Plasticizers in PVC Toys and Childcare Products: What Succeeds the Phthalates? Market Survey 2007

Phthalates contamination in sediments: A review of sources, influencing factors, benthic toxicity, and removal strategies

Sediments provide habitat and food for benthos, and phthalates (PAEs) have been detected in numerous river and marine sediments as a widely used plastic additive. PAEs in sediments is not only toxic to benthos, but also poses a threat to pelagic fish and human health through the food chain, so it is essential to comprehensively assess the contamination of sediments with PAEs. This paper presents a critical evaluation of PAEs in sediments, which is embodied in the analysis of the sources of PAEs in sediments from multiple perspectives. Biological production is indispensable, while artificial synthesis is the most dominant, thus the focus was on analyzing the industrial and commercial sources of synthetic PAEs. In addition, since the content of PAEs in sediments varies, some factors affecting the content of PAEs in sediments are summarized, such as the properties of PAEs, the properties of plastics, and environmental factors (sediments properties and hydrodynamic conditions). As endocrine disruptors, PAEs can produce toxicity to its direct contacts. Therefore, the effects of PAEs on benthos immunity, endocrinology, reproduction, development, and metabolism were comprehensively analyzed. In addition, we found that reciprocal inhibition and activation of the systems lead to genotoxicity and apoptosis. Finally, the paper discusses the feasible measures to control PAEs in wastewater and leachate from the perspective of source control, and summarizes the in-situ treatment measures for PAEs contamination in sediments. This paper provides a comprehensive review of PAEs contamination in sediments, toxic effects and removal strategies, and provides an important reference for reducing the contamination and toxicity of PAEs to benthos.

Exposure to phthalates and their alternatives in relation to biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress in adults: evidence from NHANES 2017-2018

Phthalates and their alternatives are considered significant environmental risk factors that potentially influence inflammation and oxidative stress. However, their impact on biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress was inconsistent. This study aimed to explore the associations between phthalates and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), and white blood cell (WBC) counts, employing both univariate exposure and multivariate co-exposure models. For this analysis, a total of 1619 individuals aged 18 years and above, sourced from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) conducted between 2017 and 2018, were selected as subjects. We explored the associations between hsCRP, GGT, and WBC counts and eighteen different phthalate metabolites. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed significant associations between both MCNP and MEHP and hsCRP. We observed negative correlations of MCOP, MCPP, MHBP, and MONP with GGT. Conversely, MEHHP and MEHHTP exhibited positive correlations with GGT. Furthermore, MECPTP and MEHHTP showed positive correlations with WBC. Notably, we identified a non-linear relationship between phthalates and inflammation and oxidative stress markers. The Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) analysis demonstrated a negative joint effect of the phthalates mixture on GGT, particularly at lower concentrations. The BKMR model also found that MEOHP and MHiBP were negatively associated with GGT. In contrast, MEHHP showed a significant positive association with GGT. Moderating effect analysis suggested that dietary inflammatory index (DII), income-to-poverty ratio (PIR), age, BMI, and physical activity influenced the association between phthalates and inflammation and oxidative stress. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the relationships between phthalates and inflammation and oxidative stress.

Cumulative Exposure to Phthalates and Their Alternatives and Associated Female Reproductive Health: Body Burdens, Adverse Outcomes, and Underlying Mechanisms

The global birth rate has recently shown a decreasing trend, and exposure to environmental pollutants has been identified as a potential factor affecting female reproductive health. Phthalates have been widely used as plasticizers in plastic containers, children's toys, and medical devices, and their ubiquitous presence and endocrine-disrupting potential have already raised particular concerns. Phthalate exposure has been linked to various adverse health outcomes, including reproductive diseases. Given that many phthalates are gradually being banned, a growing number of phthalate alternatives are becoming popular, such as di(isononyl) cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH), di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA), and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHTP), and they are beginning to have a wide range of environmental effects. Studies have shown that many phthalate alternatives may disrupt female reproductive function by altering the estrous cycle, causing ovarian follicular atresia, and prolonging the gestational cycle, which raises growing concerns about their potential health risks. Herein, we summarize the effects of phthalates and their common alternatives in different female models, the exposure levels that influence the reproductive system, and the effects on female reproductive impairment, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and offspring development. Additionally, we scrutinize the effects of phthalates and their alternatives on hormone signaling, oxidative stress, and intracellular signaling to explore the underlying mechanisms of action on female reproductive health, because these chemicals may affect reproductive tissues directly or indirectly through endocrine disruption. Given the declining global trends of female reproductive capacity and the potential ability of phthalates and their alternatives to negatively impact female reproductive health, a more comprehensive study is needed to understand their effects on the human body and their underlying mechanisms. These findings may have an important role in improving female reproductive health and in turn decreasing the number of complications during pregnancy.

Urinary levels of parabens, phthalate metabolites, bisphenol A and plasticizer alternatives in a Belgian population: Time trend or impact of an awareness campaign?

A human biomonitoring study was carried out in 2015 within an adult population living in Liege (Belgium). Some phthalate metabolites and parabens were measured in the urine of 252 participants, and information were collected about their food habits, life styles and home environment to identify some predictors of exposure. Concomitantly, an awareness campaign was initiated by the Provincial Authorities of Liege and spread over 2 years. Three years later (2018), 92 of the initial participants provided again urine samples, and the levels of phthalate metabolites, phthalate substitute (DINCH), parabens, bisphenol-A and bisphenol alternatives (bisphenol-S, -F, -Z, -P) were determined and compared to those obtained in 2015 to assess time trends. In 2015, methyl- and ethylparaben were the most abundant parabens (P50 = 9.12 μg/L and 1.1 μg/L respectively), while propyl- and butylparaben were sparsely detected. Except for mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate and 6-OH-mono-propyl-heptyl phthalate, all other targeted phthalate metabolites were positively quantified in most of the urine samples (between 89 and 98%) with median concentrations ranging between 2.7 μg/L and 21.3 μg/L depending on the metabolite. The multivariate regression models highlighted some significant associations between urinary phthalate metabolite or paraben levels and age, rural or urban character of the residence place, and the use of some personal care products. However, all determination coefficients were weak meaning that the usual covariates included in the models only explained a small part of the variance. Between 2015 and 2018, levels of parabens and phthalate metabolites significantly decreased (from 1.3 to 2.5 fold) except for monoethyl phthalate which seemed to remain quite constant. Contrariwise, all bisphenol alternatives and DINCH metabolites were measured in higher concentrations in 2018 vs 2015 while BPA levels did not differ significantly. However, it was not feasible to unequivocally highlight an impact of the awareness campaign on the exposure levels of the population.

Occurrence, distribution and sources of phthalates and petroleum hydrocarbons in tropical estuarine sediments (Mandovi and Ashtamudi) of western Peninsular India

The present study provides baseline information on the concentration levels, distribution characteristics and pollution sources of environmental contaminants, such as phthalic acid esters (PAEs or phthalates) and petroleum hydrocarbons in surface sediments of the tropical estuaries (Mandovi and Ashtamudi) from western Peninsular India. Total PAEs (∑₅PAEs), hopanes, steranes and diasteranes concentrations from Ashtamudi estuary ranged from 7.77 to 1478.2 ng/g, n.d.-363.2 ng/g, n.d.-121.5 ng/g and n.d.-116.6 ng/g, respectively. Likewise, PAEs (∑₆PAEs), steranes and diasteranes concentrations from Mandovi estuary ranged from 60.1 to 271.9 ng/g, 2.33-40.1 ng/g and 2.28-23.0 ng/g, respectively. The PAEs comprising di-isobutyl phthalate (DIBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), an isomer peak for DBP, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), di-isononyl phthalate were dominant in Ashtamudi estuary sediments, while PAEs including diethyl phthalate, DIBP, DBP and its isomer, DEHP, di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate were detected in the Mandovi sediment samples. The results of this study show an insignificant correlation of TOC with PAEs, and indicates that the varying spatial distributions of the PAEs in both the estuaries can be the result of discharge sources. The higher concentration of PAE congeners was noticed in Ashtamudi, a Ramsar wetland site, that can be attributed to land-based plastic waste. The petroleum biomarkers were abundantly present in Mandovi estuary due to anthropogenic activities such as boating and spillage from oil tankers. The findings of the present study will serve as a reference point for future investigation of organic contaminants in Indian estuaries, and calls for attention towards implementing effective measures in controlling the pervasion of the PAEs and petroleum biomarkers.

Machine learning-assisted non-destructive plasticizer identification and quantification in historical PVC objects based on IR spectroscopy

Non-destructive spectroscopic analysis combined with machine learning rapidly provides information on the identity and content of plasticizers in PVC objects of heritage value. For the first time, a large and diverse collection of more than 100 PVC objects in different degradation stages and of diverse chemical compositions was analysed by chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques to create a dataset used to construct classification and regression models. Accounting for this variety makes the model more robust and reliable for the analysis of objects in museum collections. Six different machine learning classification algorithms were compared to determine the algorithm with the highest classification accuracy of the most common plasticizers, based solely on the spectroscopic data. A classification model capable of the identification of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate, diisononyl phthalate, diisodecyl phthalate, a mixture of diisononyl phthalate and diisodecyl phthalate, and unplasticized PVC was constructed. Additionally, regression models for quantification of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate in PVC were built. This study of real-life objects demonstrates that classification and quantification of plasticizers in a general collection of degraded PVC objects is possible, providing valuable data to collection managers.

The concentration of phthalates in toys and children's care items in Kosovo

In this study, one hundred and twenty-eight toys and children's care items available in the Kosovo market were analyzed to determine the presence of phthalates and evaluate if the analyzed samples meet the national and EU standards. Toys and children's care items were imported from twelve countries, most of them from China. Phthalates were extracted and then analyzed using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Nine phthalates were analyzed in total, of them, benzyl butyl phthalate, di-isodecyl phthalate, diisobutyl phthalate and di-isononyl phthalate were the most frequently detected phthalates in the analyzed samples. Phthalates were not detected only in three toys and children's care items, others contained one or more phthalates, while none of them contained all (nine) analyzed phthalates. In total, 22 analyzed toys and children's care items did not fulfill at least one of the EU standards, of these 16 were toys and children's care items intended for children under age three and designed to be placed in the mouth. Overall, our work shows that toys and children's care items that exceed EU standards for phthalates are still present in the Kosovo market.

Role of epidemiology in risk assessment: a case study of five ortho-phthalates

BACKGROUND

The association between environmental chemical exposures and chronic diseases is of increasing concern. Chemical risk assessment relies heavily on pre-market toxicity testing to identify safe levels of exposure, often known as reference doses (RfD), expected to be protective of human health. Although some RfDs have been reassessed in light of new hazard information, it is not a common practice. Continuous surveillance of animal and human data, both in terms of exposures and associated health outcomes, could provide valuable information to risk assessors and regulators. Using ortho-phthalates as case study, we asked whether RfDs deduced from male reproductive toxicity studies and set by traditional regulatory toxicology approaches sufficiently protect the population for other health outcomes.

METHODS

We searched for epidemiological studies on benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP), and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Data were extracted from studies where any of the five chemicals or their metabolites were measured and showed a statistically significant association with a health outcome; 38 studies met the criteria. We estimated intake for each phthalate from urinary metabolite concentration and compared estimated intake ranges associated with health endpoints to each phthalate's RfD.

RESULT

For DBP, DIBP, and BBP, the estimated intake ranges significantly associated with health endpoints were all below their individual RfDs. For DEHP, the intake range included associations at levels both below and above its RfD. For DCHP, no relevant studies could be identified. The significantly affected endpoints revealed by our analysis include metabolic, neurodevelopmental and behavioral disorders, obesity, and changes in hormone levels. Most of these conditions are not routinely evaluated in animal testing employed in regulatory toxicology.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that for DBP, DIBP, BBP, and DEHP current RfDs estimated based on male reproductive toxicity may not be sufficiently protective of other health effects. Thus, a new approach is needed where post-market exposures, epidemiological and clinical data are systematically reviewed to ensure adequate health protection.

An integrated exposure and pharmacokinetic modeling framework for assessing population-scale risks of phthalates and their substitutes

To effectively incorporate in vitro-in silico-based methods into the regulation of consumer product safety, a quantitative connection between product phthalate concentrations and in vitro bioactivity data must be established for the general population. We developed, evaluated, and demonstrated a modeling framework that integrates exposure and pharmacokinetic models to convert product phthalate concentrations into population-scale risks for phthalates and their substitutes. A probabilistic exposure model was developed to generate the distribution of multi-route exposures based on product phthalate concentrations, chemical properties, and human activities. Pharmacokinetic models were developed to simulate population toxicokinetics using Bayesian analysis via the Markov chain Monte Carlo method. Both exposure and pharmacokinetic models demonstrated good predictive capability when compared with worldwide studies. The distributions of exposures and pharmacokinetics were integrated to predict the population distributions of internal dosimetry. The predicted distributions showed reasonable agreement with the U.S. biomonitoring surveys of urinary metabolites. The "source-to-outcome" local sensitivity analysis revealed that food contact materials had the greatest impact on body burden for di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA), di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), di(isononyl) cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH), and di(2-propylheptyl) phthalate (DPHP), whereas the body burden of diethyl phthalate (DEP) was most sensitive to the concentration in personal care products. The upper bounds of predicted plasma concentrations showed no overlap with ToxCast in vitro bioactivity values. Compared with the in vitro-to-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) approach, the integrated modeling framework has significant advantages in mapping product phthalate concentrations to multi-route risks, and thus is of great significance for regulatory use with a relatively low input requirement. Further integration with new approach methodologies will facilitate these in vitro-in silico-based risk assessments for a broad range of products containing an equally broad range of chemicals.

Inherent heterogeneities and nanostructural anomalies in organic glasses revealed by EPR

Intriguing heterogeneities and nanostructural reorganizations of glassy ionic liquids (ILs) have recently been found using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. Alkyl chains of IL cations play the key role in such phenomena and govern the anomalous temperature dependence of local density and molecular mobility. In this paper we evidence and study similar manifestations in a variety of common non-IL glasses, which also contain molecules with alkyl chains. A series of phthalates clearly demonstrates very similar behavior to imidazolium-based ILs with the same length of alkyl chain. Glasses of alkyl alcohols and alkyl benzenes show only some similarities to the corresponding ILs, mainly due to a lower glass transition temperature hindering the development of the anomaly. Therefore, we demonstrate the general nature and broad scope of nanoscale structural anomalies in organic glasses based on alkyl-chain compounds. The 'roadmap' for their occurrence is provided, which aids in understanding and future applications of these anomalous nanoheterogeneities.

Emissions of DEHP-free PVC flooring

Degrading 2-ethylhexyl-containing PVC floorings (eg DEHP-PVC floorings) and adhesives emit 2-ethylhexanol (2-EH) in the indoor air. The danger of flooring degradation comes from exposing occupants to harmful phthalates plasticisers (eg DEHP), but not from 2-EH as such. Since the EU banned the use of phthalates in sensitive applications, the market is shifting to use DEHP-free and alternative types of plasticisers in PVC products. However, data on emissions from DEHP-free PVC floorings are scarce. This study aimed at assessing the surface and bulk emissions of two DEHP-free PVC floorings over three years. The floorings were glued on the screed layer of concrete casts at 75%, 85%, and 95% RH. The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were actively sampled using FLEC (surface emissions) and micro-chamber/thermal extractor (µ-CTE, bulk emissions) onto Tenax TA adsorbents and analyzed with TD-GC-MS. 2-EH, C9-alcohols, and total volatile organic compound (TVOC) emissions are reported. Emissions at 75% and 85% RH were similar. As expected, the highest emissions occurred at 95% RH. 2-EH emissions originated from the adhesive. Because the two DEHP-free floorings tested emitted C9-alcohols at all tested RH, it makes the detection of flooring degradation harder, particularly if the adhesive used does not emit 2-EH.

German Environmental Specimen Bank: 24-hour urine samples from 1999 to 2017 reveal rapid increase in exposure to the para-phthalate plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHTP)

The worldwide plasticizer markets are facing constant substitution processes. Many classic ortho-phthalate plasticizers like di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) are phased out, due to their proven toxicity to reproduction. Assumedly less critical, less regulated plasticizers such as di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHTP) are increasingly applied in consumer near products like toys, food contact materials, and medical devices. With the increasing use of DEHTP, increasing exposures of the general population have to be expected likewise. Human biomonitoring is a well-established tool to determine population exposures. In the present study we investigate the time trend of exposure to DEHTP using 24-hour urine samples of the German Environmental Specimen Bank (ESB) collected from 1999 to 2017. In these samples (60 per odd-numbered year, 600 samples in total) collected from young German adults (20-29 years, equal gender distribution) we determined four specific urinary metabolites as biomarkers of DEHTP exposure. From 1999 to 2009, the main specific urinary metabolite 5cx-MEPTP was quantifiable in <10% of the samples. Thereafter, detection rates and levels constantly increased, in line with rapidly increasing DEHTP consumption volumes. In 2017, all samples had 5cx-MEPTP levels above the limit of quantification (LOQ) with a median concentration of 3.35 μg/L (95th percentile: 12.8 μg/L). The other metabolites were detected less frequently and at lower levels but correlated well with 5cx-MEPTP robustly confirming the increasing DEHTP exposure. All 5cx-MEPTP concentrations were well below the German health based guidance value (HBM-I) of 2800 μg/L for adults. Likewise, the median calculated daily intake, based on 5cx-MEPTP measured in 2017, was 0.74 μg/kg bw∗d (95th percentile: 3.86 μg/kg bw∗d), still well below the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 1000 μg/kg bw∗d. Based on current toxicological knowledge we can hence conclude that for the population investigated, DEHTP exposure gives no reason for immediate concern. However, the steep ongoing increase of DEHTP exposure warrants further close monitoring in the future, preferably also in sub-populations with known higher exposures to plasticizers, especially children.

[Changes in Status of Plasticizers Used in Polyvinyl Chloride Toys]

Analytical survey of plasticizers used in about 500 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) toys in Japanese market was performed in 2014. The results obtained were compared with those obtained in 2009. Fifteen types of plasticizers including di (2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHTP) were detected. These plasticizers were also detected in the products in 2009, suggesting that the types of plasticizers used in PVC toys have not been changed. Among these detected plasticizers, the detection ratios of DEHTP were 60.3 and 73.7% in both designated and not-designated toys, respectively, both of which are the highest. These ratios are over 20-points higher than those in 2009. The six types of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) prohibited to use for the designated toys in Japan were not detected in designated toys used in this study. However, four types of PAEs, including three types of prohibited PAEs, were detected in not-designated toys with the detection ratios from 2.8 to 15.5%. These ratios are lower than those in 2009. The content levels of plasticizers used in the toys are lower than those in 2009. These results show that the main plasticizer used in PVC toys is DEHTP, and that the usage levels of plasticizers have been decreased.

Personal care product use as a predictor of urinary concentrations of certain phthalates, parabens, and phenols in the HERMOSA study

Use of personal care products, such as makeup, soaps, and sunscreen, may expose adolescent girls to potential endocrine disruptors, including phthalates, parabens, and other phenols. We evaluated the relationship between recent self-reported personal care product use and concentrations for urinary metabolites of phthalates, parabens, triclosan, and benzophenone-3 (BP-3) in 100 Latina adolescents. Girls who reported using makeup every day vs. rarely/never had higher urinary concentrations of monoethyl phthalate (MEP) (102.2 ng/mL vs. 52.4 ng/mL, P-value: 0.04), methyl paraben (MP) (120.5 ng/mL vs. 13.4 ng/mL, P-value < 0.01), and propyl paraben (PP) (60.4 ng/mL vs. 2.9 ng/mL, P-value < 0.01). Girls who reported recent use of specific makeup products, including foundation, blush, and mascara, had higher urinary concentrations of MEP, mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP), MP, and PP. Use of Colgate Total toothpaste was associated with 86.7% higher urinary triclosan concentrations. Use of sunscreen was associated with 57.8% higher urinary concentrations of BP-3. Our findings suggest that personal care product use is associated with higher exposure to certain phthalates, parabens, and other phenols in urine. This may be especially relevant in adolescent girls who have high use of personal care products during a period of important reproductive development.

Chemical stabilization of polymers: Implications for dermal exposure to additives

Technical benefits of additives in polymers stand in marked contrast to their associated health risks. Here, a multi-analyte method based on gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) was developed to quantify polymer additives in complex matrices such as low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and isolated human skin layers after dermal exposure ex vivo. That way both technical aspects and dermal exposure were investigated. The effects of polymer additivation on the material were studied using the example of LDPE. To this end, a tailor-made polymer was applied in aging studies that had been furnished with two different mixtures of phenol- and diarylamine-based antioxidants, plasticizers and processing aids. Upon accelerated thermo-oxidative aging of the material, the formation of LDPE degradation products was monitored with attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transformed infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. Compared to pure LDPE, a protective effect of added antioxidants could be observed on the integrity of the polymer. Further, thermo-oxidative degradation of the additives and its kinetics were investigated using LDPE or squalane as matrix. The half-lives of additives in both matrices revealed significant differences between the tested additives as well as between LDPE and squalane. For instance, 2-tert-butyl-6-[(3-tert-butyl-2-hydroxy-5-methylphenyl)methyl]-4-methylphenol (Antioxidant 2246) showed a half-life 12 times lower when incorporated in LDPE as compared to squalane. As a model for dermal exposure of consumers, human skin was brought into contact with the tailor-made LDPE containing additives ex vivo in static Franz diffusion cells. The skin was then analyzed for additives and decomposition products. This study proved 10 polymer additives of diverse pysicochemical properties and functionalities to migrate out of the polymer and eventually overcome the intact human skin barrier during contact. Moreover, their individual distribution within distinct skin layers was demonstrated. This is exemplified by the penetration of the procarcinogenic antioxidant N-phenylnaphthalen-2-amine (Neozon D) into the viable epidermis and the permeation through the skin of the neurotoxic plasticizer N-butylbenzenesulfonamide (NBBS). In addition, the analyses of additive degradation products in the isolated skin layers revealed the presence of 2-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol in all layers after contact to a polymer with substances of origin like Antioxidant 2246. Thus, attention needs to be paid to absorption of polymer additives together with their degradation products when it comes to dermal exposure assessment.

PAEs occurrence and sources in road dust and soil in/around parks in May in Tianjin, China

This is the first study reporting the presence of six phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in 45 composite soil and road dust samples collected in the urban zone of Tianjin, China. Three sample types (one soil and two road dust) were collected from the city parks. Soil samples (SI) were obtained from inside the park, road dust samples (RDI) were gathered from inside the park roads and the others (RDA) from roads surrounding parks. The range of concentrations of ∑₆PAEs in SI, RDI and RDA were 0.07-0.92μgg^-1, 0.42-6.32μgg^-1 and 0.40-7.54μgg^-1, respectively. The highest SI ∑₆PAEs concentration (0.92μgg^-1 in The People's Park) was 13 times higher than that of the lowest content (0.07μgg^-1 in XiLiu Park). Furthermore, the spatial distribution of PAEs in RDI showed higher contents in the Nankai and Hexi districts. PAEs concentrations in different types of roads displayed significant differences (P < 0.05). The RDA PAEs distribution expressed decreasing order for different types of roads such as arterial road > sub-arterial road > branch road. The results of nonparametric tests on ∑₆PAEs revealed significant differences between every two different sample types (P < 0.05). The analysis of the six PAEs types indicated DnBP and DEHP were the primary contaminating compounds in all sample types. The PCA results showed cosmetics and personal care products were important sources of PAEs in SI, and plasticizers were the key sources of PAEs in RDI and RDA.

Exposure to the plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHTP) in Portuguese children - Urinary metabolite levels and estimated daily intakes

Classical ortho-phthalate plasticizers are, due to their endocrine disrupting potency and reproductive toxicity, increasingly replaced by alternative plasticizers. Di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHTP) is one of these substitutes. In this study, we investigated DEHTP exposure in 107 Portuguese children (4-17years old) by analyzing specific DEHTP metabolites in their urine using a newly developed LC-MS/MS method. We could detect the major, specific DEHTP metabolite mono(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) terephthalate (5cx-MEPTP) in 100% of the samples with levels above the limit of quantification in 96% of the samples (median concentration 4.19μg/L; 95th percentile 26.4μg/L; maximum 3400μg/L). Other minor DEHTP metabolites (5OH-MEHTP, 5oxo-MEHTP and 2cx-MMHTP) were detected at lower rates and levels. Daily DEHTP intakes calculated from urinary 5cx-MEPTP levels were generally far below the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 1000μg/kgbw/d (median 0.67μg/kgbw/d; 95th percentile 6.25μg/kgbw/d; maximum 690μg/kgbw/d). However, for one child the biomarker-derived health-based guidance value (HBM-I value) for 5cx-MEPTP of 1800μg/L was exceeded by about a factor of two. Levels of 5cx-MEPTP and calculated daily DEHTP intakes were higher in normal/under-weight children who nourished on their usual diet compared to overweight/obese children who received nutritional guidance with fresh and unprocessed food (p=0.043 and p<0.001 respectively). This indicates to processed and fatty foodstuff as a major source of DEHTP exposure. Additionally, we found children of lower age having higher DEHTP intakes (p=0.045). Again, foodstuff as a major DEHTP source, together with other child specific DEHTP sources such as mouthing of toys or ingestion of dust might be contributing factors. With the present study, we provide a first data set on the omnipresent DEHTP exposure in children. So far, general levels of DEHTP exposure seem no cause for concern. However, due to the increasing use of DEHTP as an ortho-phthalate substitute, possible increasing exposures in the future should be followed closely.

Exposure of Portuguese children to the novel non-phthalate plasticizer di-(iso-nonyl)-cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH)

Di-(iso-nonyl)-cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH) is used as substitute for high molecular weight phthalate plasticizers such as di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-(iso-nonyl) phthalate (DINP). Due to a rapid substitution process we have to assume omnipresent and increasing DINCH exposures. The aim of this study was to evaluate DINCH exposure in 112 children (4-18years old) from Portugal, divided in two groups: 1) normal-/underweight following the usual diet; and 2) obese/overweight but under strict nutritional guidance. First morning urine samples were collected during the years 2014 and 2015. Oxidized DINCH metabolites (OH-MINCH, oxo-MINCH, cx-MINCH) were analyzed after enzymatic hydrolysis via on-line HPLC-MS/MS with isotope dilution quantification. We detected DINCH metabolites in all analyzed samples. Urinary median (95th percentile) concentrations were 2.14μg/L (15.91) for OH-MINCH, followed by 1.10μg/L (7.54) for oxo-MINCH and 1.08μg/L (7.33) for cx-MINCH. We observed no significant differences between the two child-groups; only after creatinine adjustment, we found higher metabolite concentrations in the younger compared to the older children. Median (95th percentile) daily DINCH intakes were in the range of 0.37 to 0.76 (2.52 to 5.61) μg/kg body weight/day depending on calculation model and subpopulation. Body weight related daily intakes were somewhat higher in Group 1 compared to Group 2, irrespective of the calculation model. However, in terms of absolute amounts (μg/day), DINCH intakes were higher in Group 2 compared to Group 1. In regard to age, we calculated higher intakes for the younger children compared to older children, but only with the creatinine-based model. This new data for southern European, Portuguese children adds information to the scarce knowledge on DINCH, confirming omnipresent exposure and suggesting higher exposures in children than adults. Significant sources and routes of exposure have yet to be unveiled. For now, all calculated daily intakes are far below established health benchmark levels (TDI, RfD). However, rapidly increasing exposures have to be expected over the next years.

Survey on plasticizers currently found in PVC toys on the Swiss market: Banned phthalates are only a minor concern

Plasticizers in toys are a recurring source of criticism and concern, as consumers feel they may endanger the health of their children. Most of the information available in literature concerns the presence or absence of certain phthalic acid ester plasticizers. Very little information can be found in the public domain with respect to the actually used plasticizers at a given time and place. In this paper, we present the plasticizer composition of 118 samples from 88 polyvinyl chloride toys found on the Swiss market in autumn 2015. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT) was by far the most frequent main plasticizer in the analyzed samples, which is a change when compared to the plasticizers found in toys and child care articles in 2007. Furthermore, the data show that the banned phthalates in toys are only a minor concern. The occurrence, however, is not evenly distributed between importers. If a toy is not designed to be sold on the European market by the manufacturer, it seems to be more likely to contain a banned phthalic acid ester.

Leaching of plasticizers from polyvinylchloride perfusion lines by different lipid emulsions for premature infants under clinical conditions

Plasticizers migrate from polyvinylchloride (PVC) infusion systems into lipid emulsions. The aim of this study was to investigate the leaching of different plasticizers from PVC perfusion lines by a selection of lipid emulsions under clinical conditions. Seven PVC perfusion lines with an equal length of 150cm and three internal diameters were perfused with three lipid emulsions: Intralipid^® 20%, ClinOleic^® 20% and SMOFlipid^® 20%, mimicking clinical conditions. The concentrations of the plasticizers were measured directly in the emulsions by gas chromatography - mass spectrometry. Of the four plasticizers examined in this study, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) leached the most and was found, on average, at 46.5μg/ml in the emulsions - around one order of magnitude higher than the other plasticizers. This study demonstrates that the leaching of DEHP by lipid emulsions in conditions of total parenteral nutrition is many times higher than should be accepted and higher when compared to the other plasticizers. There was no significant difference in leaching of plasticizers in relation to the type of lipid emulsion. The influence of tube diameter on the leaching rate of plasticizers should be taken into account especially in particular exposed patients.

Synthesis of phthalate-free plasticizers by hydrogenation in water using RhNi bimetallic catalyst on aluminated SBA-15

Phthalate was hydrogenated to phthalate-free product by RhNi nanoparticles on Al-SBA-15.

Evaluation of exposure to phthalate esters and DINCH in urine and nails from a Norwegian study population

Phthalate esters (PEs) and 1,2-cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester (DINCH) used as additives in numerous consumer products are continuously released into the environment, leading to subsequent human exposure which might cause adverse health effects. The human biomonitoring approach allows the detection of PEs and DINCH in specific populations, by taking into account all possible routes of exposure (e.g. inhalation, transdermal and oral) and all relevant sources (e.g. air, dust, personal care products, diet). We have investigated the presence of nine PE and two DINCH metabolites and their exposure determinants in 61 adult residents of the Oslo area (Norway). Three urine spots and fingernails were collected from each participant according to established sampling protocols. Metabolite analysis was performed by LC-MS/MS. Metabolite levels in urine were used to back-calculate the total exposure to their corresponding parent compound. The primary monoesters, such as monomethyl phthalate (MMP, geometric mean 89.7ng/g), monoethyl phthalate (MEP, 104.8ng/g) and mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP, 89.3ng/g) were observed in higher levels in nails, whereas the secondary bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and DINCH oxidative metabolites were more abundant in urine (detection frequency 84-100%). The estimated daily intakes of PEs and DINCH for this Norwegian population did not exceed the established tolerable daily intake and reference doses, and the cumulative risk assessment for combined exposure to plasticizers with similar toxic endpoints indicated no health concerns for the selected population. We found a moderate positive correlation between MEP levels in 3 urine spots and nails (range: 0.56-0.68). Higher frequency of personal care products use was associated with greater MEP concentrations in both urine and nail samples. Increased age, smoking, wearing plastic gloves during house cleaning, consuming food with plastic packaging and eating with hands were associated with higher levels in urine and nails for some of the metabolites. In contrast, frequent hair and hand washing was associated with lower urinary levels of monoisobutyl phthalate (MiBP) and mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (5-OH-MEHP), respectively.

In vitro functional screening as a means to identify new plasticizers devoid of reproductive toxicity

Plasticizers are indispensable additives providing flexibility and malleability to plastics. Among them, several phthalates, including di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), have emerged as endocrine disruptors, leading to their restriction in consumer products and creating a need for new, safer plasticizers. The goal of this project was to use in vitro functional screening tools to select novel non-toxic plasticizers suitable for further in vivo evaluation. A panel of novel compounds with satisfactory plasticizer properties and biodegradability were tested, along with several commercial plasticizers, such as diisononyl-cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH®). MEHP, the monoester metabolite of DEHP was also included as reference compound. Because phthalates target mainly testicular function, including androgen production and spermatogenesis, we used the mouse MA-10 Leydig and C18-4 spermatogonial cell lines as surrogates to examine cell survival, proliferation, steroidogenesis and mitochondrial integrity. The most promising compounds were further assessed on organ cultures of rat fetal and neonatal testes, corresponding to sensitive developmental windows. Dose-response studies revealed the toxicity of most maleates and fumarates, while identifying several dibenzoate and succinate plasticizers as innocuous on Leydig and germ cells. Interestingly, DINCH®, a plasticizer marketed as a safe alternative to phthalates, exerted a biphasic effect on steroid production in MA-10 and fetal Leydig cells. MEHP was the only plasticizer inducing the formation of multinucleated germ cells (MNG) in organ culture. Overall, organ cultures corroborated the cell line data, identifying one dibenzoate and one succinate as the most promising candidates. The adoption of such collaborative approaches for developing new chemicals should help prevent the development of compounds potentially harmful to human health.

Food Emulsifier Glycerin Monostearate Increases Internal Exposure Levels of Six Priority Controlled Phthalate Esters and Exacerbates Their Male Reproductive Toxicities in Rats

Human beings are inevitably exposed to ubiquitous phthalate esters (PAEs). Processed, packaged foods are popular nowadays, in which emulsifiers are frequently added as food additives. It is unclear how emulsifiers affect the bioavailability of ingested PAEs contaminants and their toxicities. The purposes of our study were to explore whether food emulsifier Glycerin Monostearate (GMS) could increase the internal exposure levels of six priority controlled PAEs and affect their reproductive toxicities when male rats are exposed to PAEs mixture (MIXPs). The male rats were exposed to MIXPs by gavage for thirty days in combination with or without given GMS. Phthalate monoesters (MPAEs), primary metabolites of PAEs, in rat urine were used as biomarkers to predict the internal exposure levels of the six PAEs, and their concentrations were determined using UPLC-MS. The reproductive toxicity was evaluated using serum testosterone levels test and histopathology of testes. Results showed that compared to PAEs exposure alone, the internal exposure levels of PAEs increased by 30%-49% in the presence of GMS. PAEs exposure led to the reduction of testosterone level by 23.4%-42.1% in the presence and absence of GMS, respectively, compared to the baseline. Testosterone levels in MIXPs+GMS and DEHP+GMS group were decreased by 9.1% and 13.6%, respectively, compared with MIXPs and DEHP group. Histopathology showed that injuries of testis (deciduous spermatids) were observed, and GMS exacerbated the injuries. The results indicated food emulsifiers chronically taken up might increase safety risks of food PAEs contaminants.

Human exposure, hazard and risk of alternative plasticizers to phthalate esters

Alternative plasticizers to phthalate esters have been used for over a decade, but data regarding emissions, human exposure and health effects are limited. Here we review 20 alternative plasticizers in current use and their human exposure, hazard and risk. Physicochemical properties are collated for these diverse alternatives and log KOW values range over 15 orders of magnitude and log KAW and log KOA values over about 9 orders of magnitude. Most substances are hydrophobic with low volatility and are produced in high volumes for use in multiple applications. There is an increasing trend in the total use of alternative plasticizers in Sweden compared to common phthalate esters in the last 10 years, especially for DINCH. Evaluative indoor fate modeling reveals that most alternatives are distributed to vertical surfaces (e.g. walls or ceilings). Only TXIB and GTA are predicted to be predominantly distributed to indoor air. Human exposure data are lacking and clear evidence for human exposure only exists for DEHT and DINCH, which show increasing trends in body burdens. Human intake rates are collected and compared with limit values with resulting risk ratios below 1 except for infant's exposure to ESBO. PBT properties of the alternatives indicate mostly no reasons for concern, except that TEHPA is estimated to be persistent and TCP toxic. A caveat is that non-standard toxicological endpoint results are not available and, similar to phthalate esters, the alternatives are likely "pseudo-persistent". Key data gaps for more comprehensive risk assessment are identified and include: analytical methods to measure metabolites in biological fluids and tissues, toxicological information regarding non-standard endpoints such as endocrine disruption and a further refined exposure assessment in order to consider high risk groups such as infants, toddlers and children.

Non-destructive plasticizer screening using a direct inlet probe-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization source and ion trap mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

In recent years, several ambient ionization techniques, where solid and/or liquid samples are brought directly into the ion source without any sample preparation and chromatographic separation, have been introduced for mass spectrometric (MS) analyses. Using the direct inlet probe-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (DIP-APCI)-MS and DIP-APCI-MS(n) methods presented here, a non-destructive screening analysis for plasticizers directly from plastic articles can be performed.

METHODS

The DIP-APCI ion source developed in our laboratory uses a temperature-programmed push rod to introduce solid or liquid samples into a homemade APCI ion source. The DIP-APCI ion source was coupled to an ion trap (IT) mass spectrometer and selected source parameters were optimized. To enable a screening analysis for plasticizers, standards substances of several phthalates and other plasticizers were analyzed and their fragmentation behavior during collision-induced dissociation (CID) was studied.

RESULTS

Using DIP-APCI-ITMS, plasticizers can be detected directly from plastic articles and identification is possible through MS(n) experiments. For example, the isomeric phthalates di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and di-n-octyl phthalate can be differentiated according to their fragmentation behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

There are several advantages of the DIP-APCI source in comparison to many other ambient desorption ion sources: (i) well-defined gas phase matrix, (ii) precisely adjustable reagent gases (e.g. O2 for negative APCI), (iii) well-defined probe temperature, and (iv) fully automated operation.

Toxicity of phthalate esters exposure to carp (Cyprinus carpio) and antioxidant response by biomarker

To study the toxic effects of phthalate esters on the aquatic creatures, carps were exposed to dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) of six different concentrations for 96 h-LC50 measurements. It shows that the 96 h-LC50 is 16.30 and 37.95 mg L(-1), thus the safe concentration (1/10LC(50)) is 1.63 mg L(-1). The activities of xanthine oxidase (XOD) and catalase (CAT) were measured in liver to carp exposure for single or combinations of DBP and DEHP. The quantity of malonic dialdehyde (MDA) was also measured in the same way. XOD, CAT and MDA had shown an evident change while exposure time and concentration increased, combined exposure can aggravate this change. They might be used as early warning indicators and monitors, and have potentials in the ecological risk assessment.

Determination of Phthalate Plasticisers in Palm Oil Using Online Solid Phase Extraction-Liquid Chromatography (SPE-LC)

Contamination of phthalates plasticisers to food has raised concern as some of the phthalates are suspected to be endocrine disruptors. The phthalates have high affinity with oily environment and analysing these chemicals in such matrices is difficult because of the trace amount of the analyte and interference from matrix. An online solid phase extraction (SPE) technique using a large volume (3.5 mL) injection was developed for the analysis of 6 common plasticisers in palm oil. A simple sample preparation involving alumina as a fat retainer and methanol : acetonitrile (1 : 1) as the extraction solvent was performed prior to the usage of online SPE-LC system. This system consists of two columns, C16for the solid phase extraction (SPE) and C18as the analytical column, and a photo diode array detector. The calibration curves were linear from 5 to 1000 μg L−1, with correlation coefficients above 0.99. The instrumental limit of detection was 3 μg L−1and satisfactory recovery was obtained. A screening on a few samples in the retail market revealed the presence of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and butylbenzylphthalate (BBP) in the palm oil, with concentration less than 1 mg L−1.

Canine toys and training devices as sources of exposure to phthalates and bisphenol A: quantitation of chemicals in leachate and in vitro screening for endocrine activity

Chewing and mouthing behaviors exhibited by pet dogs are likely to lead to oral exposures to a variety of environmental chemicals. Products intended for chewing and mouthing uses include toys and training devices that are often made of plastics. The goal of the current study was to determine if a subset of phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA), endocrine disrupting chemicals commonly found in plastics, leach out of dog toys and training devices (bumpers) into synthetic canine saliva. In vitro assays were used to screen leachates for endocrine activity. Bumper leachates were dominated by di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and BPA, with concentrations reaching low μg mL(-1) following short immersions in synthetic saliva. Simulated chewing of bumpers during immersion in synthetic saliva increased concentrations of phthalates and BPA as compared to new bumpers, while outdoor storage had variable effects on concentrations (increased DEHP; decreased BPA). Toys leached substantially lower concentrations of phthalates and BPA, with the exception of one toy which leached considerable amounts of diethyl phthalate. In vitro assays indicated anti-androgenic activity of bumper leachates, and estrogenic activity of both bumper and toy leachates. These results confirm that toys and training devices are potential sources of exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals in pet dogs.

Assessment of toxic metals and phthalates in children's toys and clays

Toxic metals and phthalates are introduced in the manufacturing of plastic toys and modeling clays. In Lebanon, inexpensive plastic toys and modeling clays (sold in dollar stores) are affordable and popular, and there is no legislation to monitor or regulate such toys. This study aimed to assess the quality of inexpensive plastic toys and modeling clays imported in Lebanon. Metal concentrations in toys, namely, zinc [not detectable (ND) to 3,708 μg/g], copper (ND to 140), chromium (ND to 75 μg/g), tin (ND to 39 μg/g), and cadmium (Cd) (ND to 20 μg/g), were lower than the European Union (EU) Directive limits, whereas lead (ND to 258 μg/g) in 10% of samples and antimony (Sb) (ND to 195 μg/g) in 5% of samples were greater than the EU limits. In modeling clays, most of the metals were lower than the EU Directive limits except for Cd and arsenic (As). Cd was detected in 83% of samples, with a mean level of 9.1 μg/g, which is far greater than the EU Directive limit (1.9 μg/g). The As mean level of 4.5 μg/g was greater than the EU limit (4.0 μg/g) and was detected in 9% of samples. Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) were found in 60% of children's toys and 77% of modeling clays. Phthalic acid butyl ester had the highest-level PAE encountered and was ≤59.1 % in one type of clay. However, among children's toys, di(4-octyl) ester terephthalic acid was the highest encountered phthalate at a concentration of 25.7%. The community survey indicated that 82% of households purchase their toys from inexpensive shops and that only 17% of parents were aware of the health hazard of such toys. Consequently, an intervention plan was proposed for the provision of safe toys to children.

A generic emission model to predict release of organic substances from materials in consumer goods

Organic chemicals may be released when consumer goods are used, contributing to environmental and human levels of potentially hazardous chemicals. A generic model was developed to predict emissions of organic chemicals from various materials in consumer products. The model involved three modules, which each predict a key parameter needed to calculate the mass of individual chemicals emitted. Partition coefficients between a material and the surrounding air were predicted using Abraham solvation parameters, diffusion coefficients in materials were calculated using the Piringer equation, and convective mass transfer coefficients were evaluated by applying the Chilton-Colburn analogy. The calculated emission rates from predicted parameters were evaluated and agreed well with literature data. The release of plasticizers from vinyl flooring used in Sweden was calculated to demonstrate the utility of the generic model. The estimated emitted masses of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), di-iso-nonylphthalate (DINP), and 1,2-cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid di-iso-nonyl ester (DINCH) in 2012 were 210 kg, 40 kg, and 3.6 kg respectively. Emissions from vinyl flooring were estimated for the period 1990 to 2035 and it was shown that the recent substitution of DEHP with DINP will help to reduce plasticizer emissions. Model calculations for alternative plasticizers revealed that DINCH would yield similar emissions to DINP, whereas use of diethyl hexyl-iso-sorbide or diethyl hexyl adipate would result in higher emissions.

Aqueous leaching of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate and "green" plasticizers from poly(vinyl chloride)

A method was developed to assess leaching of several poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) plasticizers in aqueous media using gas chromatography (GC), and compared to a gravimetric standard test method (ASTM Method D1239). The GC method was a more direct measurement of plasticizer concentration in the aqueous phase. The leaching of commercial plasticizers, as well as several series of "green" candidate plasticizers, were assessed as a function of their molecular characteristics and compared to the industry standard PVC plasticizer, di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP). It was found that plasticizers containing longer alkyl chains or non-polar branching emanating from polar structural units, increased the hydrophobicity of the molecule and reduced its aqueous leaching rate. Several "green" plasticizer candidates were found to minimize aqueous leaching to rates ten times below that of DEHP; notably dioctyl succinate (DOS), dihexyl maleate (DHM), methyl cyclohexyl diester (MCDE), diethylhexyl succinate (DEHS), hexanediol dibenzoate (C6), and the commercially available Hexamoll® DINCH.

Identification of potential biomarkers of exposure to di(isononyl)cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH), an alternative for phthalate plasticizers

Di(isononyl)cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH) is used as an alternative for some phthalate plasticizers. In rats, DINCH mostly eliminates in feces as cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylic acid (CHDA), mono isononyl ester (MINCH) or in urine as CHDA. However, CHDA is not a specific biomarker of DINCH and measuring MINCH in feces is impractical. To identify additional potential biomarkers, we administered DINCH (500 mg/kg body weight) in a single subcutaneous (SC) or oral dose to four adult female Sprague-Dawley rats. We collected 24-h urine samples before dosing (to be used as controls) and 24-h and 48-h after dosing, and serum at necropsy after 48 h. We positively identified and accurately quantified CHDA and cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylic [corrected] acid, mono hydroxyisononyl ester (MHNCH) using authentic standards. Moreover, we tentatively identified MINCH and 12 oxidative metabolites, including 4 cyclohexane ring oxidation products, based on their mass spectrometric-fragmentation patterns. CHDA and MHNCH levels were higher in the urine collected 24 h after oral than SC administration. By contrast, 48-h after dosing, CHDA urinary levels were similar regardless of the exposure route. We detected all but two of the urine metabolites also in serum. Levels of CHDA and MHNCH in serum were lower than in the two post-dose urine collections. Our results suggest that several urinary oxidative metabolites, specifically CHDA, mono oxoisononyl ester and MHNCH may be used as specific biomarkers of DINCH exposure in humans.

Analysis of phthalic acid diesters, monoester, and other plasticizers in polyvinyl chloride household products in Japan

The aim of this study was to determine the concentrations of six phthalic acid diesters (PAEs) [di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), diisononyl phthalate (DINP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP), and diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP)], two non-phthalic plasticizers [di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA), 2,2,4-trimethyl-1,3-pentanediol diisobutylate (TMPDIB)], and mono 2-ethylhexyl phthalate(MEHP) in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) household products that children often places in their mouths and/or contact with their skin (41 products, 47 samples) in Japan. The detection frequencies of the studied compounds were as follows: DEHP (79 %), DINP-2 (13 %), DINP-1 (11 %), DBP (8.5 %), DEHA (8.5 %), DIDP (4.3 %), and DNOP (2.1 %). Concentrations of these compounds ranged from 0.021 % to 48 %. BBP and TMPDIB were not detected in the all samples. Most samples contained DEHP and DINP at high concentrations over 0.1 %. High concentrations of PAEs were detected in PVC household products that appear appealing to children and can possibly be licked and chewed by them. Di(2-ethylhexyl) terephtalete, diisononyl 1,2-cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid, acetyl tributyl citrate, and di(2-ethylhexyl) 4-cyclohexene-1,2-dicarboxylate used as substitute plasticizers were also detected in several samples. MEHP was present in 70 % of the samples, with concentrations ranging from trace amounts to 140 μg/g. The ratios of MEHP against DEHP were 6.2 × 10(-4) to 1.6 × 10(-1) %. MEHP in the household products investigated in this study was most probably an impurity in DEHP. The high concentrations of PAEs detected in products that children often place in their mouth reveal the importance of replacing plasticizers in common household products, and not just children's toys, with safer alternatives.