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Lauria PSS, Gomes JDM, Abreu LS, Santana RC, Nunes VLC, Couto RD, Colavolpe PO, Silva MSD, Soares MBP, Villarreal CF. Ayahuasca and its major component harmine promote antinociceptive effects in mouse models of acute and chronic pain. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 323:117710. [PMID: 38184028 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2024.117710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Ayahuasca (AYA) is a psychedelic brew used in religious ceremonies. It is broadly used as a sacred medicine for treating several ailments, including pain of various origins. AIM OF THE STUDY To investigate the antinociceptive effects of AYA and its mechanisms in preclinical models of acute and chronic pain in mice, in particular during experimental neuropathy. MATERIALS AND METHODS The antinociceptive effects of AYA administered orally were assessed in the following models of pain: formalin test, Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA)-induced inflammation, tail flick test, and partial sciatic nerve ligation model of neuropathic pain. Antagonism assays and Fos immunohistochemistry in the brain were performed. AYA-induced toxicity was investigated. AYA was chemically characterized. The antinociceptive effect of harmine, the major component present in AYA, was investigated. RESULTS AYA (24-3000 μL/kg) dose-dependently reduced formalin-induced pain-like behaviors and CFA-induced mechanical allodynia but did not affect CFA-induced paw edema or tail flick latency. During experimental neuropathy, single treatments with AYA (24-3000 μL/kg) reduced mechanical allodynia; daily treatments once or twice a day for 14 days promoted consistent and sustained antinociception. The antinociceptive effect of AYA (600 μL/kg) was reverted by bicuculline (1 mg/kg) and methysergide (5 mg/kg), but not by naloxone (5 mg/kg), phaclofen (2 mg/kg), and rimonabant (10 mg/kg), suggesting the roles of GABAA and serotonergic receptors. AYA increased Fos expression in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray and nucleus raphe magnus after 1 h, but not after 6 h or 14 days of daily treatments. AYA (600 μL/kg) twice a day for 14 days did not alter mice's motor function, spontaneous locomotion, body weight, food and water intake, hematological, biochemical, and histopathological parameters. Harmine (3.5 mg/kg) promoted consistent antinociception during experimental neuropathy. CONCLUSIONS AYA promotes consistent antinociceptive effects in different mouse models of pain without inducing detectable toxic effects. Harmine is at least partially accountable for the antinociceptive properties of AYA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Juliana de Medeiros Gomes
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Paraíba, 58.050-585, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil.
| | - Lucas Silva Abreu
- Chemistry Institute, Fluminense Federal University, 24.020-150, Niterói, RJ, Brazil.
| | | | | | - Ricardo David Couto
- School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Bahia, 40.170-115, Salvador, BA, Brazil; School of Medicine, University Center of Technology and Science, 41.800-700, Salvador, BA, Brazil.
| | | | - Marcelo Sobral da Silva
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Paraíba, 58.050-585, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil.
| | - Milena Botelho Pereira Soares
- Gonçalo Moniz Institute, FIOCRUZ, 40.296-710, Salvador, BA, Brazil; Institute of Advanced Systems in Health, SENAI CIMATEC, 41.650-010, Salvador, BA, Brazil.
| | - Cristiane Flora Villarreal
- School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Bahia, 40.170-115, Salvador, BA, Brazil; Gonçalo Moniz Institute, FIOCRUZ, 40.296-710, Salvador, BA, Brazil.
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De Filippo R, Schmitz D. Synthetic surprise as the foundation of the psychedelic experience. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 157:105538. [PMID: 38220035 PMCID: PMC10839673 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
Psychedelic agents, such as LSD and psilocybin, induce marked alterations in consciousness via activation of the 5-HT2A receptor (5-HT2ARs). We hypothesize that psychedelics enforce a state of synthetic surprise through the biased activation of the 5-HTRs system. This idea is informed by recent insights into the role of 5-HT in signaling surprise. The effects on consciousness, explained by the cognitive penetrability of perception, can be described within the predictive coding framework where surprise corresponds to prediction error, the mismatch between predictions and actual sensory input. Crucially, the precision afforded to the prediction error determines its effect on priors, enabling a dynamic interaction between top-down expectations and incoming sensory data. By integrating recent findings on predictive coding circuitry and 5-HT2ARs transcriptomic data, we propose a biological implementation with emphasis on the role of inhibitory interneurons. Implications arise for the clinical use of psychedelics, which may rely primarily on their inherent capacity to induce surprise in order to disrupt maladaptive patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto De Filippo
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Neuroscience Research Center, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Dietmar Schmitz
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Neuroscience Research Center, 10117 Berlin, Germany; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany; Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Einstein Center for Neuroscience, 10117 Berlin, Germany; Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence, 10117 Berlin, Germany; Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Philippstr. 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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Ruffell SGD, Crosland‐Wood M, Palmer R, Netzband N, Tsang W, Weiss B, Gandy S, Cowley‐Court T, Halman A, McHerron D, Jong A, Kennedy T, White E, Perkins D, Terhune DB, Sarris J. Ayahuasca: A review of historical, pharmacological, and therapeutic aspects. PCN REPORTS : PSYCHIATRY AND CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCES 2023; 2:e146. [PMID: 38868739 PMCID: PMC11114307 DOI: 10.1002/pcn5.146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a psychedelic plant brew originating from the Amazon rainforest. It is formed from two basic components, the Banisteriopsis caapi vine and a plant containing the potent psychedelic dimethyltryptamine (DMT), usually Psychotria viridis. Here we review the history of ayahuasca and describe recent work on its pharmacology, phenomenological responses, and clinical applications. There has been a significant increase in interest in ayahuasca since the turn of the millennium. Anecdotal evidence varies significantly, ranging from evangelical accounts to horror stories involving physical and psychological harm. The effects of the brew on personality and mental health outcomes are discussed in this review. Furthermore, phenomenological analyses of the ayahuasca experience are explored. Ayahuasca is a promising psychedelic agent that warrants greater empirical attention regarding its basic neurochemical mechanisms of action and potential therapeutic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon G. D. Ruffell
- Onaya ScienceIquitosPeru
- Psychae InstituteMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
- School of Population and Global HealthUniversity of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
| | - Max Crosland‐Wood
- Onaya ScienceIquitosPeru
- Psychology and Psychotherapy departmentCentral and North West London NHS TrustLondonUK
| | - Rob Palmer
- Onaya ScienceIquitosPeru
- School of MedicineUniversity of YaleNew HavenConnecticutUSA
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of New MexicoAlbuquerqueNew MexicoUSA
| | | | - WaiFung Tsang
- Onaya ScienceIquitosPeru
- Institute of Psychology, Psychiatry and NeuroscienceSouth London and The Maudsley NHS TrustLondonUK
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & NeuroscienceKing's College LondonLondonUK
| | - Brandon Weiss
- Onaya ScienceIquitosPeru
- Division of PsychiatryImperial College LondonLondonUK
| | | | - Tessa Cowley‐Court
- Psychae InstituteMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
- School of Population and Global HealthUniversity of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
| | - Andreas Halman
- School of Population and Global HealthUniversity of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
| | | | - Angelina Jong
- Institute of Psychology, Psychiatry and NeuroscienceSouth London and The Maudsley NHS TrustLondonUK
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & NeuroscienceKing's College LondonLondonUK
| | | | | | - Daniel Perkins
- Psychae InstituteMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
- School of Population and Global HealthUniversity of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
- Centre for Mental HealthSwinburne UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Devin B. Terhune
- Psychology and Psychotherapy departmentCentral and North West London NHS TrustLondonUK
| | - Jerome Sarris
- Psychae InstituteMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
- NICM Health Research InstituteWestern Sydney UniversitySydneyAustralia
- Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental HealthUniversity of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
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Ramaekers JG, Mallaroni P, Kloft L, Reckweg JT, Toennes SW, van Oorsouw K, Mason NL. Altered State of Consciousness and Mental Imagery as a Function of N, N-dimethyltryptamine Concentration in Ritualistic Ayahuasca Users. J Cogn Neurosci 2023; 35:1382-1393. [PMID: 37159257 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_02003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Consumption of the psychedelic brew ayahuasca is a central ritualistic aspect of the Santo Daime religion. The current observational, baseline controlled study was designed to assess whether members (n = 24) of the Santo Daime church would show enhanced capacity for mental imagery during an ayahuasca experience. In addition, this study assessed whether the effects of ayahuasca on consciousness and mental imagery were related to peak serum concentration of N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), the main psychoactive component. Measures of altered states of consciousness (5-Dimensional Altered States of Consciousness Questionnaire) and ego dissolution (Ego Dissolution Inventory [EDI]) as well as measures of mental imagery (visual perspective shifting, vividness of visual imagery, cognitive flexibility, associative thinking) were taken on two subsequent days on which members of Santo Daime were sober or drank a self-selected volume of ayahuasca. Measures of altered states of consciousness revealed that feelings of oceanic boundlessness, visual restructuralization, and EDI increased most prominently after drinking and shared a positive correlation with peak DMT concentration. Measures of mental imagery did not noticeably differ between the baseline and ayahuasca condition, although subjective ratings of cognitive flexibility were lower under ayahuasca. Two measures related to mental imagery, that is, perspective shifts and cognitive flexibility, were significantly correlated to peak DMT concentrations. Peak concentrations of DMT and other alkaloids did not correlate with ayahuasca dose. These findings confirm previous notions that the primary phenomenological characteristics of ayahuasca are driven by DMT. Compensatory or neuroadaptive effects associated with long-term ayahuasca intake may have mitigated the acute impact of ayahuasca in Santo Daime members on mental imagery.
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5
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Lawrence DW, DiBattista AP, Timmermann C. N, N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT)-Occasioned Familiarity and the Sense of Familiarity Questionnaire (SOF-Q). J Psychoactive Drugs 2023:1-13. [PMID: 37428989 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2023.2230568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the sense of familiarity attributed to N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) experiences. 227 naturalistic inhaled-DMT experiences reporting a sense of familiarity were included. No experiences referenced a previous DMT or psychedelic experience as the source of the familiarity. A high prevalence of concomitant features discordant from ordinary consciousness were identified: features of a mystical experience (97.4%), ego-dissolution (16.3%), and a "profound experience of death" (11.0%). The Sense of Familiarity Questionnaire (SOF-Q) was developed assessing 19 features of familiarity across 5 themes: (1) Familiarity with the Feeling, Emotion, or Knowledge Gained; (2) Familiarity with the Place, Space, State, or Environment; (3) Familiarity with the Act of Going Through the Experience; (4) Familiarity with Transcendent Features; and (5) Familiarity Imparted by an Entity Encounter. Bayesian latent class modeling yielded two stable classes of participants who shared similar SOF-Q responses. Class 1 participants responded, "yes" more often for items within "Familiarity Imparted by an Entity Encounter" and "Familiarity with the Feeling, Emotion, or Knowledge Gained." Results catalogued features of the sense of familiarity imparted by DMT, which appears to be non-referential to a previous psychedelic experience. Findings provide insights into the unique and enigmatic familiarity reported during DMT experiences and offer a foundation for further exploration into this intriguing phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Wyndham Lawrence
- Department of Family & Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
- Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health System, Toronto, Canada
- Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Alex P DiBattista
- Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Christopher Timmermann
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Gonçalves J, Luís Â, Gallardo E, Duarte AP. A Systematic Review on the Therapeutic Effects of Ayahuasca. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:2573. [PMID: 37447135 DOI: 10.3390/plants12132573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
Traditional therapies, resorting to the use of plants, have acquired a great demand over the years, both for economic reasons and the preference for natural treatments. Some studies suggest that ayahuasca may have beneficial properties in treating some physical and psychological imbalances. Thus, we carried out a systematic review of studies published up to December 2022, where these themes were addressed. The search was carried out in the PubMed database, and only studies written in English and published in peer-reviewed journals were included. Thus, 228 publications were identified, of which 66 were included in the present study. The reviewed studies suggest that ayahuasca may have beneficial effects on various physical and psychological conditions, namely in the treatment of depression, anxiety and various diseases of the neurobiological system, as well as anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, demonstrating its therapeutic potential. The number of studies that address this issue has also been growing, demonstrating interest in the search for alternative treatments. However, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic review where all the findings of therapeutic effects associated with the consumption of ayahuasca are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Gonçalves
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, Av. Infante D. Henrique, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, Estrada Municipal 506, 6200-284 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Ângelo Luís
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, Av. Infante D. Henrique, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, Estrada Municipal 506, 6200-284 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Eugenia Gallardo
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, Av. Infante D. Henrique, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, Estrada Municipal 506, 6200-284 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Ana Paula Duarte
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, Av. Infante D. Henrique, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, Estrada Municipal 506, 6200-284 Covilhã, Portugal
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Tylš F, Vejmola Č, Koudelka V, Piorecká V, Kadeřábek L, Bochin M, Novák T, Kuchař M, Bendová Z, Brunovský M, Horáček J, Pálení ček T. Underlying pharmacological mechanisms of psilocin-induced broadband desynchronization and disconnection of EEG in rats. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1152578. [PMID: 37425017 PMCID: PMC10325866 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1152578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Psilocybin is one of the most extensively studied psychedelic drugs with a broad therapeutic potential. Despite the fact that its psychoactivity is mainly attributed to the agonism at 5-HT2A receptors, it has high binding affinity also to 5-HT2C and 5-HT1A receptors and indirectly modulates the dopaminergic system. Psilocybin and its active metabolite psilocin, as well as other serotonergic psychedelics, induce broadband desynchronization and disconnection in EEG in humans as well as in animals. The contribution of serotonergic and dopaminergic mechanisms underlying these changes is not clear. The present study thus aims to elucidate the pharmacological mechanisms underlying psilocin-induced broadband desynchronization and disconnection in an animal model. Methods Selective antagonists of serotonin receptors (5-HT1A WAY100635, 5-HT2A MDL100907, 5-HT2C SB242084) and antipsychotics haloperidol, a D2 antagonist, and clozapine, a mixed D2 and 5-HT receptor antagonist, were used in order to clarify the underlying pharmacology. Results Psilocin-induced broadband decrease in the mean absolute EEG power was normalized by all antagonists and antipsychotics used within the frequency range 1-25 Hz; however, decreases in 25-40 Hz were influenced only by clozapine. Psilocin-induced decrease in global functional connectivity and, specifically, fronto-temporal disconnection were reversed by the 5-HT2A antagonist while other drugs had no effect. Discussion These findings suggest the involvement of all three serotonergic receptors studied as well as the role of dopaminergic mechanisms in power spectra/current density with only the 5-HT2A receptor being effective in both studied metrics. This opens an important discussion on the role of other than 5-HT2A-dependent mechanisms underlying the neurobiology of psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filip Tylš
- Psychedelic Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
- 3rd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Čestmír Vejmola
- Psychedelic Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
- 3rd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Vlastimil Koudelka
- Psychedelic Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Václava Piorecká
- Psychedelic Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
- Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Kladno, Czechia
| | - Lukáš Kadeřábek
- Psychedelic Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Marcel Bochin
- Psychedelic Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
- 3rd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Tomáš Novák
- Psychedelic Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
- 3rd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Martin Kuchař
- Psychedelic Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Substances, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Zdeňka Bendová
- Psychedelic Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Martin Brunovský
- Psychedelic Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
- 3rd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Jiří Horáček
- Psychedelic Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
- 3rd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Tomáš Pálení ček
- Psychedelic Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
- 3rd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
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Sodré ME, Wießner I, Irfan M, Schenck CH, Mota-Rolim SA. Awake or Sleeping? Maybe Both… A Review of Sleep-Related Dissociative States. J Clin Med 2023; 12:3876. [PMID: 37373570 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12123876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have begun to understand sleep not only as a whole-brain process but also as a complex local phenomenon controlled by specific neurotransmitters that act in different neural networks, which is called "local sleep". Moreover, the basic states of human consciousness-wakefulness, sleep onset (N1), light sleep (N2), deep sleep (N3), and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep-can concurrently appear, which may result in different sleep-related dissociative states. In this article, we classify these sleep-related dissociative states into physiological, pathological, and altered states of consciousness. Physiological states are daydreaming, lucid dreaming, and false awakenings. Pathological states include sleep paralysis, sleepwalking, and REM sleep behavior disorder. Altered states are hypnosis, anesthesia, and psychedelics. We review the neurophysiology and phenomenology of these sleep-related dissociative states of consciousness and update them with recent studies. We conclude that these sleep-related dissociative states have a significant basic and clinical impact since their study contributes to the understanding of consciousness and the proper treatment of neuropsychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Isabel Wießner
- Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal 59078-970, RN, Brazil
| | - Muna Irfan
- Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Carlos H Schenck
- Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Sergio A Mota-Rolim
- Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal 59078-970, RN, Brazil
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Good M, Joel Z, Benway T, Routledge C, Timmermann C, Erritzoe D, Weaver R, Allen G, Hughes C, Topping H, Bowman A, James E. Pharmacokinetics of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in Humans. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2023; 48:311-327. [PMID: 37086340 PMCID: PMC10122081 DOI: 10.1007/s13318-023-00822-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a psychedelic compound under development for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD). This study evaluated the preclinical and clinical pharmacokinetics and metabolism of DMT in healthy subjects. METHODS The physiochemical properties of DMT were determined using a series of in vitro experiments and its metabolic profile was assessed using monoamine oxidase (MAO) and cytochrome P450 (CYP) inhibitors in hepatocyte and mitochondrial fractions. Clinical pharmacokinetics results are from the phase I component of a phase I/IIa randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, dose-escalation trial (NCT04673383). Healthy adults received single escalating doses of DMT fumarate (SPL026) via a two-phase intravenous (IV) infusion. Dosing regimens were calculated based on pharmacokinetic modelling and predictions with progression to each subsequent dose level contingent upon safety and tolerability. RESULTS In vitro clearance of DMT was reduced through the inhibition of MAO-A, CYP2D6 and to a lesser extent CYP2C19. Determination of lipophilicity and plasma protein binding was low, indicating that a high proportion of DMT is available for distribution and metabolism, consistent with the very rapid clinical pharmacokinetics. Twenty-four healthy subjects received escalating doses of DMT administered as a 10-min infusion over the dose range of 9-21.5 mg (DMT freebase). DMT was rapidly cleared for all doses: mean elimination half-life was 9-12 min. All doses were safe and well tolerated and there was no relationship between peak DMT plasma concentrations and body mass index (BMI) or weight. CONCLUSION This is the first study to determine, in detail, the full pharmacokinetics profile of DMT following a slow IV infusion in humans, confirming rapid attainment of peak plasma concentrations followed by rapid clearance. These findings provide evidence which supports the development of novel DMT infusion regimens for the treatment of MDD. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION Registered on ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04673383).
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan Good
- Small Pharma, 6-8 Bonhill Street, London, EC2A 4BX, UK.
| | - Zelah Joel
- Small Pharma, 6-8 Bonhill Street, London, EC2A 4BX, UK
| | | | | | - Chris Timmermann
- Department of Brain Sciences, The Centre for Psychedelic Research, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - David Erritzoe
- Department of Brain Sciences, The Centre for Psychedelic Research, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Ellen James
- Small Pharma, 6-8 Bonhill Street, London, EC2A 4BX, UK
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Eckernäs E, Timmermann C, Carhart-Harris R, Röshammar D, Ashton M. N,N-dimethyltryptamine affects electroencephalography response in a concentration-dependent manner-A pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis. CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol 2023; 12:474-486. [PMID: 36762714 PMCID: PMC10088084 DOI: 10.1002/psp4.12933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a psychedelic substance and is being used as a research tool in investigations of the neurobiology behind the human consciousness using different brain imaging techniques. The effects of psychedelics have commonly been studied using electroencephalography (EEG) and have been shown to produce suppression of alpha power and increase in signal diversity. However, the relationship between DMT exposure and its EEG effects has never been quantified. In this work, a population pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis was performed investigating the relationship between DMT plasma concentrations and its EEG effects. Data were obtained from a clinical study where DMT was administered by intravenous bolus dose to 13 healthy subjects. The effects on alpha power, beta power, and Lempel-Ziv complexity were evaluated. DMT was shown to fully suppress alpha power. Beta power was only partially suppressed, whereas an increase in Lempel-Ziv complexity was observed. The relationship between plasma concentrations and effects were described using effect compartment models with sigmoidal maximum inhibitory response or maximum stimulatory response models. Values of the concentration needed to reach half of the maximum response (EC50,e ) were estimated at 71, 137, and 54 nM for alpha, beta, and Lempel-Ziv complexity, respectively. A large amount of between-subject variability was associated with both beta power and Lempel-Ziv complexity with coefficients of variability of 75% and 77% for the corresponding EC50,e values, respectively. Alpha power appeared to be the most robust response, with a between-subject variability in EC50,e of 29%. Having a deeper understanding of these processes might prove beneficial in choosing appropriate doses and response biomarkers in the future clinical development of DMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Eckernäs
- Unit for Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Department of Pharmacology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Christopher Timmermann
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Robin Carhart-Harris
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK.,Psychedelics Division, Neuroscape, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | | | - Michael Ashton
- Unit for Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Department of Pharmacology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Ayahuasca's therapeutic potential: What we know - and what not. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2023; 66:45-61. [PMID: 36368095 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2022.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The therapeutic potential of the psychedelic brew ayahuasca has been investigated in preclinical and clinical studies. Currently, the most consistent evidence refers to depression. However, various studies suggest that ayahuasca may comprise therapeutic benefits in other health conditions. This narrative review provides a comprehensive, up-to-date overview of ayahuasca's therapeutic effects in diverse clinical conditions in human (clinical, cross-sectional, observational, and qualitative) and preclinical (animal and in vitro) studies. In addition to summarizing and discussing the most commonly studied conditions, such as depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders (SUD), we also examine less frequently studied psychiatric, neurological, and physical conditions. Moreover, we discuss evidence from epidemiological studies on the impact of regular, long-term ayahuasca use on health and psychosocial outcomes. Overall, evidence for depression and SUD is more consistent, with numerous and diverse studies. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that other conditions equally relevant to public health might be promising targets for ayahuasca's therapeutic effects. This includes preliminary studies indicating potential for grief, eating disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder, personality disorders, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease, and severe physical illnesses (e.g., cancer, chronic conditions). Moreover, preliminary evidence in long-term ayahuasca users does not suggest detrimental effects but possible benefits for individual and collective health. In light of the emerging evidence of psychedelic drugs as therapeutic agents, it is essential to further investigate in rigorous designs the therapeutic potential of ayahuasca in conditions other than depression.
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Alves CL, Cury RG, Roster K, Pineda AM, Rodrigues FA, Thielemann C, Ciba M. Application of machine learning and complex network measures to an EEG dataset from ayahuasca experiments. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0277257. [PMID: 36525422 PMCID: PMC9757568 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0277257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a blend of Amazonian plants that has been used for traditional medicine by the inhabitants of this region for hundreds of years. Furthermore, this plant has been demonstrated to be a viable therapy for a variety of neurological and mental diseases. EEG experiments have found specific brain regions that changed significantly due to ayahuasca. Here, we used an EEG dataset to investigate the ability to automatically detect changes in brain activity using machine learning and complex networks. Machine learning was applied at three different levels of data abstraction: (A) the raw EEG time series, (B) the correlation of the EEG time series, and (C) the complex network measures calculated from (B). Further, at the abstraction level of (C), we developed new measures of complex networks relating to community detection. As a result, the machine learning method was able to automatically detect changes in brain activity, with case (B) showing the highest accuracy (92%), followed by (A) (88%) and (C) (83%), indicating that connectivity changes between brain regions are more important for the detection of ayahuasca. The most activated areas were the frontal and temporal lobe, which is consistent with the literature. F3 and PO4 were the most important brain connections, a significant new discovery for psychedelic literature. This connection may point to a cognitive process akin to face recognition in individuals during ayahuasca-mediated visual hallucinations. Furthermore, closeness centrality and assortativity were the most important complex network measures. These two measures are also associated with diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, indicating a possible therapeutic mechanism. Moreover, the new measures were crucial to the predictive model and suggested larger brain communities associated with the use of ayahuasca. This suggests that the dissemination of information in functional brain networks is slower when this drug is present. Overall, our methodology was able to automatically detect changes in brain activity during ayahuasca consumption and interpret how these psychedelics alter brain networks, as well as provide insights into their mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline L. Alves
- BioMEMS Lab, Aschaffenburg University of Applied Sciences (UAS), Aschaffenburg, Germany
- Institute of Mathematical and Computer Sciences, University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
- * E-mail:
| | - Rubens Gisbert Cury
- Department of Neurology, Movement Disorders Center, University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Kirstin Roster
- Institute of Mathematical and Computer Sciences, University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Aruane M. Pineda
- Institute of Mathematical and Computer Sciences, University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Francisco A. Rodrigues
- Institute of Mathematical and Computer Sciences, University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Christiane Thielemann
- BioMEMS Lab, Aschaffenburg University of Applied Sciences (UAS), Aschaffenburg, Germany
| | - Manuel Ciba
- BioMEMS Lab, Aschaffenburg University of Applied Sciences (UAS), Aschaffenburg, Germany
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The Altered States Database: Psychometric data from a systematic literature review. Sci Data 2022; 9:720. [PMID: 36418335 PMCID: PMC9684144 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-022-01822-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, we present the development of the Altered States Database (ASDB), an open-science project based on a systematic literature review. The ASDB contains psychometric questionnaire data on subjective experiences of altered states of consciousness (ASC) induced by pharmacological and non-pharmacological methods. The systematic review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Scientific journal articles were identified through PubMed and Web of Science. We included studies that examined ASC using the following validated questionnaires: Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale (APZ, 5D-ASC, 11-ASC), Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (PCI), Hallucinogen Rating Scale (HRS), or Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ30). The systematic review resulted in the inclusion of a total of 165 journal articles, whereof questionnaire data was extracted and is now available on the Open Science Framework (OSF) website (https://osf.io/8mbru) and on the ASDB website (http://alteredstatesdb.org), where questionnaire data can be easily retrieved and visualized. This data allows the calculation of comparable psychometric values of ASC experiences and of dose-response relationships of substances inducing ASC. Measurement(s) | Psychometric questionnaire data | Technology Type(s) | Systematic literature review (PRISMA) | Sample Characteristic - Organism | Human |
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Schenberg EE, Gerber K. Overcoming epistemic injustices in the biomedical study of ayahuasca: Towards ethical and sustainable regulation. Transcult Psychiatry 2022; 59:610-624. [PMID: 34986699 DOI: 10.1177/13634615211062962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
After decades of biomedical research on ayahuasca's molecular compounds and their physiological effects, recent clinical trials show evidence of therapeutic potential for depression. However, indigenous peoples have been using ayahuasca therapeutically for a very long time, and thus we question the epistemic authority attributed to scientific studies, proposing that epistemic injustices were committed with practical, cultural, social, and legal consequences. We question epistemic authority based on the double-blind design, the molecularization discourse, and contextual issues about safety. We propose a new approach to foster epistemically fair research, outlining how to enforce indigenous rights, considering the Brazilian, Peruvian, and Colombian cases. Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain, control, protect, and develop their biocultural heritage, traditional knowledge, and cultural expressions, including traditional medicine practices. New regulations about ayahuasca must respect the free, prior, and informed consent of indigenous peoples according to the International Labor Organization Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention no. 169. The declaration of the ayahuasca complex as a national cultural heritage may prevent patenting from third parties, fostering the development of traditional medicine. When involving isolated compounds derived from traditional knowledge, benefit-sharing agreements are mandatory according to the United Nations' Convention on Biological Diversity. Considering the extremely high demand to treat millions of depressed patients, the medicalization of ayahuasca without adequate regulation respectful of indigenous rights can be detrimental to indigenous peoples and their management of local environments, potentially harming the sustainability of the plants and of the Amazon itself, which is approaching its dieback tipping point.
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Katchborian-Neto A, Santos MFC, Vilas-Boas DF, Dos Santos EG, Veloso MP, Bueno PCP, Caldas IS, Soares MG, Dias DF, Chagas-Paula DA. Immunological Modulation and Control of Parasitaemia by Ayahuasca Compounds: Therapeutic Potential for Chagas's Disease. Chem Biodivers 2022; 19:e202200409. [PMID: 36163588 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202200409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a psychoactive and psychedelic decoct composed mainly of Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis plant species. The beverage is rich in alkaloids and it is ritualistically used by several indigenous communities of South America as a natural medicine. There are also reports in the literature indicating the prophylaxis potential of Ayahuasca alkaloids against internal parasites. In the present study, Ayahuasca exhibited moderate in vitro activity against Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes (IC50 95.78 μg/mL) compared to the reference drug benznidazole (IC50 2.03 μg/mL). The β-carboline alkaloid harmine (HRE), isolated from B. caapi, was considered active against the trypomastigotes forms (IC50 6.37), and the tryptamine N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), isolated from P. viridis was also moderately active with IC50 of 21.02 μg/mL. Regarding the in vivo evaluations, no collateral effects were observed. The HRE alone demonstrated the highest trypanocidal activity in a dose-responsive manner (10 and 100 mg/kg). The Ayahuasca and the association between HRE and DMT worsened the parasitaemia, suggesting a modulation of the immunological response during the T. cruzi infection, especially by increasing total Immunoglobulin (IgG) and IgG1 antibody levels. The in silico molecular docking revealed HRE binding with low energy at two sites of the Trypanothione reductase enzyme (TR), which are absent in humans, and thus considered a promissory target for drug discovery. In conclusion, Ayahuasca compounds seem to not be toxic at the concentrations of the in vivo evaluations and can promote trypanocidal effect in multi targets, including control of parasitaemia, immunological modulation and TR enzymatic inhibition, which might benefit the treatments of patients with Chagas' disease. Moreover, the present study also provides scientific information to support the prophylactic potential of Ayahuasca against internal parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Katchborian-Neto
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva 700, 37130-001, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Mário Ferreira Conceição Santos
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, Center of Exact, Natural and Health Sciences, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Alto Universitário, 29500-000, Alegre, Espírito Santo, Brazil
| | - Diego Fernandes Vilas-Boas
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Pathology and Basic Parasitology, Federal University of Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva 700, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, 37131-000, Brazil
| | - Elda Gonçalves Dos Santos
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Pathology and Basic Parasitology, Federal University of Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva 700, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, 37131-000, Brazil
| | - Márcia Paranho Veloso
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva, 700, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, 37130-000, Brazil
| | - Paula Carolina Pires Bueno
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva 700, 37130-001, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ivo Santana Caldas
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Pathology and Basic Parasitology, Federal University of Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva 700, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, 37131-000, Brazil
| | - Marisi Gomes Soares
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva 700, 37130-001, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Danielle Ferreira Dias
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva 700, 37130-001, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Daniela Aparecida Chagas-Paula
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva 700, 37130-001, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Microdosing with psilocybin mushrooms: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Transl Psychiatry 2022; 12:307. [PMID: 35918311 PMCID: PMC9346139 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-022-02039-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of low sub-perceptual doses of psychedelics ("microdosing") has gained popularity in recent years. Although anecdotal reports claim multiple benefits associated with this practice, the lack of placebo-controlled studies severely limits our knowledge of microdosing and its effects. Moreover, research conducted in standard laboratory settings could fail to capture the motivation of individuals engaged or planning to engage in microdosing protocols, thus underestimating the likelihood of positive effects on creativity and cognitive function. We recruited 34 individuals starting to microdose with psilocybin mushrooms (Psilocybe cubensis), one of the materials most frequently used for this purpose. Following a double-blind placebo-controlled experimental design, we investigated the acute and short-term effects of 0.5 g of dried mushrooms on subjective experience, behavior, creativity (divergent and convergent thinking), perception, cognition, and brain activity. The reported acute effects were significantly more intense for the active dose compared to the placebo, but only for participants who correctly identified their experimental condition. These changes were accompanied by reduced EEG power in the theta band, together with preserved levels of Lempel-Ziv broadband signal complexity. For all other measurements there was no effect of microdosing except for few small changes towards cognitive impairment. According to our findings, low doses of psilocybin mushrooms can result in noticeable subjective effects and altered EEG rhythms, but without evidence to support enhanced well-being, creativity and cognitive function. We conclude that expectation underlies at least some of the anecdotal benefits attributed to microdosing with psilocybin mushrooms.
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Vohryzek J, Cabral J, Vuust P, Deco G, Kringelbach ML. Understanding brain states across spacetime informed by whole-brain modelling. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2022; 380:20210247. [PMID: 35599554 PMCID: PMC9125224 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2021.0247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
In order to survive in a complex environment, the human brain relies on the ability to flexibly adapt ongoing behaviour according to intrinsic and extrinsic signals. This capability has been linked to specific whole-brain activity patterns whose relative stability (order) allows for consistent functioning, supported by sufficient intrinsic instability needed for optimal adaptability. The emergent, spontaneous balance between order and disorder in brain activity over spacetime underpins distinct brain states. For example, depression is characterized by excessively rigid, highly ordered states, while psychedelics can bring about more disordered, sometimes overly flexible states. Recent developments in systems, computational and theoretical neuroscience have started to make inroads into the characterization of such complex dynamics over space and time. Here, we review recent insights drawn from neuroimaging and whole-brain modelling motivating using mechanistic principles from dynamical system theory to study and characterize brain states. We show how different healthy and altered brain states are associated to characteristic spacetime dynamics which in turn may offer insights that in time can inspire new treatments for rebalancing brain states in disease. This article is part of the theme issue 'Emergent phenomena in complex physical and socio-technical systems: from cells to societies'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Vohryzek
- Centre for Eudaimonia and Human Flourishing, Linacre College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Computational Neuroscience Group, Department of Information and Communication Technologies, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain
| | - Joana Cabral
- Centre for Eudaimonia and Human Flourishing, Linacre College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Peter Vuust
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Gustavo Deco
- Center for Brain and Cognition, Computational Neuroscience Group, Department of Information and Communication Technologies, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain
- Institució Catalana de la Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Morten L. Kringelbach
- Centre for Eudaimonia and Human Flourishing, Linacre College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Lawrence DW, Carhart-Harris R, Griffiths R, Timmermann C. Phenomenology and content of the inhaled N, N-dimethyltryptamine (N, N-DMT) experience. Sci Rep 2022; 12:8562. [PMID: 35610230 PMCID: PMC9130218 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-11999-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the phenomenology and content of the inhaled N, N, dimethyltryptamine (N, N-DMT) experience is critical to facilitate and support ongoing research and therapeutic models targeting mental health conditions and central nervous system pathology. A qualitative analysis was conducted of all N, N-DMT experiences posted to the r/DMT Reddit community over a 10-year period from 2009 to 2018. A total of 3778 experiences from 3305 posts were included in this study. A median dose of N, N-DMT of 40.0 mg [interquartile range (IQR), 27.5 to 50.0] and a median experience duration of 10 min (IQR, 5.0 to 15.0) were identified. The most common somatic effects were somaesthesias (n = 1415, 37.5%) and an auditory ringing (n = 583, 15.4%). Visualizations predominantly consisted of fractals, shapes, patterns (n = 1231, 32.6%) and vivid colours (n = 953, 25.2%). Entity encounters were reported in 45.5% (n = 1719) of the experiences and involved predominantly a feminine phenotype (n = 416, 24.2%); deities (n = 293, 17.0%); aliens (n = 281, 16.3%); creature-based entities (n = 158, 9.2%, including reptilian and insectoid beings); mythological beings (n = 144, 8.4%, including machine elves); and jesters (n = 112, 6.5%). Entity interactions were predominantly positive (n = 600, 34.9% of encounters) involving benevolent, comforting, protecting, or outwardly caring interactions. A companion-type, pedagogical, or guide-type interaction was identified 32.4% of encounters (n = 557). Common typology, architecture, and structural features of the "DMT world" included descriptions of alternate or higher dimensions (n = 952, 25.2%); rooms [n = 582, 15.4%, including the "waiting room" (n = 105, 2.8%)], and a tunnel (n = 390, 10.3%). Features of mystical and ego-dissolution experiences were common. Additional rewarding aspects were identified, including a sense of familiarity and the acceptance/removal of the fear of death. Challenging and difficult responses were less frequent but also documented. Statements of profundity were identified in 232 experiences (6.1%), including pronouncing the experience or an aspect of the experience as the most "beautiful" or feeling the most "beautiful" of their life (n = 47, 1.2%). This study identified common phenomenological themes and content of naturalistic inhaled N, N-DMT experiences. Major thematic domains included (1) physical and somatic experiences; (2) visualizations and imagery; (3) entity encounters including entity phenotype, descriptors, attributes, disposition, and characteristics of the interaction; (4) typology, architectural features, structural characteristics, and scenery of the "DMT world"; (5) alerations in consciousness (including mystical experiences, out-of-body experiences, and ego-dissolution); (6) emotional responses (including positive, rewarding, difficult, and challenging); and (7) statements of profundity.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Wyndham Lawrence
- Department of Family & Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
- Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health System, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, M5G 1X5, Canada.
- Faculty of Kinesiology & Physical Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
| | - Robin Carhart-Harris
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Psychedelics Division, Neuroscape, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Roland Griffiths
- Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Christopher Timmermann
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
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James E, Keppler J, L Robertshaw T, Sessa B. N,N-dimethyltryptamine and Amazonian ayahuasca plant medicine. Hum Psychopharmacol 2022; 37:e2835. [PMID: 35175662 PMCID: PMC9286861 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Reports have indicated possible uses of ayahuasca for the treatment of conditions including depression, addictions, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety and specific psychoneuroendocrine immune system pathologies. The article assesses potential ayahuasca and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) integration with contemporary healthcare. The review also seeks to provide a summary of selected literature regarding the mechanisms of action of DMT and ayahuasca; and assess to what extent the state of research can explain reports of unusual phenomenology. DESIGN A narrative review. RESULTS Compounds in ayahuasca have been found to bind to serotonergic receptors, glutaminergic receptors, sigma-1 receptors, trace amine-associated receptors, and modulate BDNF expression and the dopaminergic system. Subjective effects are associated with increased delta and theta oscillations in amygdala and hippocampal regions, decreased alpha wave activity in the default mode network, and stimulations of vision-related brain regions particularly in the visual association cortex. Both biological processes and field of consciousness models have been proposed to explain subjective effects of DMT and ayahuasca, however, the evidence supporting the proposed models is not sufficient to make confident conclusions. Ayahuasca plant medicine and DMT represent potentially novel treatment modalities. CONCLUSIONS Further research is required to clarify the mechanisms of action and develop treatments which can be made available to the general public. Integration between healthcare research institutions and reputable practitioners in the Amazon is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward James
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesCardiff UniversityCardiffUK
| | | | | | - Ben Sessa
- Centre for NeuropsychopharmacologyDivision of Brain SciencesFaculty of MedicineImperial College LondonLondonUK
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Doss MK, Madden MB, Gaddis A, Nebel MB, Griffiths RR, Mathur BN, Barrett FS. Models of psychedelic drug action: modulation of cortical-subcortical circuits. Brain 2022; 145:441-456. [PMID: 34897383 PMCID: PMC9014750 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awab406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Classic psychedelic drugs such as psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) have recaptured the imagination of both science and popular culture, and may have efficacy in treating a wide range of psychiatric disorders. Human and animal studies of psychedelic drug action in the brain have demonstrated the involvement of the serotonin 2A (5-HT2A) receptor and the cerebral cortex in acute psychedelic drug action, but different models have evolved to try to explain the impact of 5-HT2A activation on neural systems. Two prominent models of psychedelic drug action (the cortico-striatal thalamo-cortical, or CSTC, model and relaxed beliefs under psychedelics, or REBUS, model) have emphasized the role of different subcortical structures as crucial in mediating psychedelic drug effects. We describe these models and discuss gaps in knowledge, inconsistencies in the literature and extensions of both models. We then introduce a third circuit-level model involving the claustrum, a thin strip of grey matter between the insula and the external capsule that densely expresses 5-HT2A receptors (the cortico-claustro-cortical, or CCC, model). In this model, we propose that the claustrum entrains canonical cortical network states, and that psychedelic drugs disrupt 5-HT2A-mediated network coupling between the claustrum and the cortex, leading to attenuation of canonical cortical networks during psychedelic drug effects. Together, these three models may explain many phenomena of the psychedelic experience, and using this framework, future research may help to delineate the functional specificity of each circuit to the action of both serotonergic and non-serotonergic hallucinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj K Doss
- Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Maxwell B Madden
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Andrew Gaddis
- Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Mary Beth Nebel
- Center for Neurodevelopmental and Imaging Research, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Roland R Griffiths
- Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Brian N Mathur
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Frederick S Barrett
- Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
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Daldegan-Bueno D, Favaro VM, Morais P, Sussulini A, Oliveira MGM. Effects of repeated ayahuasca administration on behaviour and c-Fos expression in male rats exposed to the open field. Behav Brain Res 2022; 427:113878. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Nižnanský Ľ, Nižnanská Ž, Kuruc R, Szórádová A, Šikuta J, Zummerová A. Ayahuasca as a Decoction Applied to Human: Analytical Methods, Pharmacology and Potential Toxic Effects. J Clin Med 2022; 11:1147. [PMID: 35207420 PMCID: PMC8880227 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11041147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Ahyahuasca is a term commonly used to describe a decoction prepared by cooking the bark or crushed stems of the liana Banisteriopsis caapi (contains β-carbolines) alone or in combination with other plants, most commonly leaves of the shrub Psychotria viridis (contains N,N-dimethyltryptamine-DMT). More than 100 different plants can serve as sources of β-carbolines and DMT, which are the active alkaloids of this decoction, and therefore it is important to know the most accurate composition of the decoction, especially when studying the pharmacology of this plant. The aim was to summarize the latest sensitive methods used in the analysis of the composition of the beverage itself and the analysis of various biological matrices. We compared pharmacokinetic parameters in all of the studies where decoction of ayahuasca was administered and where its composition was known, whereby minimal adverse effects were observed. The therapeutic benefit of this plant is still unclear in the scientific literature, and side effects occur probably on the basis of pre-existing psychiatric disorder. We also described toxicological risks and clinical benefits of ayahuasca intake, which meant that the concentrations of active alkaloids in the decoction or in the organism, often not determined in publications, were required for sufficient evaluation of its effect on the organism. We did not find any post-mortem study, in which the toxicological examination of biological materials together with the autopsy findings would suggest potential lethality of this plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ľuboš Nižnanský
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Žofia Nižnanská
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská Dolina, Ilkovičova 6, 84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Roman Kuruc
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Andrea Szórádová
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ján Šikuta
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Anežka Zummerová
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
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Vollenweider FX, Smallridge JW. Classic Psychedelic Drugs: Update on Biological
Mechanisms. PHARMACOPSYCHIATRY 2022; 55:121-138. [PMID: 35079988 PMCID: PMC9110100 DOI: 10.1055/a-1721-2914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Renewed interest in the effects of psychedelics in the treatment of psychiatric
disorders warrants a better understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms
underlying the effects of these substances. During the past two decades,
state-of-the-art studies of animals and humans have yielded new important
insights into the molecular, cellular, and systems-level actions of psychedelic
drugs. These efforts have revealed that psychedelics affect primarily
serotonergic receptor subtypes located in cortico-thalamic and cortico-cortical
feedback circuits of information processing. Psychedelic drugs modulate
excitatory-inhibitory balance in these circuits and can participate in
neuroplasticity within brain structures critical for the integration of
information relevant to sensation, cognition, emotions, and the narrative of
self. Neuroimaging studies showed that characteristic dimensions of the
psychedelic experience obtained through subjective questionnaires as well as
alterations in self-referential processing and emotion regulation obtained
through neuropsychological tasks are associated with distinct changes in brain
activity and connectivity patterns at multiple-system levels. These recent
results suggest that changes in self-experience, emotional processing, and
social cognition may contribute to the potential therapeutic effects of
psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz X. Vollenweider
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry,
Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University Hospital for Psychiatry Zurich,
Zurich, Switzerland
| | - John W. Smallridge
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry,
Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University Hospital for Psychiatry Zurich,
Zurich, Switzerland
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24
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Bouso JC, Andión Ó, Sarris JJ, Scheidegger M, Tófoli LF, Opaleye ES, Schubert V, Perkins D. Adverse effects of ayahuasca: Results from the Global Ayahuasca Survey. PLOS GLOBAL PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 2:e0000438. [PMID: 36962494 PMCID: PMC10021266 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0000438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Ayahuasca is a plant-based decoction native to Amazonia, where it has a long history of use in traditional medicine. Contemporary ritual use of ayahuasca has been expanding throughout the world for mental health purposes, and for spiritual and personal growth. Although researchers have been conducting clinical trials and observational studies reporting medical and psychological benefits, most of these do not report ayahuasca's immediate or medium-term adverse effects, so these are underrepresented in the literature. With the expansion of ayahuasca ceremonies from their traditional contexts to countries around the world, there is an important public health question regarding the risk/benefit balance of its use. METHODS We used data from an online Global Ayahuasca Survey (n = 10,836) collected between 2017 and 2019 involving participants from more than 50 countries. Principal component analysis was performed to assess group effects. Logistic regression analysis was performed to test for adverse effects associated with history of ayahuasca use, clinical, context of use and spiritual effect variables. RESULTS Acute physical health adverse effects (primarily vomiting) were reported by 69.9% of the sample, with 2.3% reporting the need for subsequent medical attention. Adverse mental health effects in the weeks or months following consumption were reported by 55.9% of the sample, however, around 88% considered such mental health effects as part of a positive process of growth or integration. Around 12% sought professional support for these effects. Physical adverse effects were related to older age at initial use of ayahuasca, having a physical health condition, higher lifetime and last year ayahuasca use, having a previous substance use disorder diagnosis, and taking ayahuasca in a non-supervised context. Mental health adverse effects were positively associated with anxiety disorders; physical health conditions; and the strength of the acute spiritual experience; and negatively associated with consumption in religious settings. CONCLUSIONS While there is a high rate of adverse physical effects and challenging psychological effects from using ayahuasca, they are not generally severe, and most ayahuasca ceremony attendees continue to attend ceremonies, suggesting they perceive the benefits as outweighing any adverse effects. Knowing what variables might predict eventual adverse effects may serve in screening of, or providing additional support for, vulnerable subjects. Improved understanding of the ayahuasca risk/benefit balance can also assist policy makers in decisions regarding potential regulation and public health responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Carlos Bouso
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services (ICEERS), Barcelona, Spain
- Medical Anthropology Research Center, Department of Anthropology, Philosophy and Social Work, University of Rovira I Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Óscar Andión
- Research Sherpas, Mieres (Olot), Sabadell, Spain
| | - Jerome J Sarris
- Psychae Institute, Melbourne, Australia
- NICM Health Research Institute, Western Sydney University, Westmead, Australia
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The Melbourne Clinic Professorial Unit, Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Milan Scheidegger
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, University Hospital of Psychiatry Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Luís Fernando Tófoli
- Interdisciplinary Cooperation for Ayahuasca Research and Outreach (ICARO), School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | | | - Violeta Schubert
- School of Social and Political Science, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Daniel Perkins
- Psychae Institute, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Social and Political Science, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
- Centre for Mental Health, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Australia
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Abstract
Ayahuasca, the vine of the souls in Quechua, is a psychedelic brew with a few formulations that most often include the bark of a liana in the Malpighiaceae family (Banisteriopsis caapi), with leaves from a shrub in the coffee family Rubiaceae (Psychotria viridis). Mixed with water and boiled for hours or days, it produces a brownish-colored liquid with a strong and characteristic taste. Ayahuasca contains the psychedelic tryptamine N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOi), and in the past few years, it has been tested. In recent years its antidepressant properties have been put to the test. Evidence from open and randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials has shown encouraging results, indicating significant and rapid antidepressant effects, starting as early as 1 day after the ayahuasca intervention. In addition, we have explored the nature of these effects using multivariate measures. In this article, we will review the history, pharmacology, clinical trials, and clinical and behavioral markers associated with the antidepressant effects of ayahuasca.
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Kiraga MK, Mason NL, Uthaug MV, van Oorsouw KIM, Toennes SW, Ramaekers JG, Kuypers KPC. Persisting Effects of Ayahuasca on Empathy, Creative Thinking, Decentering, Personality, and Well-Being. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:721537. [PMID: 34658861 PMCID: PMC8517265 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.721537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Naturalistic and placebo-controlled studies have suggested that ayahuasca, a traditional Amazonian beverage, could be helpful in the treatment of psychopathologies like depression and anxiety disorders by changing otherwise disturbed cognitive and emotional processes. To better understand its full therapeutic potential, one way is to study the effects on processes like flexible thinking, empathy, and well-being, which are normally compromised in stress-related psychopathologies. Materials and Methods: Volunteers attending ayahuasca ceremonies were asked to complete a test battery at three separate occasions: baseline, the morning after, and 1 week after the ceremony. We included the constructs of creative thinking (measured by Picture Concept Test), empathy (Multifaceted Empathy Test), satisfaction with life (Satisfaction with Life Scale), decentering (Experiences Questionnaire), and personality (Big Five Inventory) into the test battery. Additionally, the psychedelic experience was quantified with the Persisting Effects Questionnaire, the Ego Dissolution Scale, and Visual Analogue Scales. Results: In total, 43 attendees (males = 22; females = 21) completed parts of the baseline assessment, 20 (males = 12; females = 8) completed assessments in the morning after the ceremony, and 19 (males = 14; females = 5) completed assessments at the 1-week follow-up. At one and 7 days post-ceremony, cognitive empathy, satisfaction with life, and decentering increased, while divergent thinking (Fluency corrected for Originality) decreased, when compared to baseline. Implicit emotional empathy increased at 1-week follow-up, whereas ratings of the trait neuroticism decreased. Conclusion: The study suggests that a single ingestion of ayahuasca in a social setting is associated with enhancement of subjective well-being, an enhanced ability to take an objective and non-judging stance towards the self (decentering), and the ability to correctly recognize emotions in others, compared to baseline, lasting up to 1 week post-ceremony. To understand the therapeutic potential related to these effects, further research with clinical populations is needed in which these effects can be assessed, including its link with therapeutic outcomes. Together, this will increase our understanding of the effectiveness and breadth of future therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maggie K Kiraga
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Natasha L Mason
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Malin V Uthaug
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Kim I M van Oorsouw
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Stefan W Toennes
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Kim P C Kuypers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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Vejmola Č, Tylš F, Piorecká V, Koudelka V, Kadeřábek L, Novák T, Páleníček T. Psilocin, LSD, mescaline, and DOB all induce broadband desynchronization of EEG and disconnection in rats with robust translational validity. Transl Psychiatry 2021; 11:506. [PMID: 34601495 PMCID: PMC8487430 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01603-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Serotonergic psychedelics are recently gaining a lot of attention as a potential treatment of several neuropsychiatric disorders. Broadband desynchronization of EEG activity and disconnection in humans have been repeatedly shown; however, translational data from animals are completely lacking. Therefore, the main aim of our study was to assess the effects of tryptamine and phenethylamine psychedelics (psilocin 4 mg/kg, LSD 0.2 mg/kg, mescaline 100 mg/kg, and DOB 5 mg/kg) on EEG in freely moving rats. A system consisting of 14 cortical EEG electrodes, co-registration of behavioral activity of animals with subsequent analysis only in segments corresponding to behavioral inactivity (resting-state-like EEG) was used in order to reach a high level of translational validity. Analyses of the mean power, topographic brain-mapping, and functional connectivity revealed that all of the psychedelics irrespective of the structural family induced overall and time-dependent global decrease/desynchronization of EEG activity and disconnection within 1-40 Hz. Major changes in activity were localized on the large areas of the frontal and sensorimotor cortex showing some subtle spatial patterns characterizing each substance. A rebound of occipital theta (4-8 Hz) activity was detected at later stages after treatment with mescaline and LSD. Connectivity analyses showed an overall decrease in global connectivity for both the components of cross-spectral and phase-lagged coherence. Since our results show almost identical effects to those known from human EEG/MEG studies, we conclude that our method has robust translational validity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Čestmír Vejmola
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
- Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Filip Tylš
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
- Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Václava Piorecká
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
- Department of Biomedical Technology, Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | | | | | - Tomáš Novák
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Tomáš Páleníček
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.
- Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.
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28
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Dos Santos RG, Hallak JEC. Ayahuasca, an ancient substance with traditional and contemporary use in neuropsychiatry and neuroscience. Epilepsy Behav 2021; 121:106300. [PMID: 31182391 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2019.04.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a botanical hallucinogenic preparation traditionally used for ritual and therapeutic purposes by native populations of the Northwestern Amazon. In the last decades, ayahuasca use has spread to Europe, the United States, Asia, and Africa, and interest in the possible therapeutic uses of ayahuasca for treating anxiety and mood disorder and substance-use disorders has increased both among the general public and the scientific community. Indeed, preclinical, observational, and preliminary clinical studies have corroborated some of these findings. In the present article, we present an overview of these studies and highlight the current uses of ayahuasca in neuroscience, such as a tool in the investigation of the neural basis of introspection and other complex cognitive processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Guimarães Dos Santos
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil; National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM), CNPq, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.
| | - Jaime Eduardo Cecilio Hallak
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil; National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM), CNPq, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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29
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Alshaikhli H, Al-Naggar RA, Erlam G. Effectiveness of Psilocybin on Depression: A Qualitative Study. ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF GENERAL MEDICINE 2021. [DOI: 10.29333/ejgm/10862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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30
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Pallavicini C, Cavanna F, Zamberlan F, de la Fuente LA, Ilksoy Y, Perl YS, Arias M, Romero C, Carhart-Harris R, Timmermann C, Tagliazucchi E. Neural and subjective effects of inhaled N,N-dimethyltryptamine in natural settings. J Psychopharmacol 2021; 35:406-420. [PMID: 33567945 DOI: 10.1177/0269881120981384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND N,N-dimethyltryptamine is a short-acting psychedelic tryptamine found naturally in many plants and animals. Few studies to date have addressed the neural and psychological effects of N,N-dimethyltryptamine alone, either administered intravenously or inhaled in freebase form, and none have been conducted in natural settings. AIMS Our primary aim was to study the acute effects of inhaled N,N-dimethyltryptamine in natural settings, focusing on questions tuned to the advantages of conducting field research, including the effects of contextual factors (i.e. "set" and "setting"), the possibility of studying a comparatively large number of subjects, and the relaxed mental state of participants consuming N,N-dimethyltryptamine in familiar and comfortable settings. METHODS We combined state-of-the-art wireless electroencephalography with psychometric questionnaires to study the neural and subjective effects of naturalistic N,N-dimethyltryptamine use in 35 healthy and experienced participants. RESULTS We observed that N,N-dimethyltryptamine significantly decreased the power of alpha (8-12 Hz) oscillations throughout all scalp locations, while simultaneously increasing power of delta (1-4 Hz) and gamma (30-40 Hz) oscillations. Gamma power increases correlated with subjective reports indicative of some features of mystical-type experiences. N,N-dimethyltryptamine also increased global synchrony and metastability in the gamma band while decreasing those measures in the alpha band. CONCLUSIONS Our results are consistent with previous studies of psychedelic action in the human brain, while at the same time the results suggest potential electroencephalography markers of mystical-type experiences in natural settings, thus highlighting the importance of investigating these compounds in the contexts where they are naturally consumed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Pallavicini
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Fundación para la lucha contra las enfermedades neurológicas de la infancia (FLENI), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Federico Cavanna
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Fundación para la lucha contra las enfermedades neurológicas de la infancia (FLENI), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Federico Zamberlan
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Laura A de la Fuente
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Yayla Ilksoy
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Yonatan S Perl
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mauricio Arias
- Hospital General de Agudos Donación Francisco Santojanni, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Celeste Romero
- Centro de Estudios de la Cultura Cannábica (CECCa), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | | | - Enzo Tagliazucchi
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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31
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Huels ER, Kim H, Lee U, Bel-Bahar T, Colmenero AV, Nelson A, Blain-Moraes S, Mashour GA, Harris RE. Neural Correlates of the Shamanic State of Consciousness. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:610466. [PMID: 33815077 PMCID: PMC8012721 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.610466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychedelics have been recognized as model interventions for studying altered states of consciousness. However, few empirical studies of the shamanic state of consciousness, which is anecdotally similar to the psychedelic state, exist. We investigated the neural correlates of shamanic trance using high-density electroencephalography (EEG) in 24 shamanic practitioners and 24 healthy controls during rest, shamanic drumming, and classical music listening, followed by an assessment of altered states of consciousness. EEG data were used to assess changes in absolute power, connectivity, signal diversity, and criticality, which were correlated with assessment measures. We also compared assessment scores to those of individuals in a previous study under the influence of psychedelics. Shamanic practitioners were significantly different from controls in several domains of altered states of consciousness, with scores comparable to or exceeding that of healthy volunteers under the influence of psychedelics. Practitioners also displayed increased gamma power during drumming that positively correlated with elementary visual alterations. Furthermore, shamanic practitioners had decreased low alpha and increased low beta connectivity during drumming and classical music and decreased neural signal diversity in the gamma band during drumming that inversely correlated with insightfulness. Finally, criticality in practitioners was increased during drumming in the low and high beta and gamma bands, with increases in the low beta band correlating with complex imagery and elementary visual alterations. These findings suggest that psychedelic drug-induced and non-pharmacologic alterations in consciousness have overlapping phenomenal traits but are distinct states of consciousness, as reflected by the unique brain-related changes during shamanic trance compared to previous literature investigating the psychedelic state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma R. Huels
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- Center for Consciousness Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Hyoungkyu Kim
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- Center for Consciousness Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - UnCheol Lee
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- Center for Consciousness Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Tarik Bel-Bahar
- Division of Translational Epidemiology, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, United States
| | - Angelo V. Colmenero
- The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY, United States
| | - Amanda Nelson
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Stefanie Blain-Moraes
- School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - George A. Mashour
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- Center for Consciousness Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Richard E. Harris
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- Chronic Pain and Fatigue Research Center, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
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32
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De Gregorio D, Aguilar-Valles A, Preller KH, Heifets BD, Hibicke M, Mitchell J, Gobbi G. Hallucinogens in Mental Health: Preclinical and Clinical Studies on LSD, Psilocybin, MDMA, and Ketamine. J Neurosci 2021; 41:891-900. [PMID: 33257322 PMCID: PMC7880300 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1659-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A revamped interest in the study of hallucinogens has recently emerged, especially with regard to their potential application in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. In the last decade, a plethora of preclinical and clinical studies have confirmed the efficacy of ketamine in the treatment of depression. More recently, emerging evidence has pointed out the potential therapeutic properties of psilocybin and LSD, as well as their ability to modulate functional brain connectivity. Moreover, MDMA, a compound belonging to the family of entactogens, has been demonstrated to be useful to treat post-traumatic stress disorders. In this review, the pharmacology of hallucinogenic compounds is summarized by underscoring the differences between psychedelic and nonpsychedelic hallucinogens as well as entactogens, and their behavioral effects in both animals and humans are described. Together, these data substantiate the potentials of these compounds in treating mental diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danilo De Gregorio
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Argel Aguilar-Valles
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Katrin H Preller
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Zurich, CH-8032 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Boris Dov Heifets
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305
| | - Meghan Hibicke
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112
| | - Jennifer Mitchell
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158
| | - Gabriella Gobbi
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1A1, Canada
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Horák M, Verter N, Somerlíková K. Initiation Plants in Drug Addiction Treatment: The Purgahuasca Therapy. ANTHROPOLOGY OF CONSCIOUSNESS 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/anoc.12128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Contreras A, Khumnark M, Hines RM, Hines DJ. Behavioral arrest and a characteristic slow waveform are hallmark responses to selective 5-HT 2A receptor activation. Sci Rep 2021; 11:1925. [PMID: 33479368 PMCID: PMC7820508 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-81552-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Perception, emotion, and mood are powerfully modulated by serotonin receptor (5-HTR) agonists including hallucinogens. The 5-HT2AR subtype has been shown to be central to hallucinogen action, yet the precise mechanisms mediating the response to 5-HT2AR activation remain unclear. Hallucinogens induce the head twitch response (HTR) in rodents, which is the most commonly used behavioral readout of hallucinogen pharmacology. While the HTR provides a key behavioral signature, less is known about the meso level changes that are induced by 5-HT2AR activation. In response to administration of the potent and highly selective 5-HT2AR agonist 25I-NBOH in mice, we observe a disorganization of behavior which includes frequent episodes of behavioral arrest that consistently precede the HTR by a precise interval. By combining behavioral analysis with electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings we describe a characteristic pattern composed of two distinctive EEG waveforms, Phase 1 and Phase 2, that map onto behavioral arrest and the HTR respectively, with the same temporal separation. Phase 1, which underlies behavioral arrest, is a 3.5-4.5 Hz waveform, while Phase 2 is slower at 2.5-3.2 Hz. Nicotine pretreatment, considered an integral component of ritualistic hallucinogen practices, attenuates 25I-NBOH induced HTR and Phase 2 waveforms, yet increases behavioral arrest and Phase 1 waveforms. Our results suggest that in addition to the HTR, behavioral arrest and characteristic meso level slow waveforms are key hallmarks of the response to 5-HT2AR activation. Increased understanding of the response to serotonergic hallucinogens may provide mechanistic insights into perception and hallucinations, as well as regulation of mood.
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Affiliation(s)
- April Contreras
- University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, NV, 89154, USA
| | - Matthew Khumnark
- University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, NV, 89154, USA
| | - Rochelle M Hines
- University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, NV, 89154, USA
| | - Dustin J Hines
- University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, NV, 89154, USA.
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Kadriu B, Greenwald M, Henter ID, Gilbert JR, Kraus C, Park LT, Zarate CA. Ketamine and Serotonergic Psychedelics: Common Mechanisms Underlying the Effects of Rapid-Acting Antidepressants. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2021; 24:8-21. [PMID: 33252694 PMCID: PMC7816692 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyaa087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The glutamatergic modulator ketamine has created a blueprint for studying novel pharmaceuticals in the field. Recent studies suggest that "classic" serotonergic psychedelics (SPs) may also have antidepressant efficacy. Both ketamine and SPs appear to produce rapid, sustained antidepressant effects after a transient psychoactive period. METHODS This review summarizes areas of overlap between SP and ketamine research and considers the possibility of a common, downstream mechanism of action. The therapeutic relevance of the psychoactive state, overlapping cellular and molecular effects, and overlapping electrophysiological and neuroimaging observations are all reviewed. RESULTS Taken together, the evidence suggests a potentially shared mechanism wherein both ketamine and SPs may engender rapid neuroplastic effects in a glutamatergic activity-dependent manner. It is postulated that, though distinct, both ketamine and SPs appear to produce acute alterations in cortical network activity that may initially produce psychoactive effects and later produce milder, sustained changes in network efficiency associated with therapeutic response. However, despite some commonalities between the psychoactive component of these pharmacologically distinct therapies-such as engagement of the downstream glutamatergic pathway-the connection between psychoactive impact and antidepressant efficacy remains unclear and requires more rigorous research. CONCLUSIONS Rapid-acting antidepressants currently under investigation may share some downstream pharmacological effects, suggesting that their antidepressant effects may come about via related mechanisms. Given the prototypic nature of ketamine research and recent progress in this area, this platform could be used to investigate entirely new classes of antidepressants with rapid and robust actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bashkim Kadriu
- Section on the Neurobiology and Treatment of Mood Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Maximillian Greenwald
- Section on the Neurobiology and Treatment of Mood Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ioline D Henter
- Section on the Neurobiology and Treatment of Mood Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jessica R Gilbert
- Section on the Neurobiology and Treatment of Mood Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Christoph Kraus
- Section on the Neurobiology and Treatment of Mood Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Lawrence T Park
- Section on the Neurobiology and Treatment of Mood Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Carlos A Zarate
- Section on the Neurobiology and Treatment of Mood Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Tagliazucchi E, Zamberlan F, Cavanna F, de la Fuente L, Romero C, Sanz Perl Y, Pallavicini C. Baseline Power of Theta Oscillations Predicts Mystical-Type Experiences Induced by DMT in a Natural Setting. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:720066. [PMID: 34803754 PMCID: PMC8602571 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.720066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a classic psychedelic capable of inducing short-lasting but profound changes in consciousness. As with other psychedelics, the experience induced by DMT strongly depends upon contextual factors, yet the neurobiological determinants of this variability remain unknown. The present study investigated changes in neural oscillations elicited by inhaled DMT, and whether baseline electroencephalography (EEG) recordings could predict the subjective effects reported by the participants. Healthy volunteers (N = 35) were measured with EEG before and during the acute effects of DMT consumed in a natural setting. Source-localized neural oscillations were correlated with the results of multiple questionnaires employed to assess the subjective effects of the drug. DMT resulted in a marked reduction of alpha and beta oscillations, and increased posterior spectral power in the delta, theta and gamma bands. The power of fronto-temporal theta oscillations was inversely correlated with scales indexing feelings of unity and transcendence, which are an integral part of the phenomenology of mystical-type experiences. The robustness of these results was supported using a machine learning model for regression trained and tested following a cross-validation procedure. These results are consistent with the observation that the state of mind prior to consuming a psychedelic drug influences the ensuing subjective experience of the user. They also suggest that baseline EEG screenings before administration of a serotonergic psychedelic could be useful to estimate the likelihood of inducing mystical-type experiences, previously linked to sustained positive effects in well-being and improved outcome of therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enzo Tagliazucchi
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET)), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Latin American Brain Health Institute, Universidad Adolfo Ibanez, Santiago, Chile
| | - Federico Zamberlan
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET)), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Federico Cavanna
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET)), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Fundación Para la Lucha Contra las Enfermedades Neurológicas de la Infancia, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Laura de la Fuente
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET)), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Celeste Romero
- Centro de Estudios de la Cultura Cannábica, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Yonatan Sanz Perl
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET)), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Center for Brain and Cognition, Computational Neuroscience Group, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carla Pallavicini
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET)), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Fundación Para la Lucha Contra las Enfermedades Neurológicas de la Infancia, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Maia LO, Daldegan-Bueno D, Tófoli LF. The ritual use of ayahuasca during treatment of severe physical illnesses: a qualitative study. J Psychoactive Drugs 2020; 53:272-282. [PMID: 33287690 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1854399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Diseases that threaten life raise existential questions that can be a source of psychological distress. Studies with psychedelics demonstrate therapeutic effects for anxiety and depression associated with life-threatening illnesses. Ayahuasca has been proposed as a possible therapeutic agent in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. Preliminary studies suggest that ayahuasca could promote therapeutic effects for people with physical illnesses. The aim of this study was to explore how the ritual use of ayahuasca during the treatment of severe physical illnesses (SPI) may influence the way people understand and relate to their illness, using qualitative methods to assess the participants' perspectives. Participants who consumed ayahuasca ritualistically during the period of treatment for SPI were purposely chosen. Data were obtained through semi-structured interviews. A thematic analysis was performed with 14 individuals. The ritual experience with ayahuasca acted on the participants' illness understanding through multiple psychological mechanisms, including introspection, self-analysis, emotional processing and catharsis, recall of autobiographical memories subjectively related to illness origin, illness resignification, and perspective changes. This study suggests that the experience with ayahuasca may facilitate illness acceptance through an influence on the meanings of the illness, life, and death. These changes may favor a more balanced relationship with illness and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Oliveira Maia
- Department of Medical Psychology and Psychiatry, School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Dimitri Daldegan-Bueno
- Schools of Population Health and Pharmacy, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Luís Fernando Tófoli
- Department of Medical Psychology and Psychiatry, School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
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Ruffell S, Netzband N, Bird C, Young AH, Juruena MF. The pharmacological interaction of compounds in ayahuasca: a systematic review. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PSIQUIATRIA (SAO PAULO, BRAZIL : 1999) 2020; 42:646-656. [PMID: 32638916 PMCID: PMC7678905 DOI: 10.1590/1516-4446-2020-0884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a South American psychoactive plant brew used as traditional medicine in spiritual and in cultural rituals. This is a review of the current understanding about the pharmacological mechanisms that may be interacting in ayahuasca. Searches were performed using PubMed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science databases and 16 papers were selected. As hypothesized, the primary narrative in existing research revolved around prevention of deamination of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (N,N-DMT, also referred to as DMT) by monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) in ayahuasca. Two of the constituents, DMT and harmine, have been studied more than the secondary harmala alkaloids. At present, it is unclear whether the pharmacological interactions in ayahuasca act synergistically or additively to produce psychoactive drug effects. The included studies suggest that our current understanding of the preparation's synergistic mechanisms is limited and that more complex processes may be involved; there is not yet enough data to determine any potential synergistic interaction between the known compounds in ayahuasca. Our pharmacological understanding of its compounds must be increased to avoid the potential risks of ayahuasca use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Ruffell
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
- Correspondence: Mario F. Juruena, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, Room M3.24, PO72 De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF, UK. E-mail:
| | - Nige Netzband
- University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
- Correspondence: Mario F. Juruena, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, Room M3.24, PO72 De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF, UK. E-mail:
| | - Catherine Bird
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Allan H. Young
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Mario F. Juruena
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
- Correspondence: Mario F. Juruena, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, Room M3.24, PO72 De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF, UK. E-mail:
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Alamia A, Timmermann C, Nutt DJ, VanRullen R, Carhart-Harris RL. DMT alters cortical travelling waves. eLife 2020; 9:e59784. [PMID: 33043883 PMCID: PMC7577737 DOI: 10.7554/elife.59784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychedelic drugs are potent modulators of conscious states and therefore powerful tools for investigating their neurobiology. N,N, Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) can rapidly induce an extremely immersive state of consciousness characterized by vivid and elaborate visual imagery. Here, we investigated the electrophysiological correlates of the DMT-induced altered state from a pool of participants receiving DMT and (separately) placebo (saline) while instructed to keep their eyes closed. Consistent with our hypotheses, results revealed a spatio-temporal pattern of cortical activation (i.e. travelling waves) similar to that elicited by visual stimulation. Moreover, the typical top-down alpha-band rhythms of closed-eyes rest were significantly decreased, while the bottom-up forward wave was significantly increased. These results support a recent model proposing that psychedelics reduce the 'precision-weighting of priors', thus altering the balance of top-down versus bottom-up information passing. The robust hypothesis-confirming nature of these findings imply the discovery of an important mechanistic principle underpinning psychedelic-induced altered states.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christopher Timmermann
- Computational, Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience Laboratory (C3NL), Faculty of Medicine, Imperial CollegeLondonUnited Kingdom
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - David J Nutt
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Rufin VanRullen
- Cerco, CNRS Université de ToulouseToulouseFrance
- Artificial and Natural Intelligence Toulouse Institute (ANITI)ToulouseFrance
| | - Robin L Carhart-Harris
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
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40
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Psychedelic drugs: neurobiology and potential for treatment of psychiatric disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 2020; 21:611-624. [PMID: 32929261 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-020-0367-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Renewed interest in the use of psychedelics in the treatment of psychiatric disorders warrants a better understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the effects of these substances. After a hiatus of about 50 years, state-of-the art studies have recently begun to close important knowledge gaps by elucidating the mechanisms of action of psychedelics with regard to their effects on receptor subsystems, systems-level brain activity and connectivity, and cognitive and emotional processing. In addition, functional studies have shown that changes in self-experience, emotional processing and social cognition may contribute to the potential therapeutic effects of psychedelics. These discoveries provide a scientific road map for the investigation and application of psychedelic substances in psychiatry.
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Campagnoli APS, Pereira LAS, Bueno JLO. Subjective time under altered states of consciousness in ayahuasca users in shamanistic rituals involving music. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 53:e9278. [PMID: 32578718 PMCID: PMC7307892 DOI: 10.1590/1414-431x20209278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is described as a hallucinogenic substance whose property is to alter the subjective experience of time and impair the perception of the passage of time during stimuli of more than two to three seconds. The dose-dependent effects of two concentrations of ayahuasca in the ritualistic context were investigated employing temporal reproduction tasks in participants experienced in shamanistic ayahuasca rituals. The study was conducted on nine healthy volunteers who ingested two doses of ayahuasca at two times during a ritual session. The doses of each session, consumed in amounts ranging from 20 to 60 mL, were either of low concentration or of experimental ayahuasca according to a double-blind procedure. Participants performed the task of immediately listening and reproducing, with a laptop, 20-s musical stimuli during the session. The results showed that significant temporal distortion was triggered by the musical stimulus presented without the ingestion of ayahuasca, with means of 16.33 to 16.52 s. There were minor temporal distortions after ingestion of ayahuasca: a mean of 17.91 s for control ayahuasca and of 18.38 s for experimental ayahuasca. These results with less temporal distortion among participants with ayahuasca intake disagree with other studies of hallucinogens involving temporal reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P S Campagnoli
- Departamento de Psicologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - L A S Pereira
- Departamento de Psicologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
| | - J L O Bueno
- Departamento de Psicologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil
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Katchborian-Neto A, Santos WT, Nicácio KJ, Corrêa JOA, Murgu M, Martins TMM, Gomes DA, Goes AM, Soares MG, Dias DF, Chagas-Paula DA, Paula ACC. Neuroprotective potential of Ayahuasca and untargeted metabolomics analyses: applicability to Parkinson's disease. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2020; 255:112743. [PMID: 32171895 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2020.112743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE Ayahuasca is a tea produced through decoction of Amazonian plants. It has been used for centuries by indigenous people of South America. The beverage is considered to be an ethnomedicine, and it is traditionally used for the treatment of a wide range of diseases, including neurological illness. Besides, some scientific evidence suggests it may be applicable to Parkinson's disease (PD) treatment. Thus, Ayahuasca deserves in depth studies to clarify its potential role in this disease. AIM OF THE STUDY This study aimed to use an untargeted metabolomics approach to evaluate the neuroprotective potential of the Ayahuasca beverage, the extracts from its matrix plants (Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis), its fractions and its main alkaloids on the viability of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells in an in vitro PD model. MATERIAL AND METHODS The cytotoxicity of Ayahuasca, crude extracts, and fractions of B. caapi and P. viridis, as well as neuroprotection promoted by these samples in a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced neurodegeneration model, were evaluated by the MTT assay at two time-points: 48 h (T1) and 72 h (T2). The main alkaloids from Ayahuasca matrix plants, harmine (HRE) and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), were also isolated and evaluated. An untargeted metabolomics approach was developed to explore the chemical composition of samples with neuroprotective activity. Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to Electrospray Ionisation and Time-of-Flight (UPLC-ESI-TOF) metabolome data was treated and further analysed using multivariate statistical analyses (MSA): principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). The metabolites were dereplicated using the Dictionary of Natural Products and an in house database. The main alkaloids were also quantified by UPLC-MS/MS. RESULTS The samples did not cause cytotoxicity in vitro and three of samples intensely increased cell viability at T1. The crude extracts, alkaloid fractions and HRE demonstrated remarkable neuroprotective effect at T2 while the hydroalcoholic fractions demonstrated this neuroprotective effect at T1 and T2. Several compounds from different classes, such as β-carbolines and monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIAs) were revealed correlated with this property by MSA. Additionally, a total of 2419 compounds were detected in both ionisation modes. HRE showed potent neuroprotective action at 72 h, but it was not among the metabolites positively correlated with the most efficacious neuroprotective profile at either time (T1 and T2). Furthermore, DMT was statistically important to differentiate the dataset (VIP value > 1), although it did not exhibit sufficient neuroprotective activity by in vitro assay, neither a positive correlation with T1 and T2 neuroprotective profile, which corroborated the MSA results. CONCLUSION The lower doses of the active samples stimulated neuronal cell proliferation and/or displayed the most efficacious neuroprotection profile, namely by preventing neuronal damage and improving cell viability against 6-OHDA-induced toxicity. Intriguingly, the hydroalcoholic fractions exhibited enhanced neuroprotective effects when compared to other samples and isolated alkaloids. This finding corroborates the significance of a holistic approach. The results demonstrate that Ayahuasca and its base plants have potential applicability for PD treatment and to prevent its progression differently from current drugs to treat PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Katchborian-Neto
- Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Alfenas, 37130-001, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Wanderleya T Santos
- School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, 36036-900, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Karen J Nicácio
- Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Alfenas, 37130-001, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - José O A Corrêa
- School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, 36036-900, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Michael Murgu
- Waters Corporation, Alameda Tocantins 125, 27th Floor, Alphaville, 06455-020, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Thaís M M Martins
- Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Dawidson A Gomes
- Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Alfredo M Goes
- Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Marisi G Soares
- Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Alfenas, 37130-001, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Danielle F Dias
- Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Alfenas, 37130-001, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Daniela A Chagas-Paula
- Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Alfenas, 37130-001, Alfenas, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Ana C C Paula
- School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, 36036-900, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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Orsolini L, Chiappini S, Papanti D, Latini R, Volpe U, Fornaro M, Tomasetti C, Vellante F, De Berardis D. How does ayahuasca work from a psychiatric perspective? Pros and cons of the entheogenic therapy. Hum Psychopharmacol 2020; 35:e2728. [PMID: 32220028 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic plant preparation, traditionally consumed in sacred ceremonies by indigenous North-Westerner Amazonian countries like Colombia, Peru, Brazil, and Ecuador. It is fundamental to carefully balance benefits/risks related to the ayahuasca intake, both during ceremonies and experimental settings. The aim is at evaluating and comparing the potential therapeutic benefits versus health risks related to ayahuasca intake (both acutely and chronically), focusing on its application in psychedelic psychiatry. DESIGN A comprehensive mini overview focusing on psychiatric outcomes following ayahuasca intake both in healthy volunteers and in clinical samples. RESULTS Preclinical, observational, and experimental studies in healthy volunteers as well as in clinical samples suggest that ayahuasca may be beneficial as an antidepressant, emotional regulator, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive drug, by exerting fast-acting and enduring clinical effects. Ayahuasca appears to be safe and well tolerated, nausea and emesis being the most reported and transient side effects. Some findings suggest not to use ayahuasca in bipolar or psychotic patients because of an increased risk of manic switch and/or psychotic onset. CONCLUSIONS Further research should be carried out in randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials, by implementing neuroimaging studies, in order to better evaluate therapeutic potential of ayahuasca in mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Orsolini
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Department of Clinical Neurosciences/DIMSC, School of Medicine, Section of Psychiatry, Polytechnic University of Marche, Ancona, Italy.,Polyedra, Polyedra Research, Teramo, Italy
| | - Stefania Chiappini
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Duccio Papanti
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Roberto Latini
- Neomesia Mental Health, Villa Jolanda Hospital, Maiolati Spontini, Italy
| | - Umberto Volpe
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences/DIMSC, School of Medicine, Section of Psychiatry, Polytechnic University of Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Michele Fornaro
- Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry and Psychopharmacotherapeutics, Section of Psychiatry, Department of Neuroscience, University School of Medicine "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Carmine Tomasetti
- Polyedra, Polyedra Research, Teramo, Italy.,Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry and Psychopharmacotherapeutics, Section of Psychiatry, Department of Neuroscience, University School of Medicine "Federico II", Naples, Italy.,NHS, Department of Mental Health, Psychiatric Service of Diagnosis and Treatment, Hospital "SS. Annunziata", Giulianova, Italy
| | - Federica Vellante
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Science, University of "G. D'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy
| | - Domenico De Berardis
- Polyedra, Polyedra Research, Teramo, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Science, University of "G. D'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy.,NHS, Department of Mental Health, Psychiatric Service of Diagnosis and Treatment, Hospital "G. Mazzini", Teramo, Italy
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44
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Sherwood AM, Halberstadt AL, Klein AK, McCorvy JD, Kaylo KW, Kargbo RB, Meisenheimer P. Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Tryptamines Found in Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Norbaeocystin, Baeocystin, Norpsilocin, and Aeruginascin. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2020; 83:461-467. [PMID: 32077284 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b01061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
A general synthetic method was developed to access known tryptamine natural products present in psilocybin-producing mushrooms. In vitro and in vivo experiments were then conducted to inform speculations on the psychoactive properties, or lack thereof, of the natural products. In animal models, psychedelic activity by baeocystin alone was not evident using the mouse head twitch response assay, despite its putative dephosphorylated metabolite, norpsilocin, possessing potent agonist activity at the 5-HT2A receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander M Sherwood
- Usona Institute , 2780 Woods Hollow Road , Madison , Wisconsin 53711 , United States
| | - Adam L Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry , University of California San Diego , La Jolla , California 92093 , United States
- Research Service , VA San Diego Healthcare System , San Diego , California 92161 , United States
| | - Adam K Klein
- Department of Psychiatry , University of California San Diego , La Jolla , California 92093 , United States
| | - John D McCorvy
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology, and Anatomy , Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee , Wisconsin 53226 , United States
| | - Kristi W Kaylo
- Usona Institute , 2780 Woods Hollow Road , Madison , Wisconsin 53711 , United States
| | - Robert B Kargbo
- Usona Institute , 2780 Woods Hollow Road , Madison , Wisconsin 53711 , United States
| | - Poncho Meisenheimer
- Usona Institute , 2780 Woods Hollow Road , Madison , Wisconsin 53711 , United States
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45
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Timmermann C, Roseman L, Schartner M, Milliere R, Williams LTJ, Erritzoe D, Muthukumaraswamy S, Ashton M, Bendrioua A, Kaur O, Turton S, Nour MM, Day CM, Leech R, Nutt DJ, Carhart-Harris RL. Neural correlates of the DMT experience assessed with multivariate EEG. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16324. [PMID: 31745107 PMCID: PMC6864083 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51974-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Studying transitions in and out of the altered state of consciousness caused by intravenous (IV) N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT - a fast-acting tryptamine psychedelic) offers a safe and powerful means of advancing knowledge on the neurobiology of conscious states. Here we sought to investigate the effects of IV DMT on the power spectrum and signal diversity of human brain activity (6 female, 7 male) recorded via multivariate EEG, and plot relationships between subjective experience, brain activity and drug plasma concentrations across time. Compared with placebo, DMT markedly reduced oscillatory power in the alpha and beta bands and robustly increased spontaneous signal diversity. Time-referenced and neurophenomenological analyses revealed close relationships between changes in various aspects of subjective experience and changes in brain activity. Importantly, the emergence of oscillatory activity within the delta and theta frequency bands was found to correlate with the peak of the experience - particularly its eyes-closed visual component. These findings highlight marked changes in oscillatory activity and signal diversity with DMT that parallel broad and specific components of the subjective experience, thus advancing our understanding of the neurobiological underpinnings of immersive states of consciousness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Timmermann
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK.
- Computational, Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience Laboratory (C3NL), Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK.
| | - Leor Roseman
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Michael Schartner
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Raphael Milliere
- Faculty of Philosophy, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Luke T J Williams
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - David Erritzoe
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK
| | | | - Michael Ashton
- PKDM Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Adam Bendrioua
- PKDM Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Okdeep Kaur
- Imperial Clinical Research Facility, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Samuel Turton
- Centre for Psychiatry, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Matthew M Nour
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Camilla M Day
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Robert Leech
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - David J Nutt
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK
- Centre for Psychiatry, Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Robin L Carhart-Harris
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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46
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Estrella-Parra EA, Almanza-Pérez JC, Alarcón-Aguilar FJ. Ayahuasca: Uses, Phytochemical and Biological Activities. NATURAL PRODUCTS AND BIOPROSPECTING 2019; 9:251-265. [PMID: 31134518 PMCID: PMC6646606 DOI: 10.1007/s13659-019-0210-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2019] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca (caapi, yajé), is a psychoactive brew from the Amazon Basin region of South America traditionally considered a "master plant." It is prepared as a decoction from Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which it is thought that it stimulates creative thinking and visual creativity. Native healers of the Orinoco and Amazon basins have used traditionally ayahuasca as a healing tool for multiple purposes, particularly to treat psychological disorders in the patients, with some beneficial effects experimentally and clinically validated. Recently, several syncretic religions, as the "União de Vegetal" (UDV) group in Brazil, have been spread around the world. The use of ayahuasca has been popularized by internet and smart-shops, bringing the psychoactive substance to new highs, emerging new "ayahuasqueros." Ayahuasca has alkaloids as β-carbolines and dimethyltryptamines, which inhibit the monoamine oxidase and active the 5-HT2A (5-hydroxytryptamine) receptor, respectively, resulting in hallucinations in the users. Ayahuasca induces a psychedelic change in the anteroposterior coupling of the electrophysiological brain oscillations in humans. Traditional ayahuasca beverage is generating pharmacological, commercial and spiritual interest among the scientific community, government people, and different populations worldwide. The goal of this article is to report about the uses, chemistry and biological activities of ayahuasca.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Antonio Estrella-Parra
- Laboratorio de Farmacología. Dpto. Ciencias de la Salud. Div. C.B.S. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Iztapalapa. Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Col. Vicentina, 09340, Mexico CDMX, Mexico
- Laboratorio de Fitoquímica, Laboratorio de Farmacognosia, Laboratorio de Fisiología Vegetal, Unidad UBIPRO, FES-Iztacala, UNAM, Tlalnepantla de Baz, 54090, Mexico CDMX, Mexico
| | - Julio Cesar Almanza-Pérez
- Laboratorio de Farmacología. Dpto. Ciencias de la Salud. Div. C.B.S. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Iztapalapa. Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Col. Vicentina, 09340, Mexico CDMX, Mexico
| | - Francisco Javier Alarcón-Aguilar
- Laboratorio de Farmacología. Dpto. Ciencias de la Salud. Div. C.B.S. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Iztapalapa. Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Col. Vicentina, 09340, Mexico CDMX, Mexico.
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47
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Hamill J, Hallak J, Dursun SM, Baker G. Ayahuasca: Psychological and Physiologic Effects, Pharmacology and Potential Uses in Addiction and Mental Illness. Curr Neuropharmacol 2019; 17:108-128. [PMID: 29366418 PMCID: PMC6343205 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x16666180125095902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Ayahuasca, a traditional Amazonian decoction with psychoactive properties, is made from bark of the Banisteriopsis caapi vine (containing beta-carboline alkaloids) and leaves of the Psychotria viridis bush (supplying the hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine, DMT). Originally used by indigenous shamans for the purposes of spirit communi-cation, magical experiences, healing, and religious rituals across several South American countries, ayahuasca has been in-corporated into folk medicine and spiritual healing, and several Brazilian churches use it routinely to foster a spiritual experi-ence. More recently, it is being used in Europe and North America, not only for religious or healing reasons, but also for rec-reation. Objective: To review ayahuasca’s behavioral effects, possible adverse effects, proposed mechanisms of action and potential clinical uses in mental illness. Method: We searched Medline, in English, using the terms ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, Banisteriopsis caapi, and Psy-chotria viridis and reviewed the relevant publications. Results: The following aspects of ayahuasca are summarized: Political and legal factors; acute and chronic psychological ef-fects; electrophysiological studies and imaging; physiological effects; safety and adverse effects; pharmacology; potential psychiatric uses. Conclusion: Many years of shamanic wisdom have indicated potential therapeutic uses for ayahuasca, and several present day studies suggest that it may be useful for treating various psychiatric disorders and addictions. The side effect profile ap-pears to be relatively mild, but more detailed studies need to be done. Several prominent researchers believe that government regulations with regard to ayahuasca should be relaxed so that it could be provided more readily to recognized, credible re-searchers to conduct comprehensive clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Hamill
- Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jaime Hallak
- Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Neurosciences and Behavior and National Institute of Science and Technology (Translational Medicine), Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil
| | - Serdar M Dursun
- Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Glen Baker
- Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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Neurochemical models of near-death experiences: A large-scale study based on the semantic similarity of written reports. Conscious Cogn 2019; 69:52-69. [PMID: 30711788 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2019.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The real or perceived proximity to death often results in a non-ordinary state of consciousness characterized by phenomenological features such as the perception of leaving the body boundaries, feelings of peace, bliss and timelessness, life review, the sensation of traveling through a tunnel and an irreversible threshold. Near-death experiences (NDEs) are comparable among individuals of different cultures, suggesting an underlying neurobiological mechanism. Anecdotal accounts of the similarity between NDEs and certain drug-induced altered states of consciousness prompted us to perform a large-scale comparative analysis of these experiences. After assessing the semantic similarity between ≈15,000 reports linked to the use of 165 psychoactive substances and 625 NDE narratives, we determined that the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist ketamine consistently resulted in reports most similar to those associated with NDEs. Ketamine was followed by Salvia divinorum (a plant containing a potent and selective κ receptor agonist) and a series of serotonergic psychedelics, including the endogenous serotonin 2A receptor agonist N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT). This similarity was driven by semantic concepts related to consciousness of the self and the environment, but also by those associated with the therapeutic, ceremonial and religious aspects of drug use. Our analysis sheds light on the long-standing link between certain drugs and the experience of "dying", suggests that ketamine could be used as a safe and reversible experimental model for NDE phenomenology, and supports the speculation that endogenous NMDA antagonists with neuroprotective properties may be released in the proximity of death.
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49
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Wolff TJ, Passie T. Motivational structure of ayahuasca drinkers in social networks. JOURNAL OF PSYCHEDELIC STUDIES 2018. [DOI: 10.1556/2054.2018.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tom John Wolff
- Institut für Public Health und Pflegeforschung, Abteilung 6 Gesundheit und Gesellschaft, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Torsten Passie
- Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Senckenberg Institute for History and Ethics in Medicine, Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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50
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Carhart-Harris RL. The entropic brain - revisited. Neuropharmacology 2018; 142:167-178. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Revised: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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