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Deng T, Lu X, Jia X, Du J, Wang L, Cao B, Yang M, Yin Y, Liu F. Cathepsins and cancer risk: a Mendelian randomization study. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2024; 15:1428433. [PMID: 38883596 PMCID: PMC11176415 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2024.1428433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Previous observational epidemiological studies reported an association between cathepsins and cancer, however, a causal relationship is uncertain. This study evaluated the causal relationship between cathepsins and cancer using Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis. Methods We used publicly available genome-wide association study (GWAS) data for bidirectional MR analysis. Inverse variance weighting (IVW) was used as the primary MR method of MR analysis. Results After correction for the False Discovery Rate (FDR), two cathepsins were found to be significantly associated with cancer risk: cathepsin H (CTSH) levels increased the risk of lung cancer (OR = 1.070, 95% CI = 1.027-1.114, P = 0.001, PFDR = 0.009), and CTSH levels decreased the risk of basal cell carcinoma (OR = 0.947, 95% CI = 0.919-0.975, P = 0.0002, P FDR = 0.002). In addition, there was no statistically significant effect of the 20 cancers on the nine cathepsins. Some unadjusted low P-value phenotypes are worth mentioning, including a positive correlation between cathepsin O (CTSO) and breast cancer (OR = 1.012, 95% CI = 1.001-1.025, P = 0.041), cathepsin S (CTSS) and pharyngeal cancer (OR = 1.017, 95% CI = 1.001-1.034, P = 0.043), and CTSS and endometrial cancer (OR = 1.055, 95% CI = 1.012-1.101, P = 0.012); and there was a negative correlation between cathepsin Z and ovarian cancer (CTSZ) (OR = 0.970, 95% CI = 0.949-0.991, P = 0.006), CTSS and prostate cancer (OR = 0.947, 95% CI = 0.902-0.944, P = 0.028), and cathepsin E (CTSE) and pancreatic cancer (OR = 0.963, 95% CI = 0.938-0.990, P = 0.006). Conclusion Our MR analyses showed a causal relationship between cathepsins and cancers and may help provide new insights for further mechanistic and clinical studies of cathepsin-mediated cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Deng
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Xixue Lu
- Bone Biomechanics Engineering Laboratory of Shandong Province, Shandong Medicinal Biotechnology Center (School of Biomedical Sciences), Neck-Shoulder and Lumbocrural Pain Hospital of Shandong First Medical University, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Xuemin Jia
- Bone Biomechanics Engineering Laboratory of Shandong Province, Shandong Medicinal Biotechnology Center (School of Biomedical Sciences), Neck-Shoulder and Lumbocrural Pain Hospital of Shandong First Medical University, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Jinxin Du
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Lijuan Wang
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
- Bone Biomechanics Engineering Laboratory of Shandong Province, Shandong Medicinal Biotechnology Center (School of Biomedical Sciences), Neck-Shoulder and Lumbocrural Pain Hospital of Shandong First Medical University, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Baorui Cao
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Meina Yang
- National Health Commission (NHC) Key Laboratory of Biotechnology Drugs (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Biomedical Sciences College, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, China
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, China
| | - Ying Yin
- Department of Acupuncture, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Fanjie Liu
- Bone Biomechanics Engineering Laboratory of Shandong Province, Shandong Medicinal Biotechnology Center (School of Biomedical Sciences), Neck-Shoulder and Lumbocrural Pain Hospital of Shandong First Medical University, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
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Pečar Fonović U, Kos J, Mitrović A. Compensational role between cathepsins. Biochimie 2024:S0300-9084(24)00085-3. [PMID: 38663456 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2024.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/30/2024]
Abstract
Cathepsins, a family of lysosomal peptidases, play a crucial role in maintaining cellular homeostasis by regulating protein turnover and degradation as well as many specific regulatory actions that are important for proper cell function and human health. Alterations in the activity and expression of cathepsins have been observed in many diseases such as cancer, inflammation, neurodegenerative disorders, bone remodelling-related conditions and others. These changes are not exclusively harmful, but rather appear to be a compensatory response on the lack of one cathepsin in order to maintain tissue integrity. The upregulation of specific cathepsins in response to the inhibition or dysfunction of other cathepsins suggests a fine-tuned system of proteolytic balance and understanding the compensatory role of cathepsins may improve therapeutic potential of cathepsin's inhibitors. Selectively targeting one cathepsin or modulating their activity could offer new treatment strategies for a number of diseases. This review emphasises the need for comprehensive research into cathepsin biology in the context of disease. The identification of the specific cathepsins involved in compensatory responses, the elucidation of the underlying molecular mechanisms and the development of targeted interventions could lead to innovative therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urša Pečar Fonović
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva Cesta 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Janko Kos
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva Cesta 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Ana Mitrović
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva Cesta 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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3
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Tan AW, Tong X, Alvarez-Cubela S, Chen P, Santana AG, Morales AA, Tian R, Infante R, Nunes de Paiva V, Kulandavelu S, Benny M, Dominguez-Bendala J, Wu S, Young KC, Rodrigues CO, Schmidt AF. c-Myc Drives inflammation of the maternal-fetal interface, and neonatal lung remodeling induced by intra-amniotic inflammation. Front Cell Dev Biol 2024; 11:1245747. [PMID: 38481391 PMCID: PMC10933046 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1245747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Background: Intra-amniotic inflammation (IAI) is associated with increased risk of preterm birth and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), but the mechanisms by which IAI leads to preterm birth and BPD are poorly understood, and there are no effective therapies for preterm birth and BPD. The transcription factor c-Myc regulates various biological processes like cell growth, apoptosis, and inflammation. We hypothesized that c-Myc modulates inflammation at the maternal-fetal interface, and neonatal lung remodeling. The objectives of our study were 1) to determine the kinetics of c-Myc in the placenta, fetal membranes and neonatal lungs exposed to IAI, and 2) to determine the role of c-Myc in modulating inflammation at the maternal-fetal interface, and neonatal lung remodeling induced by IAI. Methods: Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were randomized into three groups: 1) Intra-amniotic saline injections only (control), 2) Intra-amniotic lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injections only, and 3) Intra-amniotic LPS injections with c-Myc inhibitor 10058-F4. c-Myc expression, markers of inflammation, angiogenesis, immunohistochemistry, and transcriptomic analyses were performed on placenta and fetal membranes, and neonatal lungs to determine kinetics of c-Myc expression in response to IAI, and effects of prenatal systemic c-Myc inhibition on lung remodeling at postnatal day 14. Results: c-Myc was upregulated in the placenta, fetal membranes, and neonatal lungs exposed to IAI. IAI caused neutrophil infiltration and neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation in the placenta and fetal membranes, and neonatal lung remodeling with pulmonary hypertension consistent with a BPD phenotype. Prenatal inhibition of c-Myc with 10058-F4 in IAI decreased neutrophil infiltration and NET formation, and improved neonatal lung remodeling induced by LPS, with improved alveolarization, increased angiogenesis, and decreased pulmonary vascular remodeling. Discussion: In a rat model of IAI, c-Myc regulates neutrophil recruitment and NET formation in the placenta and fetal membranes. c-Myc also participates in neonatal lung remodeling induced by IAI. Further studies are needed to investigate c-Myc as a potential therapeutic target for IAI and IAI-associated BPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- April W. Tan
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine/Holtz Children’s Hospital, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Xiaoying Tong
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine/Holtz Children’s Hospital, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Silvia Alvarez-Cubela
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Pingping Chen
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine/Holtz Children’s Hospital, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Aline Guimarães Santana
- Department of Biomedical Science, Florida Atlantic University Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Boca Raton, FL, United States
| | - Alejo A. Morales
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Runxia Tian
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine/Holtz Children’s Hospital, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Rae Infante
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine/Holtz Children’s Hospital, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Vanessa Nunes de Paiva
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine/Holtz Children’s Hospital, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Shathiyah Kulandavelu
- Division of Pediatric Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
- Interdisciplinary Stem Cell Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Merline Benny
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine/Holtz Children’s Hospital, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Juan Dominguez-Bendala
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Shu Wu
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine/Holtz Children’s Hospital, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Karen C. Young
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine/Holtz Children’s Hospital, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Claudia O. Rodrigues
- Department of Biomedical Science, Florida Atlantic University Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Boca Raton, FL, United States
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
- Interdisciplinary Stem Cell Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Augusto F. Schmidt
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine/Holtz Children’s Hospital, Miami, FL, United States
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Minniakhmetov I, Yalaev B, Khusainova R, Bondarenko E, Melnichenko G, Dedov I, Mokrysheva N. Genetic and Epigenetic Aspects of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: Modern View on the Problem. Biomedicines 2024; 12:399. [PMID: 38398001 PMCID: PMC10886892 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12020399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Omics technologies accumulated an enormous amount of data that advanced knowledge about the molecular pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes mellitus and identified a number of fundamental problems focused on the transition to personalized diabetology in the future. Among them, the most significant are the following: (1) clinical and genetic heterogeneity of type 1 diabetes mellitus; (2) the prognostic significance of DNA markers beyond the HLA genes; (3) assessment of the contribution of a large number of DNA markers to the polygenic risk of disease progress; (4) the existence of ethnic population differences in the distribution of frequencies of risk alleles and genotypes; (5) the infancy of epigenetic research into type 1 diabetes mellitus. Disclosure of these issues is one of the priorities of fundamental diabetology and practical healthcare. The purpose of this review is the systemization of the results of modern molecular genetic, transcriptomic, and epigenetic investigations of type 1 diabetes mellitus in general, as well as its individual forms. The paper summarizes data on the role of risk HLA haplotypes and a number of other candidate genes and loci, identified through genome-wide association studies, in the development of this disease and in alterations in T cell signaling. In addition, this review assesses the contribution of differential DNA methylation and the role of microRNAs in the formation of the molecular pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes mellitus, as well as discusses the most currently central trends in the context of early diagnosis of type 1 diabetes mellitus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ildar Minniakhmetov
- Endocrinology Research Centre, Dmitry Ulyanov Street, 11, 117292 Moscow, Russia; (R.K.); (E.B.); (G.M.); (I.D.); (N.M.)
| | - Bulat Yalaev
- Endocrinology Research Centre, Dmitry Ulyanov Street, 11, 117292 Moscow, Russia; (R.K.); (E.B.); (G.M.); (I.D.); (N.M.)
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5
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Herriges MJ, Yampolskaya M, Thapa BR, Lindstrom-Vautrin J, Wang F, Huang J, Na CL, Ma L, Montminy MM, Bawa P, Villacorta-Martin C, Mehta P, Kotton DN. Durable alveolar engraftment of PSC-derived lung epithelial cells into immunocompetent mice. Cell Stem Cell 2023; 30:1217-1234.e7. [PMID: 37625412 PMCID: PMC10529386 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2023.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Durable reconstitution of the distal lung epithelium with pluripotent stem cell (PSC) derivatives, if realized, would represent a promising therapy for diseases that result from alveolar damage. Here, we differentiate murine PSCs into self-renewing lung epithelial progenitors able to engraft into the injured distal lung epithelium of immunocompetent, syngeneic mouse recipients. After transplantation, these progenitors mature in the distal lung, assuming the molecular phenotypes of alveolar type 2 (AT2) and type 1 (AT1) cells. After months in vivo, donor-derived cells retain their mature phenotypes, as characterized by single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), histologic profiling, and functional assessment that demonstrates continued capacity of the engrafted cells to proliferate and differentiate. These results indicate durable reconstitution of the distal lung's facultative progenitor and differentiated epithelial cell compartments with PSC-derived cells, thus establishing a novel model for pulmonary cell therapy that can be utilized to better understand the mechanisms and utility of engraftment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Herriges
- Center for Regenerative Medicine, Boston University and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA; The Pulmonary Center and Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | | | - Bibek R Thapa
- Center for Regenerative Medicine, Boston University and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA; The Pulmonary Center and Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | | | - Feiya Wang
- Center for Regenerative Medicine, Boston University and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Jessie Huang
- Center for Regenerative Medicine, Boston University and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA; The Pulmonary Center and Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Cheng-Lun Na
- Division of Pulmonary Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Liang Ma
- Center for Regenerative Medicine, Boston University and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA; The Pulmonary Center and Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - McKenna M Montminy
- Center for Regenerative Medicine, Boston University and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA; The Pulmonary Center and Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Pushpinder Bawa
- Center for Regenerative Medicine, Boston University and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Carlos Villacorta-Martin
- Center for Regenerative Medicine, Boston University and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Pankaj Mehta
- Department of Physics, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Darrell N Kotton
- Center for Regenerative Medicine, Boston University and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA; The Pulmonary Center and Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA.
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6
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Luyapan J, Bossé Y, Li Z, Xiao X, Rosenberger A, Hung RJ, Lam S, Zienolddiny S, Liu G, Kiemeney LA, Chen C, McKay J, Johansson M, Johansson M, Tardon A, Fernandez-Tardon G, Brennan P, Field JK, Davies MP, Woll PJ, Cox A, Taylor F, Arnold SM, Lazarus P, Grankvist K, Landi MT, Christiani DC, MacKenzie TA, Amos CI. Candidate pathway analysis of surfactant proteins identifies CTSH and SFTA2 that influences lung cancer risk. Hum Mol Genet 2023; 32:2842-2855. [PMID: 37471639 PMCID: PMC10481107 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddad095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary surfactant is a lipoprotein synthesized and secreted by alveolar type II cells in lung. We evaluated the associations between 200,139 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of 40 surfactant-related genes and lung cancer risk using genotyped data from two independent lung cancer genome-wide association studies. Discovery data included 18,082 cases and 13,780 controls of European ancestry. Replication data included 1,914 cases and 3,065 controls of European descent. Using multivariate logistic regression, we found novel SNPs in surfactant-related genes CTSH [rs34577742 C > T, odds ratio (OR) = 0.90, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.89-0.93, P = 7.64 × 10-9] and SFTA2 (rs3095153 G > A, OR = 1.16, 95% CI = 1.10-1.21, P = 1.27 × 10-9) associated with overall lung cancer in the discovery data and validated in an independent replication data-CTSH (rs34577742 C > T, OR = 0.88, 95% CI = 0.80-0.96, P = 5.76 × 10-3) and SFTA2 (rs3095153 G > A, OR = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.01-1.28, P = 3.25 × 10-2). Among ever smokers, we found SNPs in CTSH (rs34577742 C > T, OR = 0.89, 95% CI = 0.85-0.92, P = 1.94 × 10-7) and SFTA2 (rs3095152 G > A, OR = 1.20, 95% CI = 1.14-1.27, P = 4.25 × 10-11) associated with overall lung cancer in the discovery data and validated in the replication data-CTSH (rs34577742 C > T, OR = 0.88, 95% CI = 0.79-0.97, P = 1.64 × 10-2) and SFTA2 (rs3095152 G > A, OR = 1.15, 95% CI = 1.01-1.30, P = 3.81 × 10-2). Subsequent transcriptome-wide association study using expression weights from a lung expression quantitative trait loci study revealed genes most strongly associated with lung cancer are CTSH (PTWAS = 2.44 × 10-4) and SFTA2 (PTWAS = 2.32 × 10-6).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Luyapan
- Quantitative Biomedical Science Program, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
| | - Yohan Bossé
- Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Université Laval, Quebec City, G1V 0A6, Canada
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Laval University, Quebec City, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Zhonglin Li
- Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Université Laval, Quebec City, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Xiangjun Xiao
- Department of Medicine, Dan L. Duncan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Albert Rosenberger
- Institut für Genetische Epidemiologie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Gottingen, Niedersachsen, Germany
| | - Rayjean J Hung
- Prosserman Centre for Population Health Research, Lunenfeld-Tanenbuaum Research Institute, Sinai Health System, Toronto, ON, M5G 1X5, Canada
| | - Stephen Lam
- Department of Integrative Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 4E6, Canada
| | - Shanbeh Zienolddiny
- Department of Toxicology, National Institute of Occupational Health, Oslo 0033, Norway
| | - Geoffrey Liu
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, Princess Margaret Research Institute, Epidemiology Division,Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Lambertus A Kiemeney
- Department for Health Evidence, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, 6525 GA, the Netherlands
| | - Chu Chen
- Program in Epidemiology, Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - James McKay
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC/WHO), Genomic Epidemiology Branch Lyon 69008, France
| | - Mattias Johansson
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC/WHO), Genomic Epidemiology Branch Lyon 69008, France
| | - Mikael Johansson
- Department of Radiation Sciences, Oncology, Umeå University, Umeå, 901 87, Sweden
| | - Adonina Tardon
- Health Research Institute of the Principality of Asturias, University of Oviedo and CIBERSP, Oviedo, Asturias, 33071, Spain
| | - Guillermo Fernandez-Tardon
- Health Research Institute of the Principality of Asturias, University of Oviedo and CIBERSP, Oviedo, Asturias, 33071, Spain
| | - Paul Brennan
- Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, Chair of Epidemiology, Ludwig Maximillians University, Munich, Bavaria, 80539, Germany
| | - John K Field
- Molecular and Clinical Cancer Medicine, Roy Castle Lung Cancer Research Programme, The University of Liverpool Institute of Translational Medicine, Liverpool, L69 7ZX, UK
| | - Michael P Davies
- Molecular and Clinical Cancer Medicine, Roy Castle Lung Cancer Research Programme, The University of Liverpool Institute of Translational Medicine, Liverpool, L69 7ZX, UK
| | - Penella J Woll
- Academic Unit of Clinical Oncology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2AH, UK
| | - Angela Cox
- Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2AH, UK
| | - Fiona Taylor
- Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2AH, UK
| | - Susanne M Arnold
- Division of Medical Oncology, Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40508, USA
| | - Philip Lazarus
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA, 99163, USA
| | - Kjell Grankvist
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Clinical Chemistry, Umeå University, Umeå, 901 87, Sweden
| | - Maria T Landi
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - David C Christiani
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Todd A MacKenzie
- Quantitative Biomedical Science Program, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
| | - Christopher I Amos
- Quantitative Biomedical Science Program, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
- Department of Medicine, Dan L. Duncan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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7
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Wang Y, Zhao J, Gu Y, Wang H, Jiang M, Zhao S, Qing H, Ni J. Cathepsin H: molecular characteristics and clues to function and mechanism. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 212:115585. [PMID: 37148981 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Cathepsin H (CatH) is a lysosomal cysteine protease with a unique aminopeptidase activity that is extensively expressed in the lung, pancreas, thymus, kidney, liver, skin, and brain. Owing to its specific enzymatic activity, CatH has critical effects on the regulation of biological behaviours of cancer cells and pathological processes in brain diseases. Moreover, a neutral pH level is optimal for CatH activity, so it is expected to be active in the extra-lysosomal and extracellular space. In the present review, we describe the expression, maturation, and enzymatic properties of CatH, and summarize the available experimental evidence that mechanistically links CatH to various physiological and pathological processes. Finally, we discuss the challenges and potentials of CatH inhibitors in CatH-induced disease therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanfeng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Juan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China; Aerospace Medical Center, Aerospace Center Hospital, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yebo Gu
- Department of Stomatology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200072, China
| | - Haiping Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, China
| | - Muzhou Jiang
- Department of Periodontics, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110002, China
| | - Shuxuan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Hong Qing
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China.
| | - Junjun Ni
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China.
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8
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Fabrik I, Bilkei-Gorzo O, Öberg M, Fabrikova D, Fuchs J, Sihlbom C, Göransson M, Härtlova A. Lung macrophages utilize unique cathepsin K-dependent phagosomal machinery to degrade intracellular collagen. Life Sci Alliance 2023; 6:e202201535. [PMID: 36697252 PMCID: PMC9877437 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202201535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Resident tissue macrophages are organ-specialized phagocytes responsible for the maintenance and protection of tissue homeostasis. It is well established that tissue diversity is reflected by the heterogeneity of resident tissue macrophage origin and phenotype. However, much less is known about tissue-specific phagocytic and proteolytic macrophage functions. Here, using a quantitative proteomics approach, we identify cathepsins as key determinants of phagosome maturation in primary peritoneum-, lung-, and brain-resident macrophages. The data further uncover cathepsin K (CtsK) as a molecular marker for lung phagosomes required for intracellular protein and collagen degradation. Pharmacological blockade of CtsK activity diminished phagosomal proteolysis and collagenolysis in lung-resident macrophages. Furthermore, profibrotic TGF-β negatively regulated CtsK-mediated phagosomal collagen degradation independently from classical endocytic-proteolytic pathways. In humans, phagosomal CtsK activity was reduced in COPD lung macrophages and non-COPD lung macrophages exposed to cigarette smoke extract. Taken together, this study provides a comprehensive map of how peritoneal, lung, and brain tissue environment shapes phagosomal composition, revealing CtsK as a key molecular determinant of lung phagosomes contributing to phagocytic collagen clearance in lungs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivo Fabrik
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Microbiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Orsolya Bilkei-Gorzo
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Microbiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Maria Öberg
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Microbiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Daniela Fabrikova
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Microbiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Johannes Fuchs
- Proteomics Core Facility, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Carina Sihlbom
- Proteomics Core Facility, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Melker Göransson
- Bioscience COPD/IPF, Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology (R&I), BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anetta Härtlova
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Microbiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Medicine, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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9
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Cathepsins Trigger Cell Death and Regulate Radioresistance in Glioblastoma. Cells 2022; 11:cells11244108. [PMID: 36552871 PMCID: PMC9777369 DOI: 10.3390/cells11244108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Treatment of glioblastoma (GBM) remains very challenging, and it is particularly important to find sensitive and specific molecular targets. In this work, we reveal the relationship between the expression of cathepsins and radioresistance in GBM. We analyzed cathepsins (cathepsin B, cathepsin D, cathepsin L, and cathepsin Z/X), which are highly associated with the radioresistance of GBM by regulating different types of cell death. Cathepsins could be potential targets for GBM treatment.
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10
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Feyaerts D, Hédou J, Gillard J, Chen H, Tsai ES, Peterson LS, Ando K, Manohar M, Do E, Dhondalay GKR, Fitzpatrick J, Artandi M, Chang I, Snow TT, Chinthrajah RS, Warren CM, Wittman R, Meyerowitz JG, Ganio EA, Stelzer IA, Han X, Verdonk F, Gaudillière DK, Mukherjee N, Tsai AS, Rumer KK, Jacobsen DR, Bjornson-Hooper ZB, Jiang S, Saavedra SF, Valdés Ferrer SI, Kelly JD, Furman D, Aghaeepour N, Angst MS, Boyd SD, Pinsky BA, Nolan GP, Nadeau KC, Gaudillière B, McIlwain DR. Integrated plasma proteomic and single-cell immune signaling network signatures demarcate mild, moderate, and severe COVID-19. Cell Rep Med 2022; 3:100680. [PMID: 35839768 PMCID: PMC9238057 DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The biological determinants underlying the range of coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) clinical manifestations are not fully understood. Here, over 1,400 plasma proteins and 2,600 single-cell immune features comprising cell phenotype, endogenous signaling activity, and signaling responses to inflammatory ligands are cross-sectionally assessed in peripheral blood from 97 patients with mild, moderate, and severe COVID-19 and 40 uninfected patients. Using an integrated computational approach to analyze the combined plasma and single-cell proteomic data, we identify and independently validate a multi-variate model classifying COVID-19 severity (multi-class area under the curve [AUC]training = 0.799, p = 4.2e-6; multi-class AUCvalidation = 0.773, p = 7.7e-6). Examination of informative model features reveals biological signatures of COVID-19 severity, including the dysregulation of JAK/STAT, MAPK/mTOR, and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) immune signaling networks in addition to recapitulating known hallmarks of COVID-19. These results provide a set of early determinants of COVID-19 severity that may point to therapeutic targets for prevention and/or treatment of COVID-19 progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorien Feyaerts
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Julien Hédou
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Joshua Gillard
- Section Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Center for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Han Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Eileen S Tsai
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Laura S Peterson
- Division of Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Kazuo Ando
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Monali Manohar
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Evan Do
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Gopal K R Dhondalay
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jessica Fitzpatrick
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Maja Artandi
- Department of Primary Care and Population Health, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Iris Chang
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Theo T Snow
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - R Sharon Chinthrajah
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Division of Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Christopher M Warren
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Richard Wittman
- Department of Primary Care and Population Health, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Justin G Meyerowitz
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Edward A Ganio
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Ina A Stelzer
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Xiaoyuan Han
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of the Pacific, Arthur A. Dugoni School of Dentistry, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Franck Verdonk
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Dyani K Gaudillière
- Division of Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Nilanjan Mukherjee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Amy S Tsai
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Kristen K Rumer
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Danielle R Jacobsen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Zachary B Bjornson-Hooper
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Sizun Jiang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Sergio Fragoso Saavedra
- Departamento de Neurología, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico; Plan de Estudios Combinados en Medicina (MD/PhD Program), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Sergio Iván Valdés Ferrer
- Departamento de Neurología, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - J Daniel Kelly
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA; Institute for Global Health Sciences, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA; F.I. Proctor Foundation, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - David Furman
- Buck Artificial Intelligence Platform, Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, USA; Stanford 1000 Immunomes Project, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA; Austral Institute for Applied Artificial Intelligence, Institute for Research in Translational Medicine (IIMT), Universidad Austral, CONICET, Pilar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Nima Aghaeepour
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA; Division of Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Martin S Angst
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Scott D Boyd
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Benjamin A Pinsky
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Garry P Nolan
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Kari C Nadeau
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Division of Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Brice Gaudillière
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - David R McIlwain
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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11
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Osorio D, Zhong Y, Li G, Xu Q, Yang Y, Tian Y, Chapkin RS, Huang JZ, Cai JJ. scTenifoldKnk: An efficient virtual knockout tool for gene function predictions via single-cell gene regulatory network perturbation. PATTERNS (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2022; 3:100434. [PMID: 35510185 PMCID: PMC9058914 DOI: 10.1016/j.patter.2022.100434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Revised: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Gene knockout (KO) experiments are a proven, powerful approach for studying gene function. However, systematic KO experiments targeting a large number of genes are usually prohibitive due to the limit of experimental and animal resources. Here, we present scTenifoldKnk, an efficient virtual KO tool that enables systematic KO investigation of gene function using data from single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq). In scTenifoldKnk analysis, a gene regulatory network (GRN) is first constructed from scRNA-seq data of wild-type samples, and a target gene is then virtually deleted from the constructed GRN. Manifold alignment is used to align the resulting reduced GRN to the original GRN to identify differentially regulated genes, which are used to infer target gene functions in analyzed cells. We demonstrate that the scTenifoldKnk-based virtual KO analysis recapitulates the main findings of real-animal KO experiments and recovers the expected functions of genes in relevant cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Osorio
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Yan Zhong
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Theory and Application in Statistics and Data Science-MOE, School of Statistics, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China
| | - Guanxun Li
- Department of Statistics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Qian Xu
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Yongjian Yang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Yanan Tian
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Robert S. Chapkin
- Department of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Jianhua Z. Huang
- Department of Statistics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- School of Data Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518172, China
| | - James J. Cai
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Interdisciplinary Program of Genetics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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12
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Ni J, Zhao J, Zhang X, Reinheckel T, Turk V, Nakanishi H. Cathepsin H deficiency decreases hypoxia-ischemia-induced hippocampal atrophy in neonatal mice through attenuated TLR3/IFN-β signaling. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:176. [PMID: 34376208 PMCID: PMC8353845 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02227-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cathepsin H (CatH) is a lysosomal cysteine protease with a unique aminopeptidase activity. Its expression level is increased in activated immune cells including dendritic cells, macrophages, and microglia. We have previously reported that CatH deficiency impairs toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3)-mediated activation of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), and the subsequent secretion of interferon (IFN)-β from dendritic cells. Furthermore, there is increasing evidence that IFN-β secreted from microglia/macrophages has neuroprotective effects. These observations prompted further investigation into the effects of CatH deficiency on neuropathological changes. Methods In this study, neuropathological changes were examined using histochemical staining (both hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) and Nissl) of the hippocampus of wild-type (WT) and CatH-deficient (CatH−/−) mice after hypoxia-ischemia (HI). The density and the localization of CatH and TLR3 were examined by immunofluorescent staining. CatH processing in microglia was assayed by pulse-chase experiments, while immunoblotting was used to examine TLR3 expression and IRF3 activation in microglia/macrophages in the presence of poly(I:C). Microglial cell death was examined by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), and primary astrocyte proliferation in the presence of IFN-β was examined using scratch wound assay. Results WT mice displayed severe atrophy in association with neuronal death and moderate astrogliosis in the hippocampus following neonatal HI. Somewhat surprisingly, CatH−/− mice showed marked neuronal death without severe atrophy in the hippocampus following HI. Furthermore, there was notable microglia/macrophages cell death and strong astrogliosis in the hippocampus. The TLR3 and phosphorylated IRF3 expression level in the hippocampus or splenocytes (mainly splenic macrophages); from CatH−/− mice was lower than in WT mice. In vitro experiments demonstrated that recombinant IFN-β suppressed HI-induced microglial cell death and astrocyte proliferation. Conclusion These observations suggest that CatH plays a critical role in the proteolytic maturation and stabilization of TLR3, which is necessary for IFN-β production. Therefore, impaired TLR3/IFN-β signaling resulting from CatH deficiency may induce microglial cell death after activation and astrogliosis/glial scar formation in the hippocampus following HI injury, leading to suppression of hippocampal atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjun Ni
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China. .,Department of Aging Science and Pharmacology, Faculty of Dental Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan.
| | - Juan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Xinwen Zhang
- Center of Implant Dentistry, School of Somatology, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110122, China
| | - Thomas Reinheckel
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Vito Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Hiroshi Nakanishi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yasuda Women's University, Hiroshima, 731-0153, Japan.
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13
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Shapiro MR, Thirawatananond P, Peters L, Sharp RC, Ogundare S, Posgai AL, Perry DJ, Brusko TM. De-coding genetic risk variants in type 1 diabetes. Immunol Cell Biol 2021; 99:496-508. [PMID: 33483996 PMCID: PMC8119379 DOI: 10.1111/imcb.12438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The conceptual basis for a genetic predisposition underlying the risk for developing type 1 diabetes (T1D) predates modern human molecular genetics. Over half of the genetic risk has been attributed to the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II gene region and to the insulin (INS) gene locus - both thought to confer direction of autoreactivity and tissue specificity. Notwithstanding, questions still remain regarding the functional contributions of a vast array of minor polygenic risk variants scattered throughout the genome that likely influence disease heterogeneity and clinical outcomes. Herein, we summarize the available literature related to the T1D-associated coding variants defined at the time of this review, for the genes PTPN22, IFIH1, SH2B3, CD226, TYK2, FUT2, SIRPG, CTLA4, CTSH and UBASH3A. Data from genotype-selected human cohorts are summarized, and studies from the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse are presented to describe the functional impact of these variants in relation to innate and adaptive immunity as well as to β-cell fragility, with expression profiles in tissues and peripheral blood highlighted. The contribution of each variant to progression through T1D staging, including environmental interactions, are discussed with consideration of how their respective protein products may serve as attractive targets for precision medicine-based therapeutics to prevent or suspend the development of T1D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie R Shapiro
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Diabetes Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Puchong Thirawatananond
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Diabetes Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Leeana Peters
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Diabetes Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Robert C Sharp
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Diabetes Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Similoluwa Ogundare
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Diabetes Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Amanda L Posgai
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Diabetes Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Daniel J Perry
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Diabetes Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Todd M Brusko
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, Diabetes Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, Diabetes Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
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14
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Merino GA, Raad J, Bugnon LA, Yones C, Kamenetzky L, Claus J, Ariel F, Milone DH, Stegmayer G. Novel SARS-CoV-2 encoded small RNAs in the passage to humans. Bioinformatics 2021; 36:5571-5581. [PMID: 33244583 PMCID: PMC7717134 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btaa1002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Motivation The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has recently emerged as the responsible for the pandemic outbreak of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19). This virus is closely related to coronaviruses infecting bats and Malayan pangolins, species suspected to be an intermediate host in the passage to humans. Several genomic mutations affecting viral proteins have been identified, contributing to the understanding of the recent animal-to-human transmission. However, the capacity of SARS-CoV-2 to encode functional putative microRNAs (miRNAs) remains largely unexplored. Results We have used deep learning to discover 12 candidate stem-loop structures hidden in the viral protein-coding genome. Among the precursors, the expression of eight mature miRNAs-like sequences was confirmed in small RNA-seq data from SARS-CoV-2 infected human cells. Predicted miRNAs are likely to target a subset of human genes of which 109 are transcriptionally deregulated upon infection. Remarkably, 28 of those genes potentially targeted by SARS-CoV-2 miRNAs are down-regulated in infected human cells. Interestingly, most of them have been related to respiratory diseases and viral infection, including several afflictions previously associated with SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2. The comparison of SARS-CoV-2 pre-miRNA sequences with those from bat and pangolin coronaviruses suggests that single nucleotide mutations could have helped its progenitors jumping inter-species boundaries, allowing the gain of novel mature miRNAs targeting human mRNAs. Our results suggest that the recent acquisition of novel miRNAs-like sequences in the SARS-CoV-2 genome may have contributed to modulate the transcriptional reprogramming of the new host upon infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela A Merino
- Research Institute for Signals, Systems and Computational Intelligence (sinc(i)), FICH-UNL, CONICET, Ciudad Universitaria UNL, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina.,Bioengineering and Bioinformatics Research and Development Institute (IBB), FI-UNER, CONICET, Entre Ríos 3100, Argentina.,European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Cambridgeshire CB101SD, UK
| | - Jonathan Raad
- Research Institute for Signals, Systems and Computational Intelligence (sinc(i)), FICH-UNL, CONICET, Ciudad Universitaria UNL, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
| | - Leandro A Bugnon
- Research Institute for Signals, Systems and Computational Intelligence (sinc(i)), FICH-UNL, CONICET, Ciudad Universitaria UNL, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
| | - Cristian Yones
- Research Institute for Signals, Systems and Computational Intelligence (sinc(i)), FICH-UNL, CONICET, Ciudad Universitaria UNL, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
| | - Laura Kamenetzky
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Médica (IMPaM), Facultad de Medicina, UBA-CONICET, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires 1121, Argentina.,Laboratorio de Genómica y Bioinformática de Patógenos, iB3, Instituto de Biociencias, Biotecnología y Biología traslacional, Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires 1121, Argentina
| | - Juan Claus
- Laboratorio de Virología, FBCB, Ciudad Universitaria UNL, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
| | - Federico Ariel
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral (IAL), CONICET, FBCB, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
| | - Diego H Milone
- Research Institute for Signals, Systems and Computational Intelligence (sinc(i)), FICH-UNL, CONICET, Ciudad Universitaria UNL, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
| | - Georgina Stegmayer
- Research Institute for Signals, Systems and Computational Intelligence (sinc(i)), FICH-UNL, CONICET, Ciudad Universitaria UNL, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
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15
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Feyaerts D, Hédou J, Gillard J, Chen H, Tsai ES, Peterson LS, Ando K, Manohar M, Do E, Dhondalay GK, Fitzpatrick J, Artandi M, Chang I, Snow TT, Chinthrajah RS, Warren CM, Wittman R, Meyerowitz JG, Ganio EA, Stelzer IA, Han X, Verdonk F, Gaudillière DK, Mukherjee N, Tsai AS, Rumer KK, Jiang S, Valdés Ferrer SI, Kelly JD, Furman D, Aghaeepour N, Angst MS, Boyd SD, Pinsky BA, Nolan GP, Nadeau KC, Gaudillière B, McIlwain DR. Integrated plasma proteomic and single-cell immune signaling network signatures demarcate mild, moderate, and severe COVID-19. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2021:2021.02.09.430269. [PMID: 33594362 PMCID: PMC7885914 DOI: 10.1101/2021.02.09.430269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The biological determinants of the wide spectrum of COVID-19 clinical manifestations are not fully understood. Here, over 1400 plasma proteins and 2600 single-cell immune features comprising cell phenotype, basal signaling activity, and signaling responses to inflammatory ligands were assessed in peripheral blood from patients with mild, moderate, and severe COVID-19, at the time of diagnosis. Using an integrated computational approach to analyze the combined plasma and single-cell proteomic data, we identified and independently validated a multivariate model classifying COVID-19 severity (multi-class AUCtraining = 0.799, p-value = 4.2e-6; multi-class AUCvalidation = 0.773, p-value = 7.7e-6). Features of this high-dimensional model recapitulated recent COVID-19 related observations of immune perturbations, and revealed novel biological signatures of severity, including the mobilization of elements of the renin-angiotensin system and primary hemostasis, as well as dysregulation of JAK/STAT, MAPK/mTOR, and NF-κB immune signaling networks. These results provide a set of early determinants of COVID-19 severity that may point to therapeutic targets for the prevention of COVID-19 progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorien Feyaerts
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Julien Hédou
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Joshua Gillard
- Section Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboudumc, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Han Chen
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Eileen S. Tsai
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Laura S. Peterson
- Division of Neonatal and Developmental Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Kazuo Ando
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Monali Manohar
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Evan Do
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Gopal K.R. Dhondalay
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jessica Fitzpatrick
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Maja Artandi
- Department of Primary Care and Population Health, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Iris Chang
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Theo T. Snow
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - R. Sharon Chinthrajah
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Division of Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Christopher M. Warren
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Rich Wittman
- Department of Primary Care and Population Health, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Justin G. Meyerowitz
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Edward A. Ganio
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Ina A. Stelzer
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Xiaoyuan Han
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of the Pacific, Arthur A. Dugoni School of Dentistry, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Franck Verdonk
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Dyani K. Gaudillière
- Division of Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Nilanjan Mukherjee
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Amy S. Tsai
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Kristen K. Rumer
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Sizun Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Sergio Iván Valdés Ferrer
- Departamento de Neurología, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - J. Daniel Kelly
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Institute of Global Health Sciences, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- F.I. Proctor Foundation, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - David Furman
- Buck Artificial Intelligence Platform, the Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, USA
- Stanford 1000 Immunomes Project, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Austral Institute for Applied Artificial Intelligence, Institute for Research in Translational Medicine (IIMT), Universidad Austral, CONICET, Pilar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Nima Aghaeepour
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Martin S. Angst
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Scott D. Boyd
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Benjamin A. Pinsky
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Garry P. Nolan
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Kari C. Nadeau
- Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Division of Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Brice Gaudillière
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - David R. McIlwain
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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16
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Ye J, Stefan-Lifshitz M, Tomer Y. Genetic and environmental factors regulate the type 1 diabetes gene CTSH via differential DNA methylation. J Biol Chem 2021; 296:100774. [PMID: 33992646 PMCID: PMC8191311 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cathepsin H (CTSH) is a type 1 diabetes (T1D) risk gene; large-scale genetic and epidemiological studies found that T1D genetic risk correlates with high CTSH expression, rapid decline of beta-cell function, and early onset T1D. Counterintuitively, transcriptional downregulation of CTSH by proinflammatory cytokines has been shown to promote beta-cell apoptosis. Here, we potentially explain these observed contrasting effects, describing a new mechanism where proinflammatory cytokines and T1D genetic risk variants regulate CTSH transcription via differential DNA methylation. We show that, in human islets, CTSH downregulation by the proinflammatory cytokine cocktail interleukin 1β + tumor necrosis factor α + interferon γ was coupled with DNA hypermethylation in an open chromatin region in CTSH intron 1. A luciferase assay in human embryonic kidney 293 cells revealed that methylation of three key cytosine-phosphate-guanine dinucleotide (CpG) residues in intron 1 was responsible for the reduction of promoter activity. We further found that cytokine-induced intron 1 hypermethylation is caused by lowered Tet1/3 activities, suggesting that attenuated active demethylation lowered CTSH transcription. Importantly, individuals who carry the T1D risk variant showed lower methylation variability at the intron 1 CpG residues, presumably making them less sensitive to cytokines, whereas individuals who carry the protective variant showed higher methylation variability, presumably making them more sensitive to cytokines and implying differential responses to environment between the two patient populations. These findings suggest that genetic and environmental influences on a T1D locus are mediated by differential variability and mean of DNA methylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jody Ye
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA.
| | - Mihaela Stefan-Lifshitz
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Yaron Tomer
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
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17
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Regulation of the Proteolytic Activity of Cysteine Cathepsins by Oxidants. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21061944. [PMID: 32178437 PMCID: PMC7139492 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21061944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Besides their primary involvement in the recycling and degradation of proteins in endo-lysosomal compartments and also in specialized biological functions, cysteine cathepsins are pivotal proteolytic contributors of various deleterious diseases. While the molecular mechanisms of regulation via their natural inhibitors have been exhaustively studied, less is currently known about how their enzymatic activity is modulated during the redox imbalance associated with oxidative stress and their exposure resistance to oxidants. More specifically, there is only patchy information on the regulation of lung cysteine cathepsins, while the respiratory system is directly exposed to countless exogenous oxidants contained in dust, tobacco, combustion fumes, and industrial or domestic particles. Papain-like enzymes (clan CA, family C1, subfamily C1A) encompass a conserved catalytic thiolate-imidazolium pair (Cys25-His159) in their active site. Although the sulfhydryl group (with a low acidic pKa) is a potent nucleophile highly susceptible to chemical modifications, some cysteine cathepsins reveal an unanticipated resistance to oxidative stress. Besides an introductory chapter and peculiar attention to lung cysteine cathepsins, the purpose of this review is to afford a concise update of the current knowledge on molecular mechanisms associated with the regulation of cysteine cathepsins by redox balance and by oxidants (e.g., Michael acceptors, reactive oxygen, and nitrogen species).
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18
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Ost GS, Ng'ang'a PN, Lang AE, Aktories K. Photorhabdus luminescens
Tc toxin is inhibited by the protease inhibitor MG132 and activated by protease cleavage resulting in increased binding to target cells. Cell Microbiol 2018; 21:e12978. [DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard Stefan Ost
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine; University of Freiburg; Freiburg Germany
- Faculty of Biology; University of Freiburg; Freiburg Germany
| | - Peter Njenga Ng'ang'a
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine; University of Freiburg; Freiburg Germany
- Faculty of Biology; University of Freiburg; Freiburg Germany
- Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine (SGBM); University of Freiburg; Freiburg Germany
| | - Alexander E. Lang
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine; University of Freiburg; Freiburg Germany
| | - Klaus Aktories
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine; University of Freiburg; Freiburg Germany
- Centre for Biological Signalling Studies (BIOSS); University of Freiburg; Freiburg Germany
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19
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Okada R, Zhang X, Harada Y, Wu Z, Nakanishi H. Cathepsin H deficiency in mice induces excess Th1 cell activation and early-onset of EAE though impairment of toll-like receptor 3 cascade. Inflamm Res 2018; 67:371-374. [PMID: 29470604 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-018-1136-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective of this study is to investigate the role of cathepsin H (CatH), a lysosomal cysteine protease, in the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis. METHODS EAE was induced in CatH-deficient mice (CatH-/-) and wild-type littermates (+/+) using myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) 35-55. The effects of CatH deficiency were determined by clinical scoring, mRNA expression levels of Tbx21, Rorc and FoxP3, protein levels of poly(I:C)-induced toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and phosphorylation of IRF3, and secretion of interferon-β (IFN-β) by splenocytes. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS CatH-/- showed a significantly earlier disease onset of EAE and increased Th1 cell differentiation in splenocytes. Splenocytes prepared from immunized CatH-/- showed a significant decrease in poly(I:C)-induced increased TLR3 expression, interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) phospholylation and IFN-β secretion. Therefore, CatH deficiency impaired TLR3-mediated activation of IRF3 and consequent secretion of IFN-β from dendritic cells, leading to the enhancement of Th1 cell differentiation and consequent early disease onset of EAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Okada
- Department of Aging Science and Pharmacology, Faculty of Dental Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
- Department of Chemistry, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Kitakyushu, 807-8555, Japan
| | - Xinwen Zhang
- Center of Implant Dentistry, School of Somatology, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110122, China
| | - Yuka Harada
- Department of Aging Science and Pharmacology, Faculty of Dental Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Zhou Wu
- Department of Aging Science and Pharmacology, Faculty of Dental Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Nakanishi
- Department of Aging Science and Pharmacology, Faculty of Dental Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan.
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Yasuda Women's University, Hiroshima, 731-0153, Japan.
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20
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Naeem AS, Tommasi C, Cole C, Brown SJ, Zhu Y, Way B, Willis Owen SAG, Moffatt M, Cookson WO, Harper JI, Di WL, Brown SJ, Reinheckel T, O'Shaughnessy RFL. A mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1/2 (mTORC1)/V-Akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1 (AKT1)/cathepsin H axis controls filaggrin expression and processing in skin, a novel mechanism for skin barrier disruption in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2017; 139:1228-1241. [PMID: 27913303 PMCID: PMC5380661 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.09.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Revised: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Filaggrin, which is encoded by the filaggrin gene (FLG), is an important component of the skin's barrier to the external environment, and genetic defects in FLG strongly associate with atopic dermatitis (AD). However, not all patients with AD have FLG mutations. OBJECTIVE We hypothesized that these patients might possess other defects in filaggrin expression and processing contributing to barrier disruption and AD, and therefore we present novel therapeutic targets for this disease. RESULTS We describe the relationship between the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1/2 protein subunit regulatory associated protein of the MTOR complex 1 (RAPTOR), the serine/threonine kinase V-Akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1 (AKT1), and the protease cathepsin H (CTSH), for which we establish a role in filaggrin expression and processing. Increased RAPTOR levels correlated with decreased filaggrin expression in patients with AD. In keratinocyte cell cultures RAPTOR upregulation or AKT1 short hairpin RNA knockdown reduced expression of the protease CTSH. Skin of CTSH-deficient mice and CTSH short hairpin RNA knockdown keratinocytes showed reduced filaggrin processing, and the mouse had both impaired skin barrier function and a mild proinflammatory phenotype. CONCLUSION Our findings highlight a novel and potentially treatable signaling axis controlling filaggrin expression and processing that is defective in patients with AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aishath S Naeem
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Cristina Tommasi
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Cole
- Computational Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart J Brown
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yanan Zhu
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin Way
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Miriam Moffatt
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - William O Cookson
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - John I Harper
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Wei-Li Di
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sara J Brown
- Centre for Dermatology and Genetic Medicine, Medical Research Institute, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Reinheckel
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, BIOSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies, Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ryan F L O'Shaughnessy
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom.
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21
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Ketterer S, Gomez-Auli A, Hillebrand LE, Petrera A, Ketscher A, Reinheckel T. Inherited diseases caused by mutations in cathepsin protease genes. FEBS J 2017; 284:1437-1454. [PMID: 27926992 DOI: 10.1111/febs.13980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Revised: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Lysosomal cathepsins are proteolytic enzymes increasingly recognized as prognostic markers and potential therapeutic targets in a variety of diseases. In those conditions, the cathepsins are mostly overexpressed, thereby driving the respective pathogenic processes. Although less known, there are also diseases with a genetic deficiency of cathepsins. In fact, nowadays 6 of the 15 human proteases called 'cathepsins' have been linked to inherited syndromes. However, only three of these syndromes are typical lysosomal storage diseases, while the others are apparently caused by defective cleavage of specific protein substrates. Here, we will provide an introduction on lysosomal cathepsins, followed by a brief description of the clinical symptoms of the various genetic diseases. For each disease, we focus on the known mutations of which many have been only recently identified by modern genome sequencing approaches. We further discuss the effect of the respective mutation on protease structure and activity, the resulting pathogenesis, and possible therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Ketterer
- Medical Faculty, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Germany
| | - Alejandro Gomez-Auli
- Medical Faculty, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Germany.,Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine (SGBM), Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Germany
| | - Larissa E Hillebrand
- Medical Faculty, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Germany.,BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Agnese Petrera
- Medical Faculty, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Germany
| | - Anett Ketscher
- Medical Faculty, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Reinheckel
- Medical Faculty, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Germany.,BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, Freiburg, Germany
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22
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Clair G, Piehowski PD, Nicola T, Kitzmiller JA, Huang EL, Zink EM, Sontag RL, Orton DJ, Moore RJ, Carson JP, Smith RD, Whitsett JA, Corley RA, Ambalavanan N, Ansong C. Spatially-Resolved Proteomics: Rapid Quantitative Analysis of Laser Capture Microdissected Alveolar Tissue Samples. Sci Rep 2016; 6:39223. [PMID: 28004771 PMCID: PMC5177886 DOI: 10.1038/srep39223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Laser capture microdissection (LCM)-enabled region-specific tissue analyses are critical to better understand complex multicellular processes. However, current proteomics workflows entail several manual sample preparation steps and are challenged by the microscopic mass-limited samples generated by LCM, impacting measurement robustness, quantification and throughput. Here, we coupled LCM with a proteomics workflow that provides fully automated analysis of proteomes from microdissected tissues. Benchmarking against the current state-of-the-art in ultrasensitive global proteomics (FASP workflow), our approach demonstrated significant improvements in quantification (~2-fold lower variance) and throughput (>5 times faster). Using our approach we for the first time characterized, to a depth of >3,400 proteins, the ontogeny of protein changes during normal lung development in microdissected alveolar tissue containing only 4,000 cells. Our analysis revealed seven defined modules of coordinated transcription factor-signaling molecule expression patterns, suggesting a complex network of temporal regulatory control directs normal lung development with epigenetic regulation fine-tuning pre-natal developmental processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geremy Clair
- Biological Science Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA
| | - Paul D Piehowski
- Biological Science Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA
| | - Teodora Nicola
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35249, USA
| | - Joseph A Kitzmiller
- Division of Pulmonary Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Eric L Huang
- Biological Science Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA
| | - Erika M Zink
- Biological Science Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA
| | - Ryan L Sontag
- Biological Science Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA
| | - Daniel J Orton
- Biological Science Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA
| | - Ronald J Moore
- Biological Science Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA
| | - James P Carson
- Texas Advanced Computing Center, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Richard D Smith
- Biological Science Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA
| | - Jeffrey A Whitsett
- Division of Pulmonary Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Richard A Corley
- Biological Science Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA
| | | | - Charles Ansong
- Biological Science Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA
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23
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Alkuraya FS. Discovery of mutations for Mendelian disorders. Hum Genet 2016; 135:615-23. [DOI: 10.1007/s00439-016-1664-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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24
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Strategies for detection and quantification of cysteine cathepsins-evolution from bench to bedside. Biochimie 2016; 122:48-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2015.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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25
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Olson OC, Joyce JA. Cysteine cathepsin proteases: regulators of cancer progression and therapeutic response. Nat Rev Cancer 2015; 15:712-29. [PMID: 26597527 DOI: 10.1038/nrc4027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 436] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cysteine cathepsin protease activity is frequently dysregulated in the context of neoplastic transformation. Increased activity and aberrant localization of proteases within the tumour microenvironment have a potent role in driving cancer progression, proliferation, invasion and metastasis. Recent studies have also uncovered functions for cathepsins in the suppression of the response to therapeutic intervention in various malignancies. However, cathepsins can be either tumour promoting or tumour suppressive depending on the context, which emphasizes the importance of rigorous in vivo analyses to ascertain function. Here, we review the basic research and clinical findings that underlie the roles of cathepsins in cancer, and provide a roadmap for the rational integration of cathepsin-targeting agents into clinical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oakley C Olson
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
- Gerstner Sloan Kettering Graduate School of Biomedical Science, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Johanna A Joyce
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
- Department of Oncology, University of Lausanne
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Lausanne, CH-1066 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Carrera P, Di Resta C, Volonteri C, Castiglioni E, Bonfiglio S, Lazarevic D, Cittaro D, Stupka E, Ferrari M, Somaschini M. Exome sequencing and pathway analysis for identification of genetic variability relevant for bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in preterm newborns: A pilot study. Clin Chim Acta 2015; 451:39-45. [PMID: 25578394 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2015.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Revised: 12/30/2014] [Accepted: 01/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Paola Carrera
- Unit of Genomics for Diagnosis of Human Pathologies, Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy; Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Biology, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy.
| | - Chiara Di Resta
- Unit of Genomics for Diagnosis of Human Pathologies, Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
| | | | - Emanuela Castiglioni
- Unit of Genomics for Diagnosis of Human Pathologies, Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
| | - Silvia Bonfiglio
- Centre for Translational Genomics and Bioinformatics, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
| | - Dejan Lazarevic
- Centre for Translational Genomics and Bioinformatics, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
| | - Davide Cittaro
- Centre for Translational Genomics and Bioinformatics, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
| | - Elia Stupka
- Centre for Translational Genomics and Bioinformatics, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
| | - Maurizio Ferrari
- Unit of Genomics for Diagnosis of Human Pathologies, Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy; Laboratory of Clinical Molecular Biology, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy; Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milano, Italy
| | - Marco Somaschini
- Unit of Genomics for Diagnosis of Human Pathologies, Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milano, Italy
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Hou L, Cooley J, Swanson R, Ong PC, Pike RN, Bogyo M, Olson ST, Remold-O'Donnell E. The protease cathepsin L regulates Th17 cell differentiation. J Autoimmun 2015; 65:56-63. [PMID: 26343333 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2015.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2015] [Revised: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Previously we reported that IL-17(+) T cells, primarily IL-17(+) γδ cells, are increased in mice lacking the protease inhibitor serpinB1 (serpinb1(-/-) mice). Here we show that serpinB1-deficient CD4 cells exhibit a cell-autonomous and selective deficiency in suppressing T helper 17 (Th17) cell differentiation. This suggested an opposing role for one or more protease in promoting Th17 differentiation. We found that several SerpinB1-inhibitable cysteine cathepsins are induced in Th17 cells, most prominently cathepsin L (catL); this was verified by peptidase assays, active site labeling and Western blots. Moreover, Th17 differentiation was suppressed by both broad cathepsin inhibitors and catL selective inhibitors. CatL is present in Th17 cells as single chain (SC)- and two-chain (TC)-forms. Inhibiting asparagine endopeptidase (AEP) blocked conversion of SC-catL to TC-catL and increased generation of serpinb1(-/-) Th17 cells, but not wild-type Th17 cells. These findings suggest that SC-catL is biologically active in promoting Th17 generation and is counter-regulated by serpinB1 and secondarily by AEP. Thus, in addition to regulation by cytokines and transcription factors, differentiation of CD4 cells to Th17 cells is actively regulated by a catL-serpinB1-AEP module. Targeting this protease regulatory module could be an approach to treating Th17 cell-driven autoimmune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lifei Hou
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Jessica Cooley
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Richard Swanson
- Department of Periodontics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Poh Chee Ong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Robert N Pike
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Matthew Bogyo
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA
| | - Steven T Olson
- Department of Periodontics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Eileen Remold-O'Donnell
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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28
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Lecaille F, Lalmanach G, Andrault PM. Antimicrobial proteins and peptides in human lung diseases: A friend and foe partnership with host proteases. Biochimie 2015; 122:151-68. [PMID: 26341472 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2015.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Lung antimicrobial proteins and peptides (AMPs) are major sentinels of innate immunity by preventing microbial colonization and infection. Nevertheless bactericidal activity of AMPs against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria is compromised in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis (CF) and asthma. Evidence is accumulating that expression of harmful human serine proteases, matrix metalloproteases and cysteine cathepsins is markedely increased in these chronic lung diseases. The local imbalance between proteases and protease inhibitors compromises lung tissue integrity and function, by not only degrading extracellular matrix components, but also non-matrix proteins. Despite the fact that AMPs are somewhat resistant to proteolytic degradation, some human proteases cleave them efficiently and impair their antimicrobial potency. By contrast, certain AMPs may be effective as antiproteases. Host proteases participate in concert with bacterial proteases in the degradation of key innate immunity peptides/proteins and thus may play immunomodulatory activities during chronic lung diseases. In this context, the present review highlights the current knowledge and recent discoveries on the ability of host enzymes to interact with AMPs, providing a better understanding of the role of human proteases in innate host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabien Lecaille
- INSERM, UMR 1100, Pathologies Respiratoires: Protéolyse et Aérosolthérapie, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires, Equipe 2: « Mécanismes Protéolytiques dans l'Inflammation », Université François Rabelais, F-37032 Tours cedex, France.
| | - Gilles Lalmanach
- INSERM, UMR 1100, Pathologies Respiratoires: Protéolyse et Aérosolthérapie, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires, Equipe 2: « Mécanismes Protéolytiques dans l'Inflammation », Université François Rabelais, F-37032 Tours cedex, France
| | - Pierre-Marie Andrault
- INSERM, UMR 1100, Pathologies Respiratoires: Protéolyse et Aérosolthérapie, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires, Equipe 2: « Mécanismes Protéolytiques dans l'Inflammation », Université François Rabelais, F-37032 Tours cedex, France
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Kowalewski B, Lübke T, Kollmann K, Braulke T, Reinheckel T, Dierks T, Damme M. Molecular characterization of arylsulfatase G: expression, processing, glycosylation, transport, and activity. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:27992-8005. [PMID: 25135642 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.584144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Arylsulfatase G (ARSG) is a recently identified lysosomal sulfatase that was shown to be responsible for the degradation of 3-O-sulfated N-sulfoglucosamine residues of heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans. Deficiency of ARSG leads to a new type of mucopolysaccharidosis, as described in a mouse model. Here, we provide a detailed molecular characterization of the endogenous murine enzyme. ARSG is expressed and proteolytically processed in a tissue-specific manner. The 63-kDa single-chain precursor protein localizes to pre-lysosomal compartments and tightly associates with organelle membranes, most likely the endoplasmic reticulum. In contrast, proteolytically processed ARSG fragments of 34-, 18-, and 10-kDa were found in lysosomal fractions and lost their membrane association. The processing sites and a disulfide bridge between the 18- and 10-kDa chains could be roughly mapped. Proteases participating in the processing were identified as cathepsins B and L. Proteolytic processing is dispensable for hydrolytic sulfatase activity in vitro. Lysosomal transport of ARSG in the liver is independent of mannose 6-phosphate, sortilin, and Limp2. However, mutation of glycosylation site N-497 abrogates transport of ARSG to lysosomes in human fibrosarcoma cells, due to impaired mannose 6-phosphate modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Kowalewski
- From the Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry I, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld
| | - Torben Lübke
- From the Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry I, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld
| | - Katrin Kollmann
- the Department of Biochemistry, Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg 20246, and
| | - Thomas Braulke
- the Department of Biochemistry, Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg 20246, and
| | - Thomas Reinheckel
- the Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research and BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg 79104, Germany
| | - Thomas Dierks
- From the Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry I, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld,
| | - Markus Damme
- From the Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry I, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld,
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30
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CTSH regulates β-cell function and disease progression in newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:10305-10. [PMID: 24982147 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1402571111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Over 40 susceptibility loci have been identified for type 1 diabetes (T1D). Little is known about how these variants modify disease risk and progression. Here, we combined in vitro and in vivo experiments with clinical studies to determine how genetic variation of the candidate gene cathepsin H (CTSH) affects disease mechanisms and progression in T1D. The T allele of rs3825932 was associated with lower CTSH expression in human lymphoblastoid cell lines and pancreatic tissue. Proinflammatory cytokines decreased the expression of CTSH in human islets and primary rat β-cells, and overexpression of CTSH protected insulin-secreting cells against cytokine-induced apoptosis. Mechanistic studies indicated that CTSH exerts its antiapoptotic effects through decreased JNK and p38 signaling and reduced expression of the proapoptotic factors Bim, DP5, and c-Myc. CTSH overexpression also up-regulated Ins2 expression and increased insulin secretion. Additionally, islets from Ctsh(-/-) mice contained less insulin than islets from WT mice. Importantly, the TT genotype was associated with higher daily insulin dose and faster disease progression in newly diagnosed T1D patients, indicating agreement between the experimental and clinical data. In line with these observations, healthy human subjects carrying the T allele have lower β-cell function, which was evaluated by glucose tolerance testing. The data provide strong evidence that CTSH is an important regulator of β-cell function during progression of T1D and reinforce the concept that candidate genes for T1D may affect disease progression by modulating survival and function of pancreatic β-cells, the target cells of the autoimmune assault.
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31
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Sylva M, Moorman AFM, van den Hoff MJB. Follistatin-like 1 in vertebrate development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 99:61-9. [PMID: 23723173 DOI: 10.1002/bdrc.21030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 03/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Follistatin-like 1 (Fstl1) is a member of the secreted protein acidic rich in cysteins (SPARC) family and has been implicated in many different signaling pathways, including bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling. In many different developmental processes like, dorso-ventral axis establishment, skeletal, lung and ureter development, loss of function experiments have unveiled an important role for Fstl1. Fstl1 largely functions through inhibiting interactions with the BMP signaling pathway, although, in various disease models, different signaling pathways, like activation of pAKT, pAMPK, Na/K-ATPase, or innate immune responses, are linked to Fstl1. How Fstl1 inhibits BMP signaling remains unclear, although it is known that Fstl1 does not function through a scavenging mechanism, like the other known extracellular BMP inhibitors such as noggin. It has been proposed that Fstl1 interferes with BMP receptor complex formation and as such inhibits propagation of the BMP signal into the cell. Future challenges will encompass the identification of the factors that determine the mechanisms that underlie the fact that Fstl1 acts by interfering with BMP signaling during development, but through other signaling pathways during disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sylva
- Academic Medical Center, Department of Anatomy, Embryology and Physiology, Meibergdreef 15 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Aldahmesh M, Khan A, Alkuraya H, Adly N, Anazi S, Al-Saleh A, Mohamed J, Hijazi H, Prabakaran S, Tacke M, Al-Khrashi A, Hashem M, Reinheckel T, Assiri A, Alkuraya F. Mutations in LRPAP1 are associated with severe myopia in humans. Am J Hum Genet 2013; 93:313-20. [PMID: 23830514 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2013] [Revised: 05/30/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Myopia is an extremely common eye disorder but the pathogenesis of its isolated form, which accounts for the overwhelming majority of cases, remains poorly understood. There is strong evidence for genetic predisposition to myopia, but determining myopia genetic risk factors has been difficult to achieve. We have identified Mendelian forms of myopia in four consanguineous families and implemented exome/autozygome analysis to identify homozygous truncating variants in LRPAP1 and CTSH as the likely causal mutations. LRPAP1 encodes a chaperone of LRP1, which is known to influence TGF-β activity. Interestingly, we observed marked deficiency of LRP1 and upregulation of TGF-β in cells from affected individuals, the latter being consistent with available data on the role of TGF-β in the remodeling of the sclera in myopia and the high frequency of myopia in individuals with Marfan syndrome who characteristically have upregulation of TGF-β signaling. CTSH, on the other hand, encodes a protease and we show that deficiency of the murine ortholog results in markedly abnormal globes consistent with the observed human phenotype. Our data highlight a role for LRPAP1 and CTSH in myopia genetics and demonstrate the power of Mendelian forms in illuminating new molecular mechanisms that may be relevant to common phenotypes.
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33
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Lecaille F, Naudin C, Sage J, Joulin-Giet A, Courty A, Andrault PM, Veldhuizen RA, Possmayer F, Lalmanach G. Specific cleavage of the lung surfactant protein A by human cathepsin S may impair its antibacterial properties. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2013; 45:1701-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2013.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2013] [Revised: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Faraco J, Lin L, Kornum BR, Kenny EE, Trynka G, Einen M, Rico TJ, Lichtner P, Dauvilliers Y, Arnulf I, Lecendreux M, Javidi S, Geisler P, Mayer G, Pizza F, Poli F, Plazzi G, Overeem S, Lammers GJ, Kemlink D, Sonka K, Nevsimalova S, Rouleau G, Desautels A, Montplaisir J, Frauscher B, Ehrmann L, Högl B, Jennum P, Bourgin P, Peraita-Adrados R, Iranzo A, Bassetti C, Chen WM, Concannon P, Thompson SD, Damotte V, Fontaine B, Breban M, Gieger C, Klopp N, Deloukas P, Wijmenga C, Hallmayer J, Onengut-Gumuscu S, Rich SS, Winkelmann J, Mignot E. ImmunoChip study implicates antigen presentation to T cells in narcolepsy. PLoS Genet 2013; 9:e1003270. [PMID: 23459209 PMCID: PMC3573113 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2012] [Accepted: 11/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in the identification of susceptibility genes and environmental exposures provide broad support for a post-infectious autoimmune basis for narcolepsy/hypocretin (orexin) deficiency. We genotyped loci associated with other autoimmune and inflammatory diseases in 1,886 individuals with hypocretin-deficient narcolepsy and 10,421 controls, all of European ancestry, using a custom genotyping array (ImmunoChip). Three loci located outside the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) region on chromosome 6 were significantly associated with disease risk. In addition to a strong signal in the T cell receptor alpha (TRA@), variants in two additional narcolepsy loci, Cathepsin H (CTSH) and Tumor necrosis factor (ligand) superfamily member 4 (TNFSF4, also called OX40L), attained genome-wide significance. These findings underline the importance of antigen presentation by HLA Class II to T cells in the pathophysiology of this autoimmune disease. While there is now broad consensus that narcolepsy-hypocretin deficiency results from a highly specific autoimmune attack on hypocretin cells, little is understood regarding the initiation and progression of the underlying autoimmune process. We have taken advantage of a unique high-density genotyping platform (the ImmunoChip) designed to study variants in genes known to be important to autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Our study of nearly 2000 narcolepsy cases compared to 10,000 controls underscored important roles for HLA DQB1*06:02 and the T cell receptor alpha genes and implicated two additional genes, Cathepsin H and TNFSF4/OX40L, in disease pathogenesis. These findings are particularly important, as these encoded proteins have key roles in antigen processing, presentation, and T cell response, and they suggest that specific interactions at the immunological synapse constitute the pathway to the disease. Further studies of these genes and encoded proteins may therefore reveal the mechanism leading to this highly selective and unique autoimmune disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliette Faraco
- Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Ling Lin
- Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Birgitte Rahbek Kornum
- Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
- Center for Sleep Medicine, Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Glostrup Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Eimear E. Kenny
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Gosia Trynka
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Genetics, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Mali Einen
- Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Tom J. Rico
- Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Peter Lichtner
- Institute of Human Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München–German Research Center for Environmental Health, Munich, Germany
| | - Yves Dauvilliers
- National Reference Network for Orphan Diseases (Narcolepsy and Idiopathic Hypersomnia), Paris, France
- Sleep Unit, Gui-de-Chauliac Hospital, INSERM-1061, Montpellier, France
| | - Isabelle Arnulf
- National Reference Network for Orphan Diseases (Narcolepsy and Idiopathic Hypersomnia), Paris, France
- Sleep Disorders Unit, Hospital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Pierre and Marie Curie University, Paris, France
| | - Michel Lecendreux
- National Reference Network for Orphan Diseases (Narcolepsy and Idiopathic Hypersomnia), Paris, France
- Centre Pédiatrique des Pathologies du Sommeil, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris, France
| | - Sirous Javidi
- Hephata-Klinik, Schwalmstadt-Treysa, Germany
- Department of Neurology, Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Peter Geisler
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Geert Mayer
- Hephata-Klinik, Schwalmstadt-Treysa, Germany
- Department of Neurology, Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Fabio Pizza
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Bologna/IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche, Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesca Poli
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Bologna/IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Plazzi
- Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Bologna/IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche, Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Gert Jan Lammers
- Leiden University Medical Center, Department of Neurology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - David Kemlink
- Department of Neurology, Charles University, 1st Faculty of Medicine and General Teaching Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Sonka
- Department of Neurology, Charles University, 1st Faculty of Medicine and General Teaching Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Sona Nevsimalova
- Department of Neurology, Charles University, 1st Faculty of Medicine and General Teaching Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Guy Rouleau
- CHU Ste-Justine Research Centre, Centre of Excellence in Neuromics, Université de Montréal (CENUM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Alex Desautels
- Neurology Service, Hôpital du Sacré-Coeur, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- Center for Advanced Research in Sleep Medicine, Hôpital du Sacré-Cœur, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Jacques Montplaisir
- Center for Advanced Research in Sleep Medicine, Hôpital du Sacré-Cœur, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Birgit Frauscher
- Department of Neurology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Laura Ehrmann
- Department of Neurology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Birgit Högl
- Department of Neurology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Poul Jennum
- Center for Sleep Medicine, Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Glostrup Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Patrice Bourgin
- University Sleep Clinic and CNRS UPR3212, Strasbourg University Hospital, Strasbourg University, Strasbourg, France
| | - Rosa Peraita-Adrados
- Sleep and Epilepsy Unit-Clinical Neurophysiology Service, University Hospital Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alex Iranzo
- Neurology Service and Multisciplinary Sleep Unit, Hospital Clínic, CIBERNED, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Claudio Bassetti
- Department of Neurology, Inselspital Universitatsspital, Bern, Swizerland
| | - Wei-Min Chen
- Center for Public Health Genomics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Patrick Concannon
- Center for Public Health Genomics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Susan D. Thompson
- Division of Rheumatology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Vincent Damotte
- Inserm, U975, CRICM, Paris, France
- Pierre Marie Curie University, UMR-S975, Paris, France
| | - Bertrand Fontaine
- Inserm, U975, CRICM, Paris, France
- Pierre Marie Curie University, UMR-S975, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Department of Neurology, Hospital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Maxime Breban
- Cochin Institute, INSERM U1016/CNRS UMR 8104/Paris Descartes University, Paris, France
- Department of Rheumatology, Ambroise Paré Hospital AP-HP, Boulogne-Billancourt, France
- Université Versailles Saint Quentin en Yvelines (UVSQ), Boulogne-Billancourt, France
| | - Christian Gieger
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Norman Klopp
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Panos Deloukas
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, United Kingdom
| | - Cisca Wijmenga
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Genetics, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Joachim Hallmayer
- Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
- Department of Psychiatry, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
| | - Suna Onengut-Gumuscu
- Center for Public Health Genomics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Stephen S. Rich
- Center for Public Health Genomics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Juliane Winkelmann
- Institute of Human Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München–German Research Center for Environmental Health, Munich, Germany
- Institute for Human Genetics, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
- Neurology Clinic, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
| | - Emmanuel Mignot
- Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Lu WD, Funkelstein L, Toneff T, Reinheckel T, Peters C, Hook V. Cathepsin H functions as an aminopeptidase in secretory vesicles for production of enkephalin and galanin peptide neurotransmitters. J Neurochem 2012; 122:512-22. [PMID: 22582844 PMCID: PMC3417130 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2012.07788.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Peptide neurotransmitters function as key intercellular signaling molecules in the nervous system. These peptides are generated in secretory vesicles from proneuropeptides by proteolytic processing at dibasic residues, followed by removal of N- and/or C-terminal basic residues to form active peptides. Enkephalin biosynthesis from proenkephalin utilizes the cysteine protease cathepsin L and the subtilisin-like prohormone convertase 2 (PC2). Cathepsin L generates peptide intermediates with N-terminal basic residue extensions, which must be removed by an aminopeptidase. In this study, we identified cathepsin H as an aminopeptidase in secretory vesicles that produces (Met)enkephalin (ME) by sequential removal of basic residues from KR-ME and KK-ME, supported by in vivo knockout of the cathepsin H gene. Localization of cathepsin H in secretory vesicles was demonstrated by immunoelectron microscopy and immunofluorescence deconvolution microscopy. Purified human cathepsin H sequentially removes N-terminal basic residues to generate ME, with peptide products characterized by nano-LC-MS/MS tandem mass spectrometry. Cathepsin H shows highest activities for cleaving N-terminal basic residues (Arg and Lys) among amino acid fluorogenic substrates. Notably, knockout of the cathepsin H gene results in reduction of ME in mouse brain. Cathepsin H deficient mice also show a substantial decrease in galanin peptide neurotransmitter levels in brain. These results illustrate a role for cathepsin H as an aminopeptidase for enkephalin and galanin peptide neurotransmitter production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiya Douglas Lu
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
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