to produce byproduct (E), which prevented the degradation of phenylalanine by the Strecker reaction to produce phenylacetaldehyde.

Discussion

Cassiae semen extract consumed phenylalanine, which is the precursor for PhIP, thus inhibiting the formation of phenylacetaldehyde and ultimately inhibiting PhIP formation. The main objective of this study was to elucidate the mechanism by which cassiae semen inhibit PhIP formation and establish a theoretical and scientific foundation for practical control measures.

Review of Pharmacotherapeutic Targets in Alzheimer's Disease and Its Management Using Traditional Medicinal Plants

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive decline, memory loss, and impaired daily functioning. While there is currently no cure for AD, several pharmacotherapeutic targets and management strategies have been explored. Additionally, traditional medicinal plants have gained attention for their potential role in AD management. Pharmacotherapeutic targets in AD include amyloid-beta (Aβ) aggregation, tau protein hyperphosphorylation, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and cholinergic dysfunction. Traditional medicinal plants, such as Ginkgo biloba, Huperzia serrata, Curcuma longa (turmeric), and Panax ginseng, have demonstrated the ability to modulate these targets through their bioactive compounds. Ginkgo biloba, for instance, contains flavonoids and terpenoids that exhibit neuroprotective effects by reducing Aβ deposition and enhancing cerebral blood flow. Huperzia serrata, a natural source of huperzine A, has acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting properties, thus improving cholinergic function. Curcuma longa, enriched with curcumin, exhibits anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, potentially mitigating neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. Panax ginseng's ginsenosides have shown neuroprotective and anti-amyloidogenic properties. The investigation of traditional medicinal plants as a complementary approach to AD management offers several advantages, including a lower risk of adverse effects and potential multi-target interactions. Furthermore, the cultural knowledge and utilization of these plants provide a rich source of information for the development of new therapies. However, further research is necessary to elucidate the precise mechanisms of action, standardize preparations, and assess the safety and efficacy of these natural remedies. Integrating traditional medicinal-plant-based therapies with modern pharmacotherapies may hold the key to a more comprehensive and effective approach to AD treatment. This review aims to explore the pharmacotherapeutic targets in AD and assess the potential of traditional medicinal plants in its management.

Neuroprotective, Anti-Inflammatory and Antifibrillogenic Offerings by Emodin against Alzheimer's Dementia: A Systematic Review

Background: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is among the major causes of dementia in the elderly and exerts tremendous clinical, psychological and socio-economic constraints. Currently, there are no effective disease-modifying/retarding anti-AD agents. Emodin is a bioactive phytochemical with potent multimodal anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antifibrillogenic properties. In particular, emodin may result in significant repression of the pathogenic mechanisms underlying AD. The purpose of this review is to accumulate and summarize all the primary research data evaluating the therapeutic actions of emodin in AD pathogenesis. Methodology: The search, selection, and retrieval of pertinent primary research articles were systematically performed using a methodically designed approach. A variety of keyword combinations were employed on online scholarly web-databases. Strict preset inclusion and exclusion criteria were used to select the retrieved studies. Data from the individual studies were summarized and compiled into different sections, based upon their findings. Results: Cellular and animal research indicates that emodin exerts robust multimodal neuroprotection in AD. While emodin effectively prevents tau and amyloid-beta (Aβ) oligomerization, it also mitigates their neurotoxicity by attenuating neuroinflammatory, oxidative, and bioenergetic defects. Evidences for emodin-mediated enhancements in memory, learning, and cognition were also found in the literature. Conclusion: Emodin is a potential anti-AD dietary supplement; however, further studies are warrantied to thoroughly understand its target players and mechanisms. Moreover, human clinical data on emodin-mediated amelioration of AD phenotype is largely lacking, and must be addressed in the future. Lastly, the safety of exogenously supplemented emodin must be thoroughly evaluated.

Betula pendula Leaf Extract Targets the Interplay between Brain Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and NFkB Pathways in Amyloid Aβ1-42-Treated Rats

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is known as the primary and most common cause of dementia in the middle-aged and elderly population worldwide. Chemical analyses of B. pendula leaf extract (BPE), performed using spectrophotometric and chromatographic methods (LC/MS), revealed high amounts of polyphenol carboxylic acids (gallic, chlorogenic, caffeic, trans-p-coumaric, ferulic, and salicylic acids), as well as flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, naringenin, hyperoside, quercetin, and quercitrin). Four groups of Wistar rats were used in this experiment (n = 7/group): control (untreated), Aβ1-42 (2 μg/rat intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.), Aβ1-42 + BPE (200 mg/Kg b.w.), and DMSO (10 μL/rat). On the first day, one dose of Aβ1-42 was intracerebroventricularly administered to animals in groups 2 and 3. Subsequently, BPE was orally administered for the next 15 days to group 3. On the 16th day, behavioral tests were performed. Biomarkers of brain oxidative stress Malondialdehyde (MDA), (Peroxidase (PRx), Catalase (CAT), and Superoxid dismutase (SOD) and inflammation (cytokines: tumor necrosis factor -α (TNF-α), Interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX 2)) in plasma and hippocampus homogenates were assessed. Various protein expressions (Phospho-Tau (Ser404) (pTau Ser 404), Phospho-Tau (Ser396) (pTau Ser 396), synaptophysin, and the Nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) signaling pathway) were analyzed using Western blot and immunohistochemistry in the hippocampus. The results show that BPE diminished lipid peroxidation and neuroinflammation, modulated specific protein expression, enhanced the antioxidant capacity, and improved spontaneous alternation behavior, suggesting that it has beneficial effects in AD.

Moringa oleifera: a valuable insight into recent advances in medicinal uses and pharmacological activities

Moringa oleifera is an important medicinal plant in several countries; for example, Nigeria, the USA, Turkey, Germany, Greece, and Ukraine. The abundant bioactive and nutritional properties of this plant make it useful in many and diverse areas of life, including the health, cosmetic, agricultural, and food industries to mention but a few. Research has found that the presence of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, minerals, flavonoids, phenols, alkaloids, fatty acids, saponins, essential oils, folate, aromatic hydrocarbons, sterols, glucosinolates, and glycosides, among others, characterize the moringa nutrient profile and, as a result, give rise to its remedial effects on ailments such as wounds, stomach and duodenal ulcers, allergies, obesity, diabetes, inflammation, asthma, and so on. It is the aim of this review to provide an insight into such medicinal and pharmacological remedies attributed to moringa, stating both the past and recent discoveries. This review article also takes a look into the botanical features, bioactive compounds, antinutrients, food applications, bacterial fermentation products, biosafety, industrial applications, and other uses of moringa. Finally, with the belief that knowledge is progressive, we acknowledge that there are things yet undiscovered about this wonder plant that will be of value both to medicine and general life; we therefore recommend that research work continues on the moringa plant. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Exploring Medicinal Herbs' Therapeutic Potential and Molecular Docking Analysis for Compounds as Potential Inhibitors of Human Acetylcholinesterase in Alzheimer's Disease Treatment

Background and Objectives: Alzheimer's disease (AD) stands as a pervasive neurodegenerative ailment of global concern, necessitating a relentless pursuit of remedies. This study aims to furnish a comprehensive exposition, delving into the intricate mechanistic actions of medicinal herbs and phytochemicals. Furthermore, we assess the potential of these compounds in inhibiting human acetylcholinesterase through molecular docking, presenting encouraging avenues for AD therapeutics. Materials and Methods: Our approach entailed a systematic exploration of phytochemicals like curcumin, gedunin, quercetin, resveratrol, nobiletin, fisetin, and berberine, targeting their capability as human acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors, leveraging the PubChem database. Diverse bioinformatics techniques were harnessed to scrutinize molecular docking, ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity), and adherence to Lipinski's rule of five. Results: Results notably underscored the substantial binding affinities of all ligands with specific amino acid residues within AChE. Remarkably, gedunin exhibited a superior binding affinity (-8.7 kcal/mol) compared to the reference standard. Conclusions: These outcomes accentuate the potential of these seven compounds as viable candidates for oral medication in AD treatment. Notably, both resveratrol and berberine demonstrated the capacity to traverse the blood-brain barrier (BBB), signaling their aptitude for central nervous system targeting. Consequently, these seven molecules are considered orally druggable, potentially surpassing the efficacy of the conventional drug, donepezil, in managing neurodegenerative disorders.

Ameliorative effects of Albizia adianthifolia aqueous extract against pentylenetetrazole-induced epilepsy and associated memory loss in mice: Role of GABAergic, antioxidant defense and anti-inflammatory systems

Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) (Fabaceae) is a medicinal herb used for the treatment of epilepsy and memory impairment. This study aims to investigate the anticonvulsant effects of Albizia adianthifolia aqueous extract against pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced spontaneous convulsions in mice; and determine whether the extract could mitigate memory impairment, oxidative/nitrergic stress, GABA depletion and neuroinflammation. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis was done to identify active compounds from the extract. Mice were injected with PTZ once every 48 h until kindling was developed. Animals received distilled water for the normal group and negative control groups, doses of extract (40, 80, or 160 mg/kg) for the test groups and sodium valproate (300 mg/kg) for the positive control group. Memory was measured using Y maze, novel object recognition (NOR) and open field paradigms, while the oxidative/nitrosative stresses (MDA, GSH, CAT, SOD and NO), GABAergic transmission (GABA, GABA-T and GAD) and neuro-inflammation (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL- 1β, and IL-6) were determined. Brain photomicrograph was also studied. Apigenin, murrayanine and safranal were identified in the extract. The extract (80-160 mg/kg) significantly protected mice against seizures and mortality induced by PTZ. The extract significantly increased the spontaneous alternation and the discrimination index in the Y maze and NOR tests, respectively. PTZ kindling induced oxidative/nitrosative stress, GABA depletion, neuroinflammation and neuronal cells death was strongly reversed by the extract. The results suggest that the anticonvulsant activity of Albizia adianthifolia extract is accompanied by its anti-amnesic property, and may be supported by the amelioration of oxidative stress, GABAergic transmission and neuroinflammation.

Cassiae Semen: A comprehensive review of botany, traditional use, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity, and quality control

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cassiae Semen, belonging to the family Leguminosae, is derived from the dry mature seeds of Cassia obtusifolia L. or Cassia tora L. and has long been used as a laxative, hepatoprotective, improve eyesight, and antidiabetic complications medicine or functional food in Asia.

AIMS OF THE REVIEW

This review summarizes the integrated research progress of botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity, and quality control of Cassiae Semen. Additionally, the emerging challenges and possible developing directions are discussed as well.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information on Cassiae Semen was collected from published scientific materials, including ancient books of traditional Chinese Medicine; Ph.D. and M. Sc. dissertations; monographs on medicinal plants; pharmacopoeia of various countries and electronic databases, such as PubMed, Web of Science, ACS, Science Direct, J-STAGE, Springer link, Taylor, CNKI and Google Scholar, etc. RESULTS: First, the traditional uses and plant origins of Cassiae Semen are outlined. Secondly, approximately 137 compounds, including anthraquinones, naphthopyranones, naphthalenes, flavones, polysaccharides and other compounds, have been isolated and identified from Cassia obtusifolia L. and Cassia tora L. Third, the pharmacological activities and mechanisms of crude extract of Cassiae Semen and its main bioactive compounds are summarized. Moreover, the processing, toxicity, and quality control are introduced briefly.

CONCLUSIONS

Cassiae Semen is a frequently used Chinese Materia Medica with pharmacological effects that mainly affect the digestive system, cardiovascular systems and nervous system. This review summarized its botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology, it also exhibited recent scientific research advances and gaps, which provide a deeper insight into the understanding and application of Cassiae Semen. In future research on Cassiae Semen, more attention should be given to the pharmacological activities of naphthopyranones and polysaccharides and the mechanism of action for improving eye diseases. Meanwhile, it is essential to focus on strengthening the study on the pharmacokinetics research and the safety evaluation of related health products research.

Potential Anti-Cholinesterase Activity of Bioactive Compounds Extracted from Cassia grandis L.f. and Cassia timoriensis DC

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors remain the primary therapeutic drug that can alleviate Alzheimer's disease's (AD) symptoms. Several Cassia species have been shown to exert significant anti-AChE activity, which can be an alternative remedy for AD. Cassia timoriensis and Cassia grandis are potential plants with anti-AChE activity, but their phytochemical investigation is yet to be further conducted. The aims of this study were to identify the phytoconstituents of C. timoriensis and C. grandis and evaluate their inhibitory activity against AChE and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). Two compounds were isolated for the first time from C. timoriensis: arachidyl arachidate (1) and luteolin (2). Five compounds were identified from C. grandis: β-sitosterol (3), stigmasterol (4), cinnamic acid (5), 4-hydroxycinnamic acid (6), and hydroxymethylfurfural (7). Compound 2 showed significant inhibition towards AChE (IC₅₀: 20.47 ± 1.10 µM) and BChE (IC₅₀: 46.15 ± 2.20 µM), followed by 5 (IC_50: 40.5 ± 1.28 and 373.1 ± 16.4 µM) and 6 (IC₅₀: 43.4 ± 0.61 and 409.17 ± 14.80 µM) against AChE and BChE, respectively. The other compounds exhibited poor to slightly moderate AChE inhibitory activity. Molecular docking revealed that 2 showed good binding affinity towards TcAChE (PDB ID: 1W6R) and HsBChE (PDB ID: 4BDS). It formed a hydrogen bond with TYR121 at the peripheral anionic site (PAS, 2.04 Å), along with hydrophobic interactions with the anionic site and PAS (TRP84 and TYR121, respectively). Additionally, 2 formed three H-bonds with the binding site residues: one bond with catalytic triad, HIS438 at distance 2.05 Å, and the other two H-bonds with GLY115 and GLU197 at distances of 2.74 Å and 2.19 Å, respectively. The evidence of molecular interactions of 2 may justify the relevance of C. timoriensis as a cholinesterase inhibitor, having more promising activity than C. grandis.

The Neuroprotective Propensity of Organic Extracts of Acacia stenophylla Bark and Their Effectiveness Against Scopolamine-/Diazepam-Induced Amnesia in Mice

Background

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that is more prevalent in the elderly. There is extensive literature on using Acacia species against central nervous system disorders, although Acacia stenophylla has not been investigated for any neuroprotective potential. The purpose of the study was to elucidate the ameliorative effect of ethyl acetate (ASEE) and butanol (ASB) extracts from the bark of A. stenophylla on memory deficits and cognitive dysfunction in scopolamine- or diazepam-induced amnesia in mice.

Methods

The phytochemical constituents of the extracts of A. stenophylla were determined by GC-MS and the in vitro anticholinesterase plus antioxidant activities were also evaluated. Anti-amnesic effects were determined employing the open field test, elevated plus maze (EPM), Morris water maze (MWM), and Y-maze paradigms.

Results

The in vitro cholinesterase assays disclosed a concentration-dependent inhibition of both AChE and BuChE with IC₅₀ values of 28.48 and 44.86 µg/mL for the ASEE extract and 32.04 and 50.26 µg/mL for the ASB extract against AChE and BuChE respectively. DPPH and H₂O₂ antioxidant assays revealed respective IC₅₀ values for the ASEE extract of 28.04 and 59.84 µg/mL, plus 32.77 and 64.65 µg/mL for ASB extract. The findings revealed that both extracts possessed substantial antioxidant properties. Furthermore, these fractions restored scopolamine- and diazepam-induced memory deficits in a dose-dependent manner, as observed by a significant decrease in the transfer latency in EPM, reduction in escape latency, added time spent in the target quadrant in the MWM, and elevated spontaneous alternation behavior (SAB) in the Y-maze test.

Conclusion

The ameliorative effect of A. stenophylla on scopolamine- and diazepam-induced amnesia can be attributed to antioxidant and anticholinesterase activity. Consequently, the use of A. stenophylla might be exploited in the alleviation of oxidative stress and the management of AD.

The effects of the ethanol extract of Cordia myxa leaves on the cognitive function in mice

Background

Cordia myxa L. (Boraginaceae) is widely distributed in tropical regions and it’s fruits, leaves and stem bark have been utilized in folk medicine for treating trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. A population-based study showed that T. cruzi infection is associated with cognitive impairments. Therefore, if C. myxa has ameliorating activities on cognitive function, it would be useful for both T. cruzi infection and cognitive impairments.

Methods

In this study, we evaluated the effects of an ethanol extract of leaves of C. myxa (ELCM) on memory impairments and sensorimotor gating deficits in mice. The phosphorylation level of protein was observed by the Western blot analysis.

Results

The administration of ELCM significantly attenuated scopolamine-induced cognitive dysfunction in mice, as measured by passive avoidance test and novel object recognition test. Additionally, in the acoustic startle response test, we observed that the administration of ELCM ameliorated MK-801-induced prepulse inhibition deficits. We found that these behavioral outcomes were related with increased levels of phosphorylation phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (Akt) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK-3β) in the cortex and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) in the hippocampus by western blot analysis.

Conclusions

These results suggest that ELCM would be a potential candidate for treating cognitive dysfunction and sensorimotor gating deficits observed in individuals with neurodegenerative diseases.

Dendrobium officinale polysaccharide attenuates cognitive impairment in circadian rhythm disruption mice model by modulating gut microbiota

Dendrobium officinale polysaccharide (DOP) has received an increasing amount of attention as it could alleviate AD-related cognitive impairment via the regulation of microglial activation. However, the modulatory mechanism of DOP on circadian rhythm disruption (CRD) and related cognitive impairment needs further investigation. In our study, the circadian rhythm disruption mice showed a deficit in recognition and spatial memory. DOP treatment reshaped the perturbation of gut microbiota caused by CRD, including up-regulated the abundance of Akkermansia and Alistipes, down-regulated the abundance of Clostridia. In addition, DOP restored histopathological changes, reduced inflammatory cells infiltration and strengthened mucosal integrity. Mechanistically, DOP ameliorated intestinal barrier dysfunction by up-regulating tight junction protein expression, which in turn improved the invasion of lipopolysaccharide to blood and brain. The change of these contributes to inhibiting the NF-κB activation and neuroinflammation, and thus attenuating hippocampus neuronal damage and the deposition of Aβ. Meanwhile, our results revealed that DOP could reverse the levels of metabolites derived related to cognitive function improvement, and these metabolites were closely associated with the key microbiota. Therefore, we speculated that DOP has the potential to provide neuroprotection against cognitive impairment by modulating the gut microbiota.

Oral administration of processed Cassia obtusifolia L. seed powder May reduce body weight and cholesterol in overweight patients with schizophrenia: A 36-week randomized, double-blind, controlled trial of high and low doses

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Obesity in patients with schizophrenia is related to antipsychotic drug use, hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia, which are critical risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Cassia seed is a traditional Chinese medicine that can be used to treat various eye disorders. Anthraquinone-containing Cassia seed were used to lower serum levels of fat and cholesterol.

AIM OF STUDY

The effects of Cassia seed powder on body weight and lipids were investigated in overweight or obese patients with schizophrenia.

METHODS

The present study was designed as a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Ninety-four patients with schizophrenia who were overweight or obese were assigned to a control group (CG, 47 patients) and treatment group (TG, 47 patients) that received low dose Cassia seed power (0.3 g once daily) and Cassia seed powder (3.0 g once daily), respectively, for 36 weeks. The main outcome was the change in body mass index and waist circumference (WC). The secondary outcome was the change in serum lipids, C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and glycated hemoglobin.

RESULTS

Seventy-four patients completed the study (n = 36, CG; n = 38, TG). WC was significantly lower at the second (24 weeks, 98.63 ± 9.44 vs 95.80 ± 10.26 cm, p = 0.023), third (36 weeks, 98.35 ± 9.46 vs 95.05 ± 10.07 cm, p = 0.002), and fourth (48 weeks, 98.78 ± 9.48 vs 93.73 ± 10.28 cm, p < 0.001) follow-ups than at baseline in the TG, but only significantly lower than baseline at the fourth follow-up (100.78 ± 13.98 vs 94.03 ± 9.74 cm, p = 0.006); no significant difference in CG was observed at both the second (101.03 ± 13.62 vs 97.35 ± 8,29 cm, p = 0.08) and third (100.55 ± 13.69 vs 96.55 ± 8.29 cm, p = 0.066) follow-up. The difference in serum total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein levels between the baseline and the third follow-up was greater in the TG than in the CG (149.68 ± 34.85 vs 179.08 ± 75.87 mg/dL, p = 0.033; 84.40 ± 28.06 vs102.08 ± 34.12 mg/dL, p = 0.015, respectively).

CONCLUSION

In patients with schizophrenia who were overweight or obese, oral administration of Cassia seed powder (3.0 g) for 24 weeks and 36 weeks reduced WC, and oral administration of Cassia seed powder for 36 weeks reduced total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein levels, suggesting that Cassia seed powder aids the management of patients with schizophrenia who are overweight or obese. However, these results are preliminary, and future studies should use larger sample sizes, multiple testing centers, and multiple dosing.

Cassiaside C Inhibits M1 Polarization of Macrophages by Downregulating Glycolysis

Classically activated M1 macrophages reprogram their metabolism towards enhanced glycolysis to obtain energy and produce pro-inflammatory cytokines after activation by mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) and hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α. Thus, a strategy that constrains M1 polarization of macrophages via downregulation of glycolysis is essential for treating chronic inflammatory diseases. Cassiae semen has pharmacological activity against various inflammatory diseases. However, it is unclear whether specific compounds within Cassia seeds affect M1 polarization of macrophages. Here, we investigated whether Cassiaside C napthopyrone from Cassiae semen inhibits M1 polarization by downregulating glycolysis. We found that Cassiaside C reduced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 and the phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa B, all of which are upregulated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/interferon (IFN)-γ-treated Raw264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages. Moreover, Cassiaside C-treated macrophages showed marked suppression of LPS/IFN-γ-induced HIF-1α, pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1, and lactate dehydrogenase A expression, along with downregulation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K)/AKT/mTORC1 signaling pathway. Consequently, Cassiaside C attenuated enhanced glycolysis and lactate production, but rescued diminished oxidative phosphorylation, in M1 polarized macrophages. Thus, Cassiaside C dampens M1 polarization of macrophages by downregulating glycolysis, which could be exploited as a therapeutic strategy for chronic inflammatory conditions.

Medicine-Food Herbs against Alzheimer’s Disease: A Review of Their Traditional Functional Features, Substance Basis, Clinical Practices and Mechanisms of Action

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive, neurodegenerative disorder that currently has reached epidemic proportions among elderly populations around the world. In China, available traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) that organically combine functional foods with medicinal values are named “Medicine Food Homology (MFH)”. In this review, we focused on MFH varieties for their traditional functional features, substance bases, clinical uses, and mechanisms of action (MOAs) for AD prevention and treatment. We consider the antiAD active constituents from MFH species, their effects on in vitro/in vivo AD models, and their drug targets and signal pathways by summing up the literature via a systematic electronic search (SciFinder, PubMed, and Web of Science). In this paper, several MFH plant sources are discussed in detail from in vitro/in vivo models and methods, to MOAs. We found that most of the MFH varieties exert neuroprotective effects and ameliorate cognitive impairments by inhibiting neuropathological signs (Aβ-induced toxicity, amyloid precursor protein, and phosphorylated Tau immunoreactivity), including anti-inflammation, antioxidative stress, antiautophagy, and antiapoptosis, etc. Indeed, some MFH substances and their related phytochemicals have a broad spectrum of activities, so they are superior to simple single-target drugs in treating chronic diseases. This review can provide significant guidance for people’s healthy lifestyles and drug development for AD prevention and treatment.

Phytochemistry, Ethnopharmacological Uses, Biological Activities, and Therapeutic Applications of Cassia obtusifolia L.: A Comprehensive Review

Cassia obtusifolia L., of the Leguminosae family, is used as a diuretic, laxative, tonic, purgative, and natural remedy for treating headache, dizziness, constipation, tophobia, and lacrimation and for improving eyesight. It is commonly used in tea in Korea. Various anthraquinone derivatives make up its main chemical constituents: emodin, chrysophanol, physcion, obtusifolin, obtusin, au rantio-obtusin, chryso-obtusin, alaternin, questin, aloe-emodin, gluco-aurantio-obtusin, gluco-obtusifolin, naphthopyrone glycosides, toralactone-9-β-gentiobioside, toralactone gentiobioside, and cassiaside. C. obtusifolia&nbsp;L. possesses a wide range of pharmacological properties (e.g., antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective properties) and may be used to treat Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and cancer. In addition, C. obtusifolia L. contributes to histamine release and antiplatelet aggregation. This review summarizes the botanical, phytochemical, and pharmacological features of C. obtusifolia and its therapeutic uses.

How does traditional knowledge of Cassiae semen shed light on weight management? - A classical and modern literature review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The seed of Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby (Cassiae semen, CS) also known as Jue ming zi in China, has been traditionally used for weight management by purging the liver and improving the liver functions to support digestion. In the past decades, it has been used for hepatoprotection and treatment of overweight and other metabolic disorders such as hyperlipidaemia and diabetes.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review aimed at providing comprehensive information on the traditional usages, pharmacology, phytochemistry and toxicology of CS and critically exploring its potential usage for clinical weight management from both traditional and modern application perspectives.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to fully understand the properties, actions and indications of CS, two sets of Chinese classical texts were searched, namely: Zhong Hua Yi Dian (Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicine) and Zhong Guo Ben Cao Quan Shu (Complete Collection of Traditional Texts on Chinese Materia Medica). The purpose of studying these classical texts was to determine the traditional use of CS in weight management. Comprehensive searches were also performed on seven databases for publications on original randomised clinical trials (RCT), in vivo, in vitro or in silico studies related to pharmacological effects of CS. Detailed information about the phytochemistry of CS was collected from books, encyclopedia, online databases and journal literature.

FINDINGS

In classical literature review, 89 classic texts provided information of properties, actions and indications of CS. In modern literature review, 44 studies were included for analysis, including 5 RCTs, 7 in vivo studies, 14 in vitro studies, 2 in silico studies and 16 studies of mixed types. Chinese classic literature has provided traditional evidence of the usage of CS for weight management. Contemporary studies have revealed that CS has weight loss effects and possesses some other pharmacological activities supporting weight management. Some chemical compounds of CS have been hypothesised to have a direct or indirect contribution to weight control.

CONCLUSIONS

The relationships between chemical compounds and the corresponding weight-loss target proteins are not fully understood. Therefore, CS constituents should be further explored for the development of novel therapeutic or preventive agents for the treatment of overweight and obesity.

Neuroprotective Effect of Aurantio-Obtusin, a Putative Vasopressin V1A Receptor Antagonist, on Transient Forebrain Ischemia Mice Model

Traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) have been a rich source of novel drug discovery, and Cassia seed is one of the common TCMs with numerous biological effects. Based on the existing reports on neuroprotection by Cassia seed extract, the present study aims to search possible pharmacological targets behind the neuroprotective effects of the Cassia seeds by evaluating the functional effect of specific Cassia compounds on various G-protein-coupled receptors. Among the four test compounds (cassiaside, rubrofusarin gentiobioside, aurantio-obtusin, and 2-hydroxyemodin 1-methylether), only aurantio-obtusin demonstrated a specific V_1AR antagonist effect (71.80 ± 6.0% inhibition at 100 µM) and yielded an IC₅₀ value of 67.70 ± 2.41 μM. A molecular docking study predicted an additional interaction of the hydroxyl group at C6 and a methoxy group at C7 of aurantio-obtusin with the Ser341 residue as functional for the observed antagonist effect. In the transient brain ischemia/reperfusion injury C57BL/6 mice model, aurantio-obtusin attenuated the latency time that was reduced in the bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO) groups. Likewise, compared to neuronal damage in the BCCAO groups, treatment with aurantio-obtusin (10 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly reduced the severity of damage in medial cornu ammonis 1 (mCA1), dorsal CA1, and cortex regions. Overall, the findings of this study highlight V_1AR as a possible target of aurantio-obtusin for neuroprotection.

Probiotic Lactobacillus fermentum strain JDFM216 improves cognitive behavior and modulates immune response with gut microbiota

Increasing evidence indicates that alterations in gut microbiota are associated with mammalian development and physiology. The gut microbiota has been proposed as an essential player in metabolic diseases including brain health. This study aimed to determine the impact of probiotics on degenerative changes in the gut microbiota and cognitive behavior. Assessment of various behavioral and physiological functions was performed using Y-maze tests, wheel running tests, accelerated rotarod tests, balance beam tests, and forced swimming tests (FSTs), using adult mice after 50 weeks of administering living probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus fermentum strain JDFM216 or a vehicle. Immunomodulatory function was investigated using immune organs, immune cells and immune molecules in the mice, and gut microbiota was also evaluated in their feces. Notably, the L. fermentum JDFM216-treated group showed significantly better performance in the behavior tests (P < 0.05) as well as improved phagocytic activity of macrophages, enhanced sIgA production, and stimulated immune cells (P < 0.05). In aged mice, we observed decreases in species belonging to the Porphyromonadaceae family and the Lactobacillus genus when compared to young mice. While administering the supplementation of L. fermentum JDFM216 to aged mice did not shift the whole gut microbiota, the abundance of Lactobacillus species was significantly increased (P < 0.05). Our findings suggested that L. fermentum JDFM216 also provided beneficial effects on the regulation of immune responses, which has promising implications for functional foods. Taken together, L. fermentum JDFM216 could confer the benefit of improving health with enhanced cognition, physiological behavior, and immunity by modulating the gut microbiota.

Neuroprotective activity of Ulmus pumila L. in Alzheimer's disease in rats; role of neurotrophic factors

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorders which affects the hippocampus and cortical neurons leading to impairment of cognitive ability. Treatment of AD depends mainly on acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, however, a novel therapeutic approach is introduced based on the maintenance of neuronal viability and functionality exerted through neurotrophic factors. In the current study, Ulmus pumila L. leaves alcoholic extract was investigated for its neuroprotective activity in AlCl3-induced AD in rats. Rats were orally treated with AlCl3 (17 mg/kg) for 4 weeks followed by U. pumila extract (150 mg/kg b.wt.) for another 6 weeks. Treatment of neuro-intoxicated rats with U. pumila extract resulted in a significant regulation in neurotrophic factors; brain derived neurotrophic factor and transforming growth factor-β and pro-inflammatory cytokine; TNF. It also induced an elevation in serum levels of monoamine neurotransmitters; norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin and a decline in brain acetlycholinesterase activity. U. pumila extract also showed potent antioxidant activity as indicated by the declined malondialdehyde and elevated reduced glutathione, catalase and super oxide dismutase levels in AD rats' brains. Histological improvement was detected in the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus and striatum of the treated rats. The phytochemical analysis of U. pumila extract revealed high contents of flavonoids and phenolics and the major compounds were isolated and chemically characterized. Additionally, U. pumila extract and the isolated compounds exerted a prominent activity in in-vitro acetylcholinesterase inhibition assay with kaempferol-3-O-β-glucoside being the most potent compound showing IC50 of 29.03 ± 0.0155 μM. A molecular docking study indicated high affinity of kaempferol-3-O-β-robinobioside on acetylcholine esterase binding site with estimated binding free energy of -8.26 kcal/mol.

Behavioral tests in rodent models of stroke

Rodents are the most widely used experimental animals in stroke research due to their similar vascular anatomy, high reproductive rates, and availability of transgenic models. However, the difficulties in assessing higher brain functions, such as cognition and memory, in rodents decrease the translational potential of these studies. In this review, we summarize commonly used motor/sensorimotor and cognition tests in rodent models of stroke. Specifically, we first briefly introduce the objective and procedure of each behavioral test. Next, we summarize the application of each test in both ischemic stroke and hemorrhagic stroke. Last, the advantages and disadvantages of these tests in assessing stroke outcome are discussed. This review summarizes commonly used behavioral tests in stroke studies and compares their applications in different stroke types.

Establishing GPCR Targets of hMAO Active Anthraquinones from Cassia obtusifolia Linn Seeds Using In Silico and In Vitro Methods

The present study examines the effect of human monoamine oxidase active anthraquinones emodin, alaternin (=7-hydroxyemodin), aloe-emodin, and questin from Cassia obtusifolia Linn seeds in modulating human dopamine (hD₁R, hD₃R, and hD₄R), serotonin (h5-HT_1AR), and vasopressin (hV_1AR) receptors that were predicted as prime targets from proteocheminformatics modeling via in vitro cell-based functional assays, and explores the possible mechanisms of action via in silico modeling. Emodin and alaternin showed a concentration-dependent agonist effect on hD₃R with EC₅₀ values of 21.85 ± 2.66 and 56.85 ± 4.59 μM, respectively. On hV_1AR, emodin and alaternin showed an antagonist effect with IC₅₀ values of 10.25 ± 1.97 and 11.51 ± 1.08 μM, respectively. Interestingly, questin and aloe-emodin did not have any observable effect on hV_1AR. Only alaternin was effective in antagonizing h5-HT_1AR (IC₅₀: 84.23 ± 4.12 μM). In silico studies revealed that a hydroxyl group at C1, C3, and C8 and a methyl group at C6 of anthraquinone structure are essential for hD₃R agonist and hV_1AR antagonist effects, as well as for the H-bond interaction of 1-OH group with Ser192 at a proximity of 2.0 Å. Thus, based on in silico and in vitro results, hV_1AR, hD₃R, and h5-HT_1AR appear to be prime targets of the tested anthraquinones.

In Vivo Cognitive-Enhancing, Ex Vivo Malondialdehyde-Lowering Activities and Phytochemical Profiles of Aqueous and Methanolic Stem Bark Extracts of Piliostigma thonningii (Schum.)

Cognitive impairment (CI) is among the leading causes of disability in humans. It is estimated that over 35.6 million people are suffering from Alzheimer's disease- (AD-) associated cognitive deficits globally with these statistics projected to rise over 115.4 million by the year 2050. There is no specific etiology for this cognitive impairment; however, various contributing factors including advancing age (>60 years old), oxidative stress, cerebral injuries, infections, neurologic disorders, and cancer have been implicated. Despite various attempts to manage CI, no curative medicines are yet available. The current drugs used to manage symptoms of AD-associated CI including Donepezil and Rivastigmine among others are only palliative rather than therapeutic. Furthermore, these agents have been associated with undesirable side effects. This calls for alternative and complementary approaches aimed at either preventing or reverting AD-related CI in a curative way without causing adverse events. It is estimated that over 80% of the world's population utilize herbal medicines for basic healthcare as it is considered safe, affordable, and easily accessible as opposed to conventional healthcare. Various parts of P. thonningii are used in traditional medicine to manage various conditions including CI. However, empirical and scientific data to validate these uses is lacking. In this study, the Morris water maze (MWM) experiment was adopted to evaluate the cognitive-enhancing effects of the studied plant extracts. The malondialdehyde (MDA) profiles in the brains of experimental mice were determined using the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) test. Moreover, qualitative phytochemical profiling of the studied plant extracts was performed using standard procedures. The results showed remarkable cognitive-enhancing activities which were reflected in significantly shorter transfer latencies, navigation distances, longer time spent in platform quadrant, and lower MDA levels compared with those recorded for the negative control mice (p < 0.05). Phytochemical screening of the studied plant extracts revealed the presence of antioxidant phytocompounds, which may have played key roles in the extracts' potency. Based on the findings herein, P. thonningii extracts, especially the aqueous ones have a promising potential for the management of AD-associated CI. Further studies aimed at isolating and characterizing specific active compounds for CI from P. thonningii are recommended. Additionally, specific mode(s) of action of active principles should be elucidated. Moreover, toxicity studies should be done on the studied plant extracts to ascertain their safety.

Age related neurodegenerative Alzheimer's disease: Usage of traditional herbs in therapeutics

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common progressive neurodegenerative disease mainly associated with cognition impairment. Studies in last more than six decades have suggested that the disease pathology primarily includes the depleted cholinergic neurons, accumulation of amyloid beta plaques and hyper phosphorylation of tau proteins. However, the disease etiology remains enigmatic and no therapy is available to modify the disease status. Studies in experimental models and in post mortem brain of AD patients have suggested the involvement of oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, unfolded protein responses and apoptosis in disease pathology, yet the information is deficit to develop the disease modifying therapeutics. Owing to the need of novel effective treatment, chronic consumption of medicines with minimum side effects, recently the researchers turned towards the traditional medicines. This review is mainly focusing on the traditional herbs which have been suggested to contain disease related antidote activities and may be utilized for the effective treatment of AD patients.

Ingestion of Gouda Cheese Ameliorates the Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress in Mice

Depression is a kind of mood disorder characterized by decline in motivation, interest, attention, mental activity, and appetite. Although depression is caused by a variety of causes, including genetic, endocrine and environmental stress, mild depression has been reported to improve with diet. Therefore, various type of food sources including functional and nutritional supplement are required to treat the depressive patients. Cheese contains bioactive peptides that have beneficial effects on host health. In particular, Jersey milk has been reported to contain higher solids than does Holstein milk. This study investigated the effects of Gouda cheese from Jersey and Holstein milk on chronic, unpredictable, mildly stressed (CUMS) mice. Here, spontaneous alterations in cheese-fed stressed mice were noted to be effectively recovered with statistical significance regardless cow species. Interestingly, for the analysis of fecal microbiota, Bacteroidetes were noted to increase with a reduction in Firmicutes at the phylum level with Jersey cheese. Taken together, we suggest that cheese intake provided a beneficial effect on stressed mice in recovering recognition ability. In particular, changes in internal microbiota were observed, suggesting that the bioactive ingredients in cheese act as improvement agents with respect to mood and brain function.

Hepatoprotective effects of Cassia semen ethanol extract on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in experimental rat

CONTEXT

Cassia semen (Cs), a seed of Cassia obtusifolia L. (Leguminosae), is a popular functional beverage. Previous studies reported that Cs displayed antioxidant, antifungal and strong liver protective effects.

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluates the hepatoprotective effects of Cs on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Seventy-two male Wistar rats raised with high-fat diet (HFD) were randomly allotted into model, metformin (0.2 g/kg) and Cs (0.5, 1, and 2 g/kg)-treated groups. Another 12 rats were raised with normal feed as control group; all the rats were orally administrated with drugs and vehicle for 6 weeks. Alanine transferase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8 and low density lipoprotein receptor (LDL-R) mRNA levels were measured at the end of the experiment.

RESULTS

Twelve weeks of HFD administration significantly increased the levels of AST, ALT, TG, TC, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8 and MDA, decreased SOD (199.42 vs. 137.70 U/mg protein) and GSH (9.76 vs. 4.55 mg/g protein) contents, compared to control group. Cs administration group significantly decreased the elevated biomarkers with the ED₅₀ = 1.2 g/kg for NAFLD rats. Cs treatment also prevents the decreased expression of LDL-R mRNA, and improved the histopathological changes compared to model group.

CONCLUSIONS

The hepatoprotective effect of Cs on NAFLD may possibly be due to its antioxidant effect. Cs may become a potent hepatoprotective agent in clinical therapy in the future.

In Vitro and in Silico Human Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitory Potential of Anthraquinones, Naphthopyrones, and Naphthalenic Lactones from Cassia obtusifolia Linn Seeds

In recent years, Cassia seed extract has been reported as a neuroprotective agent in various models of neurodegeneration, mainly via an antioxidant mechanism. However, no one has previously reported the effects of Cassia seed extract and its phytochemicals on human monoamine oxidase (hMAO) enzyme activity. The seed methanol extract, the solvent-soluble fractions, and almost all isolated compounds displayed selective inhibition of hMAO-A isozyme activity. Interestingly, compounds obtusin (3), alaternin (8), aloe-emodin (9), questin (12), rubrofusarin (13), cassiaside (15), toralactone 9-O-β-gentiobioside (26), and (3S)-9,10-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-3-methyl-1-oxo-3,4-dihydro-1H-benzo[g]isochromene-3-carboxylic acid 9-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (38) showed the most promising inhibition of the hMAO-A isozyme with IC₅₀ values of 0.17-11 μM. The kinetic study characterized their mode of inhibition and molecular docking simulation predicted interactions with Ile-335 and Tyr-326 in support of the substrate/inhibitor selectivity in respective isozymes. These results demonstrate that Cassia seed extract and its constituents inhibit hMAO-A enzyme activity with high selectivity and suggest that they could play a preventive role in neurodegenerative diseases, especially anxiety and depression.

Substituted Aminobenzothiazole Derivatives of Tacrine: Synthesis and Study on Learning and Memory Impairment in Scopolamine-Induced Model of Amnesia in Rat

BACKGROUND

Currently, there is no conclusive cure for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and existing treatments mainly offer symptomatic relief. Dysfunction of the cholinergic system plays an important role in the pathogenesis of AD. Tacrine (1, 2, 3, 4-tetrahydroacridin-9-amine, III) was the first approved agent for the palliative therapy of AD but its use is associated with some complications. Development of novel multi target derivatives of Tacrine with lower complications is strongly warranted. In this study, new aminobenzothiazole (1-5, with many useful biological and pharmacological properties) analogues (IV-VIII) were synthesized by changing of amine moiety of III. Then, the effects of these new compounds on learning and memory impairment in scopolamine-induced model of amnesia were studied and the outcomes were compared with control and Tacrine groups in rat.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The rats received Tacrine or its derivatives (IV-VIII) i.p. for two weeks at a dose of 10 mg/kg. For induction of amnesia, scopolamine at a dose of 1 mg/kg was daily administered i.p. started on day-8 till the end of the study. Behavioral experiments including Y-maze, novel object recognition (discrimination) and passive avoidance paradigms were conducted at week 2.

RESULTS

Data analysis showed that some Tacrine derivatives, especially VII with 2-amino, 6-nitrobenzothiazole moiety, could markedly and significantly improve alternation score, discrimination ratio and step through latency compared to control and Tacrine groups.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicated that some of these derivatives (especially compounds VI and VII) are capable to mitigate learning and memory deficits in scopolamine-induced model of amnesia in rats and may have potential benefit in management of patients with AD.

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) seed attenuates memory impairment induced by scopolamine in mice via regulation of cholinergic dysfunction and oxidative stress

Safflower seed extract containing serotonin and its derivatives improves scopolamine-induced memory impairment, it could be a promising herbal medicine for the treatment of dementia.

Effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn. seeds methanol extract on learning and memory

Prevention and delay in the onset of memory disorders will have a great impact on society by reducing the disease burden and finances. Drugs available for the treatment of learning and memory disorders are few. There is need to develop a better drug, several studies have shown the therapeutic effectiveness of herbal extracts for the learning and memory disorders because of their neuroprotective effects, hence herbs should be evaluated scientifically to form a basis for the future discovery of newer drugs. In this study, effect of Trigonella-foenum graecum L. seeds methanol extract (TFGS-ME) was evaluated in mice on learning and memory process by both exteroceptive and interoceptive behavioral models at three different doses. Elevated plus maze test was employed to assess the effect on learning and memory as an exteroceptive behavioral test. Scopolamine-induced amnesia was performed to assess effect on learning and memory as interoceptive behavior test. In both tests, it was found that animals received extract at 200 mg/kg exhibited a highly noteworthy decline in transfer latency on both acquisition and retention days in contrast to control animals, suggestive of improved learning and memory process. Results were equivalent to the standard drug piracetam at similar dose indicating that TFGS-ME improves learning and memory process and has significant potential as an antiamnesic agent. Hence there is need to separate the dietary components which may play a vibrant role in the future invention of novel drugs.

Scopolamine-Induced Memory Impairment Is Alleviated by Xanthotoxin: Role of Acetylcholinesterase and Oxidative Stress Processes

Xanthotoxin, popularly occurring furanocoumarin, which can be found in plants from the Apiaceae family, was isolated from fruits of Pastinaca sativa L. by mean of high-performance countercurrent chromatography, and its effects on the scopolamine-induced cognitive deficits in male Swiss mice using the passive avoidance (PA) test were evaluated. To measure the acquisition of memory processes, xanthotoxin (1, 2.5, 5 mg/kg) was administered 30 min before PA test and scopolamine was administered 10 min after xanthotoxin. To measure the consolidation of memory processes, xanthotoxin (1 and 2.5 mg/kg) was injected immediately after removing the mouse from the apparatus and 10 min after scopolamine was administered. In subchronic experiments, mice were injected with xanthotoxin (1 mg/kg) or saline, 6 days, twice daily. At 24 h after the last injection of the drugs, the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex were removed for biochemical assays. The results demonstrated that either single (2.5 and 5 mg/kg) or repeatable (1 mg/kg) administration of xanthotoxin significantly increased index of latency (IL) in both acquisition and consolidation of memory processes, showing some procognitive effects. The behavioral tests also showed that an acute (2.5 mg/kg) and subchronic (1 mg/kg) administration of xanthotoxin prevent memory impairment induced by injection of scopolamine (1 mg/kg). Observed effects could be due to the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activities and amelioration of oxidative stress processes in the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex. It was suggested that xanthotoxin could show neuroprotective effect in scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment connected to cholinergic neurotransmission and oxidative stress in the brain structures.

Aurantio-obtusin, an anthraquinone from cassiae semen, ameliorates lung inflammatory responses

The purpose of the present study is to find the natural compound(s) having a therapeutic potential to treat lung inflammatory disorders. In our screening procedure, the methanol extract of the seeds of Cassia obtusifolia (cassiae semen) inhibited inducible nitric oxide synthase-catalyzed nitric oxide production in alveolar macrophages (MH-S). From the extract, 8 major anthraquinone derivatives were successfully isolated. They are chrysophanol, physcion, 2-hydroxy-emodin 1-methyl ether, obtusifolin, obtusin, aurantio-obtusin, chryso-obtusin, and gluco-obtusifolin, among which aurantio-obtusin (IC₅₀  = 71.7 μM) showed significant inhibitory action on nitric oxide production from lipopolysaccharide-treated MH-S cells, mainly by downregulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression. This down-regulatory action of aurantio-obtusin was mediated at least in part via interrupting c-Jun N-terminal kinase/IκB kinase/nuclear transcription factor-κB pathways. Aurantio-obtusin also inhibited IL-6 production in IL-1β-treated lung epithelial cells, A549. Importantly, this compound (10 and 100 mg/kg) by oral administration attenuated lung inflammatory responses in a mouse model of lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury. Therefore, it is for the first time found that aurantio-obtusin may have a therapeutic potential for treating lung inflammatory diseases.

Role of α7nAChR-NMDAR in sevoflurane-induced memory deficits in the developing rat hippocampus

Detrimental effects of volatile anaesthetics, including sevoflurane, on the structure and function of the developing brain have been reported. The internalization of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) contributes to anaesthetic neurotoxicity. Both nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and NMDAR play a critical role in the development of the nervous system. Moreover, nAChR can interact with NMDAR, and previous studies have demonstrated modulation of NMDAR by nAChR. In our study, we used an α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) agonist and α7nAChR antagonist to explore the role of α7nAChR and NMDAR in sevoflurane-induced long-term effects on memory and dendritic spine both in vivo and in vitro. The results revealed that the activation of α7nAChR attenuated the development of sevoflurane-induced memory deficit and dendritic spine changes, which might be by regulating NR2B-containing NMDAR trafficking from the intracellular pool to the cell surface pool in the hippocampus. Moreover, we demonstrated that α7nAChR could regulate NR2B-containing NMDAR via Src-family tyrosine kinase (SFK). Thus, our current study indicates that the trafficking of NR2B-containing NMDAR is regulated by α7nAChR via SFK in neonatal rat hippocampus, which may be secondary to sevoflurane-induced cognitive deficits in the developing hippocampus.

Structure Related Inhibition of Enzyme Systems in Cholinesterases and BACE1 In Vitro by Naturally Occurring Naphthopyrone and Its Glycosides Isolated from Cassia obtusifolia

Cassia obtusifolia Linn. have been used to improve vision, inflammatory diseases, and as hepatoprotective agents and to promote urination from ancient times. In the present study, we investigated the influence of glycosylation of components of C. obtusifolia and structure-activity relationships (SARs) with respect to the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), and β-site amyloid precursor protein (APP)-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), which are related to Alzheimer’s disease (AD). All six C. obtusifolia-derived compounds, rubrofusarin (1), rubrofusarin 6-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (2), rubrofusarin 6-O-β-d-gentiobioside (3), nor-rubrofusarin 6-O-β-d-glucoside (4), isorubrofusarin 10-O-β-d-gentiobioside (5), and rubrofusarin 6-O-β-d-triglucoside (6) showed promising inhibitory activity against AChE/BACE1. Compounds 3 and 4 showed most significant inhibition against AChE and BACE1, respectively. The SARs results emphasized the importance of gentiobiosyl moiety in the rubrofusarin for AChE inhibition, whereas the presence of hydroxyl group at C-8 and the glucosyl moiety at the C-6 position in the nor-rubrofusarin appeared to largely determine BACE1 inhibition. Kinetics and docking studies showed the lowest binding energy and highest affinity for mixed-type inhibitors, 3 and 4. Hydrophobic bonds interactions and the number of hydrogen bonds determined the strength of the protein-inhibitor interaction. These results suggest that C. obtusifolia and its constituents have therapeutic potential, and that the SARs of its active components are further explored with a view towards developing a treatment for AD.

Curcumin Reverses the Diazepam-Induced Cognitive Impairment by Modulation of Oxidative Stress and ERK 1/2/NF-κB Pathway in Brain

Oxidative stress and inflammation can be involved in cognitive dysfunction associated with neurodegenerative disorders. Diazepam (DZP) administration has been chosen to simulate the memory impairment. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of curcumin (CUR) on spatial cognition, ambulatory activity, and blood and brain oxidative stress levels. The ERK/NF-κB signaling pathway and the histopathological changes in the hippocampus and frontal lobe, in diazepam-treated rats, were also analyzed. The animals were divided into 4 groups: control, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) + CUR, CMC + DZP, and CUR + CMC + DZP. CUR (150 mg/kg b.w.) was orally administered for 28 days. DZP (2 mg/kg b.w.) was intraperitoneally administered 20 minutes before the behavioral tests (open field test, Y-maze, and elevated plus maze). CUR improved the spontaneous alternation behavior, decreased the oxidative stress levels, both in the blood and in the hippocampus, and downregulated the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK 1/2)/nuclear transcription factor- (NF-) κB/pNF-κB pathway in the hippocampus and the iNOS expression in the hippocampus and frontal lobe of the DZP-treated rats. Histopathologically, no microscopic changes were found. The immunohistochemical signal of iNOS decreased in the DZP and CUR-treated group. Thus, our findings suggest that curcumin administration may improve the cognitive performance and may also have an antioxidant effect.

Cassiae semen: A review of its phytochemistry and pharmacology (Review)

Cassiae semen (Leguminosae), a well-known traditional Chinese medicine, has been used for a number of centuries in areas of Southeast Asia, including Korea, Japan and China. The present review aims to provide updated and comprehensive information, on the botany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Cassiae semen. The available information on Cassiae semen was collected using several different resources, including classic books on Chinese herbal medicine and a number of scientific databases, including the China Academic Journals full-text database, PubMed, SciFinder, the Web of Science and Science Direct. To date >70 chemical compounds have been isolated from Cassiae semen, and the major components have been determined to be anthraquinones, naphthopyrones and volatile oil. The crude extracts and pure compounds of Cassiae semen have been used as effective agents in preclinical and clinical practice due to their beneficial activities, including antihyperlipidemic, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, antibacterial, antioxidant and hypotensive activities. With the body of reported data, it has been suggested that Cassiae semen has convincing medicinal potential. However, the pharmacological mechanisms of the main bioactive compounds and the association between structure and activity require further investigation.

Identification of peptides present in sour milk whey that ameliorate scopolamine-induced memory impairment in mice

Cognitive impairment is treated with cholinesterase inhibitors that slow cognitive decline but cause significant adverse effects. Functional foods that improve memory without such effects would therefore be valuable. We reported that unidentified components of sour milk whey produced by fermentations using Lactobacillus helveticus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae improved memory in a mouse model of scopolamine-induced memory impairment. Here, we show that casein-derived peptides were the most active components of orally administered fractions of this milk product. Of five peptides tested, β-casein (residues 73-91) was the most effective for ameliorating scopolamine-induced cognitive deficits, as indicated by a significantly higher percentage of alternations of mice orally administered 0.05 nmol/kg peptide (58.0 ± 9.3%) versus vehicle (51.0 ± 5.8%). This orally active peptide may improve cognitive function of patients with dementia.

Pdxdc1 modulates prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle in the mouse

Current antipsychotic medications used to treat schizophrenia all target the dopamine D2 receptor. Although these drugs have serious side effects and limited efficacy, no novel molecular targets for schizophrenia treatment have been successfully translated into new medications. To identify novel potential treatment targets for schizophrenia, we searched for previously unknown molecular modulators of acoustic prepulse inhibition (PPI), a schizophrenia endophenotype, in the mouse. We examined six inbred mouse strains that have a range of PPI, and used microarrays to determine which mRNA levels correlated with PPI across these mouse strains. We examined several brain regions involved in PPI and schizophrenia: hippocampus, striatum, and brainstem, found a number of transcripts that showed good correlation with PPI level, and confirmed this with real-time quantitative PCR. We then selected one candidate gene for further study, Pdxdc1 (pyridoxal-dependent decarboxylase domain containing 1), because it is a putative enzyme that could metabolize catecholamine neurotransmitters, and thus might be a feasible target for new medications. We determined that Pdxdc1 mRNA and protein are both strongly expressed in the hippocampus and levels of Pdxdc1 are inversely correlated with PPI across the six mouse strains. Using shRNA packaged in a lentiviral vector, we suppressed Pdxdc1 protein levels in the hippocampus and increased PPI by 70%. Our results suggest that Pdxdc1 may regulate PPI and could be a good target for further investigation as a potential treatment for schizophrenia.

Inhibitory activities of major anthraquinones and other constituents from Cassia obtusifolia against β-secretase and cholinesterases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Semen Cassiae has been traditionally used as an herbal remedy for liver, eye, and acute inflammatory diseases. Recent pharmacological reports have indicated that Cassiae semen has neuroprotective effects, attributable to its anti-inflammatory actions, in ischemic stroke and Alzheimer's disease (AD) models.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The basic goal of this study was to evaluate the anti-AD activities of C. obtusifolia and its major constituents. Previously, the extract of C. obtusifolia seeds, was reported to have memory enhancing properties and anti-AD activity to ameliorate amyloid β-induced synaptic dysfunction. However, the responsible components of C. obtusifolia seeds in an AD are currently still unknown. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effects of C. obtusifolia and its constituents against acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), and β-site amyloid precursor protein (APP) cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) enzyme activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vitro cholinesterase enzyme assays by using AChE, BChE, and BACE1 were performed. We also scrutinized the potentials of Cassiae semen active component as BACE1 inhibitors via enzyme kinetics and molecular docking simulation.

RESULTS

In vitro enzyme assays demonstrated that C. obtusifolia and its major constituents have promising inhibitory potential against AChE, BChE, and BACE1. All Cassiae semen constituents exhibited potent inhibitory activities against AChE and BACE1 with IC50 values of 6.29-109µg/mL and 0.94-190µg/mL, whereas alaternin, questin, and toralactone gentiobioside exhibited significant inhibitory activities against BChE with IC50 values of 113.10-137.74µg/mL. Kinetic study revealed that alaternin noncompetitively inhibited, whereas cassiaside and emodin showed mixed-type inhibition against BACE1. Furthermore, molecular docking simulation results demonstrated that hydroxyl group of alaternin and emodin tightly interacted with the active site residues of BACE1 and their relevant binding energies (-6.62 and -6.89kcal/mol), indicating a higher affinity and tighter binding capacity of these compounds for the active site of BACE1.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the present study suggest the potential of C. obtusifolia and its major constituents for use in the development of therapeutic or preventive agents for AD, especially through inhibition of AChE, BChE and BACE1 activities.

Cassia obtusifolia seed ameliorates amyloid β-induced synaptic dysfunction through anti-inflammatory and Akt/GSK-3β pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tea infused with the seed of Cassia obtusifolia has been traditionally used as an herbal remedy for liver, eye, and acute inflammatory diseases. Recent pharmacological reports have indicated that Cassiae semen has neuroprotective effects, attributable to its anti-inflammatory actions, in ischemic stroke and Parkinson's disease models.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Previously, the ethanol extract of C. obtusifolia seeds (COE) was reported to have memory enhancing properties. However, the effects of COE in an Alzheimer's disease (AD) model are currently unknown. In this study, we investigated the effect(s) of COE on aberrant synaptic plasticity and memory impairment induced by amyloid β (Aβ), a key toxic component found in the AD brain.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To determine the effect of COE on Aβ-induced aberrant synaptic plasticity, we used acute mouse hippocampal slices and delivered theta burst stimulation to induce long-term potentiation (LTP). Western blots were used to detect Aβ- and/or COE-induced changes in signaling proteins. The novel object location recognition test was conducted to determine the effect of COE on Aβ-induced recognition memory impairment.

RESULTS

COE was found to ameliorate Aβ-induced LTP impairment in the acute hippocampal slices. Glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), a key molecule in LTP impairment, was activated by Aβ. However, this process was inhibited by COE via Akt signaling. Moreover, COE was found to attenuate Aβ-induced microglia, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase (COX) activation. In the in vivo studies performed, COE ameliorated the Aβ-induced object recognition memory impairment.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that COE exhibits neuroprotective activities against Aβ-induced brain disorders.

Activation of migration of endogenous stem cells by erythropoietin as potential rescue for neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) are characterized by progressive cognitive dysfunction and memory loss. There is deposition of amyloid plaques in the brain and subsequent neuronal loss. Neuroinflammation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of AD. There is still no effective curative therapy for these patients. One promising strategy involves the stimulation of endogenous stem cells. This study investigated the therapeutic effect of erythropoietin (EPO) in neurogenesis, and proved its manipulation of the endogenous mesenchymal stem cells in model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuroinflammation.

METHODS

Forty five adult male mice were divided equally into 3 groups: Group I (control), group II (LPS untreated group): mice were injected with single dose of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) 0.8 mg/kg intraperitoneally (ip) to induce neuroinflammation, group III (EPO treated group): in addition to (LPS) mice were further injected with EPO in dose of 40 μg/kg of body weight three times weekly for 5 consecutive weeks. Groups were tested for their locomotor activity and memory using open field test and Y-maze. Cerebral specimens were subjected to histological and morphometric studies. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and mesenchymal stem cell marker CD44 were assessed using immunostaining. Gene expression of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was examined in brain tissue.

RESULTS

LPS decreased locomotor activity and percentage of correct choices in Y-maze test. Cerebral sections of LPS treated mice showed increased percentage area of dark nuclei and amyloid plaques. Multiple GFAP positive astrocytes were detected in affected cerebral sections. In addition, decrease BDNF gene expression was noted. On the other hand, EPO treated group, showed improvement in locomotor and cognitive function. Examination of the cerebral sections showed multiple neurons exhibiting less dark nuclei and less amyloid plaques in comparison to the untreated group. GFAP positive astrocytes were also reduced. Cerebral sections of the EPO treated group showed multiple branched and spindle CD44 positive cells inside and around blood vessels more than in LPS group. This immunostaining was negative in the control group. EPO administration increased BDNF gene expression.

CONCLUSION

This study proved that EPO provides excellent neuroprotective and neurotrophic effects in vivo model of LPS induced neuroinflammation. It enhances brain tissue regeneration via stimulation of endogenous mesenchymal stem cells proliferation and their migration to the site of inflammation. EPO also up regulates cerebral BDNF expression and production, which might contributes to EPO mediated neurogenesis. It also attenuates reactive gliosis thus reduces neuroinflammation. These encouraging results obtained with the use of EPO proved that it may be a promising candidate for future clinical application and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

A Potential Alternative against Neurodegenerative Diseases: Phytodrugs

Neurodegenerative diseases (ND) primarily affect the neurons in the human brain secondary to oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. ND are more common and have a disproportionate impact on countries with longer life expectancies and represent the fourth highest source of overall disease burden in the high-income countries. A large majority of the medicinal plant compounds, such as polyphenols, alkaloids, and terpenes, have therapeutic properties. Polyphenols are the most common active compounds in herbs and vegetables consumed by man. The biological bioactivity of polyphenols against neurodegeneration is mainly due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiamyloidogenic effects. Multiple scientific studies support the use of herbal medicine in the treatment of ND; however, relevant aspects are still pending to explore such as metabolic analysis, pharmacokinetics, and brain bioavailability.