Obsessive-compulsive symptoms and obsessive-compulsive disorder in adolescents: a population-based study

A prospective longitudinal investigation of the trajectory of obsessive-compulsive symptoms during adolescence

Obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) increase with age during childhood and adolescence, and subthreshold OCS in childhood associate with a higher probability of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) diagnosis in adulthood. Additionally, average age of onset for OCD is in adolescence, with the majority of OCD cases emerging by early adulthood. Despite these trends, the specific course of OCS development in adolescence is relatively unknown. To this end, the present prospective longitudinal study used latent growth mixture modeling and a diverse community sample of 3,335 high schoolers to identify and characterize growth trajectories of OCS across middle to late adolescence. Results identified three trajectories: High-but-Remitting, Moderate-but-Escalating, and Low-and-Stable. Results also indicated age, gender, anxiety sensitivity, and distress tolerance as significant predictors of trajectory group membership, such that younger age and being female predicted classification in the High-but Remitting group, greater anxiety sensitivity predicted classification in both the High-but-Remitting and Moderate-but Escalating groups, and greater distress tolerance predicted a lower likelihood of classification in the High-but-Remitting and Moderate-but-Escalating groups. Taken together, these trajectories have illustrated the temporal course and development of OCS across key developmental years. Moreover, the trajectories and their corresponding predictors may help identify adolescents who are particularly vulnerable to developing OCD.

An Analysis of Drinking Motives in the Maintenance of Co-Occurring Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms and Alcohol Misuse

Objective: Despite the commonly observed co-occurrence of obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) and substance use in clinical populations, few researchers have examined potential mechanisms which contribute to this relationship. This study assessed the mediating role of drinking motives in the relationship between OCS, alcohol consumption, and its resulting health risks among U.S. adults. Methods: Adult participants (n = 1966; Mage = 47.72, SD = 17.91; 76.30% female; 86.10% non-Hispanic White) sourced from Research Match answered an online questionnaire containing measures related to substance use and anxiety-related symptoms. Results: As hypothesized, there was a significant positive indirect path between OCS and both alcohol consumption and risky alcohol use through coping motives. However, there were also small indirect effects of OCS through social motivations for consumption and conformity motivations for risky alcohol use. Conclusions: These results add evidence that coping motives play a role in OCS and alcohol misuse and highlights the need to also consider drinking motives related to social facilitation and conformity in those with co-occurring OCS and alcohol misuse.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in Children and Adolescents

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in children and adolescents is a neurobehavioral condition that can lead to functional impairment in multiple domains and decreased quality of life. We review the clinical presentation, diagnostic considerations, and common comorbidities of pediatric OCD. An overview of the biological and psychological models of OCD is provided along with a discussion of developmental considerations in youth. We also describe evidence-based treatments for OCD in childhood and adolescence, including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) with exposure and response prevention (ERP) and pharmacotherapy. Finally, research evaluating the delivery of CBT in different formats and modalities is discussed, and we conclude with suggestions for future research directions.

Deficiency in Self-Control: Unraveling Psychological and Behavioral Risk Factors for Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms in College Students

Objective

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a complex mental disorder to treat. However, there are some deficiencies in research performed to date about the psychological and behavioral factors that may trigger obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS). Based on the Psychopathology of Self-Control Theory which states that deficits in self-control underpin psychiatric symptoms, this study investigated the factors influencing OCS among college students.

Methods

A total of 5599 non-clinical Chinese college students were recruited to complete the Chinese version of the Self-Control Scale, Aitken Procrastination Inventory, and Symptom Checklist-90. Pearson's correlation analyses and the bootstrap method were performed to test our hypothesis.

Results

The following results were obtained: (a) There were significant correlations among self-control, procrastination, anxiety, and OCS. (b) When controlling for the effects of age and sex, self-control remained a significant negative predictor of OCS. (c) The mediating roles of procrastination and anxiety, and the chain mediating role of procrastination and anxiety were the three predicted pathways linking self-control and OCS.

Conclusion

This study highlights the significance of self-control deficiencies in OCS. It provides new insights into the psychological and behavioral factors that increase the risk of OCS with important practical implications for early intervention in OCD.

The Parallel Pandemic: A Systematic Review on the Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on OCD among Children and Adolescents

The COVID-19 pandemic and the accompanying social changes severely impacted mental health globally. Children and adolescents may have been vulnerable to adverse mental health outcomes, especially obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), due to their underdeveloped resilience and coping skills stemming from their progressing physical and psychological development. Few studies have explored the parallels between the pandemic and OCD trends in this population. This systematic review aims to identify the impacts of COVID-19 on OCD among children and adolescents. Using the PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search of eight databases for studies that assessed OCD outcomes independently or as part of other psychiatric diagnoses during the COVID-19 pandemic was conducted. The search was limited to studies on humans and those written in English and published between January 2020 and May 2023. We identified 788 articles, out of which 71 were selected for a full-text review. Twenty-two papers were synthesized from 10 countries for the final analysis. We found that 77% of our studies suggested that the COVID-19 pandemic had a negative impact on OCD among children and adolescents. We also found a complex interplay of individual, household, and socio-structural factors associated with the aggravation of OCD. Conversely, a few studies revealed that the pandemic strengthened relationships and resilience. The findings of this study emphasize the need for mental health screening and support for this population, especially during pandemic periods.

Relationship between Cognitive Strategies of Emotion Regulation and Dimensions of Obsessive-Compulsive Symptomatology in Adolescents

Cognitive emotion regulation refers to the management of one's emotions through cognitive strategies. Studies have found that individuals with obsessive-compulsive symptoms utilize emotion regulation strategies differently compared to those without these symptoms. This study aims to investigate the relationship between cognitive strategies for emotion regulation and specific dimensions of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in adolescents. A cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted with 307 adolescents between 12 and 18 years old. Associations between sociodemographic variables, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and emotion regulation strategies were examined using regression and network analyses. Regression results indicated that emotion regulation strategies and gender accounted for 28.2% of the variation in overall obsessive-compulsive symptoms (p < 0.001) and that emotion regulation explained most variance in the symptom dimension of obsessing. Network analysis showed that self-blame and catastrophizing were uniquely linked to overall obsessive-compulsive symptoms, while several strategies were uniquely linked to specific symptom dimensions. The adaptive strategy that demonstrated the strongest association with obsessive-compulsive symptoms was refocus on planning, while maladaptive strategies included catastrophizing, self-blame, and rumination. In conclusion, the results support the relationship between cognitive strategies for emotion regulation and dimensions of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in adolescents, though these relations appear complex and require further investigation. Addressing emotion regulation in the prevention of obsessive-compulsive symptoms may be warranted, but prospective studies are needed.

Lifetime prevalence and treatment of mental disorders in Saudi youth and adolescents

Previous global and regional studies indicate that adolescents and young adults (i.e., youth) are affected by various mental disorders with lifelong consequences. However, there are no national estimates of mental disorders prevalent among Saudi youth. Using data from the Saudi National Mental Health Survey (SNMHS), we examined the lifetime prevalence, treatment, and socio-demographic correlates of mental disorders among Saudi youth (aged 15-30). A total of 4004 interviews were conducted using the adapted Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI 3.0). Cross tabulations and logistic regression were used to generate estimates for the SNMHS youth sample (n = 1881). The prevalence of a mental disorder among Saudi youth was 40.10%, where anxiety disorders affected 26.84% of the sample, followed by disruptive behavior disorders (15.44%), mood disorders (9.67%), substance use disorders (4%) and eating disorders (7.06%). Sex, education, parental education, income, marital status, region, and family history of disorders were significant correlates of various classes of mental disorders. Only 14.47% of Saudi youth with any mental disorder received treatment for a lifetime disorder. Age, parental education, and family history of disorders emerged as significant correlates of mental health treatment. Lifetime mental disorders are highly prevalent among Saudi youth. There is an unmet need for culturally sensitive and age-appropriate treatment of lifetime mental disorders among youth in Saudi Arabia.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Diagnosis, Clinical Features, Nosology, and Epidemiology

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by time-consuming, distressing, or impairing obsessions and compulsions. Obsessions are recurrent, persistent, and intrusive thoughts, urges, or images. Compulsions are repetitive and often ritualized behaviors or mental acts performed to manage obsession-related distress or prevent harm. OCD affects 1% to 3% of the population, typically begins during adolescence or early adulthood, and can have a chronic or deteriorating course in the absence of effective treatment.

Early Identification and Intervention in Pediatric Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a psychiatric disorder characterized by persistent thoughts with subsequent repetitive behaviors. Interventions that are effective for adult OCD cannot simply be generalized to pediatric OCD, since OCD in children and adolescents usually has a different clinical presentation, etiology and course from adult OCD. Delayed and inadequate treatment is associated with a worse prognosis, making the need for early identification and intervention in pediatric OCD very urgent. In this paper, we reflected on the current constraints that make early interventions for pediatric OCD unpromoted and reviewed the approaches with potential application for early identification and early intervention in pediatric OCD, categorized by three-level prevention stages corresponding to a clinical staging model. Since the etiology of pediatric OCD is still unclear, primary prevention is most lacking, and early interventions for pediatric OCD are currently focused on the secondary prevention stage, which aims to prevent the conversion of obsessive-compulsive symptoms into full-blown OCD; tertiary prevention mostly focuses on the alleviation of mild to moderate OCD, while interventions for co-morbidities are still in their infancy. We closed by considering the important research questions on this topic.

Gender-related romantic attachment and serum oxytocin level difference in adult patients with obsessive compulsive disorder

Background

Given the scarcity of data on gender-related romantic attachment changes and the potential role of oxytocin (OT) in the pathophysiology of obsessive-compulsive illness (OCD), the current study aimed to assess gender-related differences in romantic attachment characteristics and their relationship to serum oxytocin in a set of forty OCD cases compared with a similar group of healthy controls .Simultaneously examining the gender differences in serum oxytocin levels in OCD patients, the diagnosis of OCD patients was determined using DSM-5 criteria, and the severity of OCD was determined using the Y-BOCS rating scale. All of the patients were drug-free and not depressed. The romantic attachment was assessed using the “Experiences in Close Relationship” Questionnaire. Standard ELISA kits were used to assess plasma OT levels.

Results

Regarding romantic attachments, patients with obsessive compulsive disorder scored higher on the anxiety and avoidance domains than controls with no significant gender difference. Serum oxytocin was higher in patients with OCD than in healthy controls, indicating a possible underlying pathophysiology of the illness. Also, there was a significant gender difference, with female patients having higher serum oxytocin and symptoms severity being negatively associated.

Conclusions

Taken together, these findings propose that OT may play a role in OCD pathophysiology with gender specificity. Also, OCD associated with insecure romantic attachment.

Psychological Distress, Somatic Complaints, and Their Relation to Negative Psychosocial Factors in a Sample of Swedish High School Students

Background: Adolescence is a period in life characterized by major neurobiological, physiological, and psychological changes. Those changes may give rise to worsened mental health and an increased prevalence of somatic complaints combined with a negative psychosocial environment. Rapid changes in society, which may also affect young people in several ways, call for a renewed screening of today's adolescents' mental and somatic well-being. Aim: The present study's primary aim was to measure the level of self-rated psychological distress and the prevalence of somatic complaints in a sample of Swedish high school students. As a secondary aim, it identifies gender-specific patterns and examines mental and somatic health in relation to negative psychosocial factors (such as parental alcohol use problems or the experience of physical or psychological abuse). Method: Two hundred and eighty-seven Swedish high school students completed a survey including the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) and a questionnaire about the presence of defined somatic complaints. In order to examine the relationship between negative psychosocial factors and mental and somatic health, three groups were formed: those reporting (i) parental substance use problems, (ii) previous experience of abuse, (iii) none of these problems. Results: The majority of the Swedish high-school students (>80%) reported no or only a few problems with psychological distress and no or only one somatic complaint. Female students disclosed a significantly higher psychological distress level captured by each BSI domain. The number of somatic complaints was similarly distributed between the genders. The students rarely reported parental substance use problems, but almost 40% of the male and 50% of the female students indicated the experience of physical and/or psychological abuse. Such negative psychosocial circumstances were related to an increased level of anxiety in the male and an increased general level of psychological distress in female students. Conclusions: The study confirmed female students' higher psychological distress level. Gender differences in the type of somatic complaints, but not in the number were detected. The experience of physical and/or psychological abuse was found to significantly worsen psychological distress in students of both genders.

Symmetry Dimension in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Prevalence, Severity and Clinical Correlates

Background: Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is a very heterogeneous condition that frequently includes symptoms of the “symmetry dimension” (i.e., obsessions and/or compulsions of symmetry, ordering, repetition, and counting), along with aggressive, sexual/religious, contamination/cleaning, and hoarding dimensions. Methods: This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the prevalence, severity, and demographic and clinical correlates of the symmetry dimension among 1001 outpatients from the Brazilian Research Consortium on Obsessive–Compulsive Spectrum Disorders. The main assessment instruments used were the Dimensional Yale–Brown Obsessive–Compulsive Scale, the Yale–Brown Obsessive–Compulsive Scale, the USP-Sensory Phenomena Scale, the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories, the Brown Assessment of Beliefs Scale, and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders. Chi-square tests, Fisher’s exact tests, Student’s t-tests, and Mann–Whitney tests were used in the bivariate analyses to compare patients with and without symptoms of the symmetry dimension. Odds ratios (ORs) with confidence intervals and Cohen’s D were also calculated as effect size measures. Finally, a logistic regression was performed to control for confounders. Results: The symmetry dimension was highly prevalent (86.8%) in this large clinical sample and, in the logistic regression, it remained associated with earlier onset of obsessive–compulsive symptoms, insidious onset of compulsions, more severe depressive symptoms, and presence of sensory phenomena. Conclusions: A deeper knowledge about specific OCD dimensions is essential for a better understanding and management of this complex and multifaceted disorder.

Screening for depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorders among secondary school students in Al-Hasa Region, Saudi Arabia

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and assess their severity in both male and female secondary school students.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted among secondary school students in Al Hasa region. A sample of student was selected using multi-stage sampling technique. Data were collected using valid self administered questionnaires (Patient Health Questionnaire 9, Anxiety Disorder 7, and Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive scale). Study was approved by institutional ethical review committee, and informed consent was obtained from each participant. SPSS used for data entry and analysis. Chi-square test was used to test for statistical significance.

RESULTS

A total of 1783 of students, 930 males and 853 females, were enrolled in the study. The prevalence of depression, anxiety, and OCD was 76.2%, 49.9%, and 61.6%, respectively. Most of the diagnosed students had mild forms of the diseases, fewer had moderate form, and very few had severe forms. The most significant risk factor was gender, but other risk factors were significant for some of the diseases.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of the three diseases is high and significantly associated with gender. Further work is needed to evaluate this high prevalence and assess the severity of the diseases and other risk factors.

Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms, Polygenic Risk Score, and Thalamic Development in Children From the Brazilian High-Risk Cohort for Mental Conditions (BHRCS)

Background: Thalamic volume measures have been linked to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in children and adolescents. However, it is unclear if alterations in thalamic volumes occur before or after symptom onset and if there is a relation to the presence of sub-clinical obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS). Here, we explore the relationship between OCS and the rate of thalamic volume change in a cohort of children and youth at high risk to develop a mental disorder. A secondary aim was to determine if there is a relationship between OCS and the individual's OCD polygenic risk score (OCD-PRS) and between the rate of thalamic volume change and the OCD-PRS. Methods: The sample included 378 children enrolled in the longitudinal Brazilian High-Risk Cohort for Mental Conditions. Participants were assessed for OCS and the symmetrized percent change (SPC) of thalamic volume across two time-points separated by 3 years, along with the OCD-PRS. Zero-altered negative binomial models were used to analyze the relationship between OCS and thalamic SPC. Multiple linear regressions were used to examine the relationship between thalamic SPC and OCD-PRS. Results: A significant relationship between OCS and the right thalamus SPC (p = 0.042) was found. There was no significant relationship between changes in thalamic volume SPC and OCD-PRS. Conclusions: The findings suggest that changes in the right thalamic volume over the course of 3 years in children may be associated to OCS. Future studies are needed to confirm these results and further characterize the specific nature of OCS symptoms associated with thalamic volumes.

Clinical characteristics and comorbidity associated with female gender in obsessive-compulsive disorder

INTRODUCTION

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a heterogeneous condition characterized by largely variable phenotypic expressions. Previous findings suggested that gender may be a relevant factor in mediating this heterogeneity. The present study aimed at exploring gender differences in a large clinical sample of Italian OCD patients.

METHODS

Socio-demographic and clinical variables of a sample of 229 consecutive OCD outpatients were included in a common database. Patients were assessed through structured clinical interviews, the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) and the Clinical Global Impression (CGI) scale.

RESULTS

Female OCD patients were more likely than males to have lifetime psychiatric comorbidities (72.6% vs 56.9%; p < 0.05), poly-comorbidities being twice as high compared to males. The female group also showed a significant later onset of symptoms (63.7% vs 44.8%; p < 0.005) and a higher age at first treatment (30.98 ± 13.1 years vs 27.81 ± 11.3; p < 0.005). Moreover, the female subgroup presented higher rates of cleaning and washing compulsions, compared to the male subgroup (28.7% vs 12.6% in the male group; p < 0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

The current study supports the notion that OCD in female gender is frequently a comorbid condition with other specific clinical characteristics compared to male patients. These findings should be considered in epidemiologic and therapeutic perspectives.

Mental health problems and associated school interpersonal relationships among adolescents in China: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

During adolescence, middle school students facing psychophysical changes are vulnerable to psychological problems. The present study aimed to investigate mental health status and associated school interpersonal relationships among adolescents in China, which may help to inform effective prevention strategies to reduce the prevalence of mental health problems.

METHODS

In the cross-sectional study, a total of 10,131 middle school students were selected from three cities in eastern China by stratified random sampling. The Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90), Teacher-Student Relationship Questionnaire (TSRQ) and Peer Relationship Scale (PRS) were used to evaluate psychological symptoms, the quality of relationship with teachers and the quality of relationship with peers, respectively. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted to explore the association between school interpersonal relationships and mental health problems in adolescents.

RESULTS

36% of the middle school students reported positive in mental health problems assessed by the SCL-90. The most prevalent dimensional symptom was obsessive-compulsive (43.3%). The risk of all types of psychological symptoms was significantly associated with school interpersonal relationships. Moreover, a higher risk of mental health problems was associated with poorer school interpersonal relationships.

CONCLUSIONS

Mental health problems were prevalent among adolescents and highly associated with school interpersonal relationships. Our findings underscore the pressing need for school administrators to make efforts to improve school interpersonal relationships among adolescents.

Results of the Nursing Outcomes Classification/NOC for patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the application of nursing outcomes and indicators selected from the Nursing Outcomes Classification (NOC) to evaluate patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in outpatient follow-up.

METHOD

Outcome-based research. First, a consensus was achieved between nurses specialized in mental health (MH) and in the nursing process to select NOC-related outcomes and indicators, followed by the elaboration of their conceptual and operational definitions. Then, an instrument was created with these, which was tested in a pilot group of six patients treated at a MH outpatient clinic. The instrument was applied to patients with OCD undergoing Group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (GCBT). The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the institution.

RESULTS

Four NOC outcomes and 17 indicators were selected. There was a significant change in the scores of nine indicators after CBGT.

CONCLUSION

The study showed feasibility for evaluating symptoms of patients with OCD through NOC outcomes and indicators in an outpatient situation.

Prevalence and Clinical Correlates of Self-Harm Behaviors in Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome

Introduction: Major symptoms of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) are tics, but in 90% of cases, psychiatric comorbidities occur. Self-harm behaviors (SHBs) could result from deliberate action and unintentional injury from tics. Methods: We examined 165 consecutive GTS patients aged 5 to 50 years (75.8% males). The median duration of GTS was 14 years (interquartile range, 9-22 years). The patients were evaluated for GTS and comorbid mental disorders according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. Self-harm behavior was diagnosed during the interview. To determine a direct relationship between SHB and clinical variables, we conducted two analyses, at the time of evaluation and lifetime. We also compared the group of children and adults with SHB. We also tried to distinguish between deliberate (non-tic-related SHB) and accidental (tic-related SHB). Results: Lifetime SHB was reported by 65 patients (39.4%), and in 55 of the cases, it was present at the time of evaluation. The age at the onset of SHB was reported in 55 of the cases (84.6%), and the median was 10 years (interquartile range, 7-13 years). In 30 of the patients (46.2%), SHB was evaluated as mild; in 26 (40%), as moderate; and in only 9 cases (13.9%), as severe. In the multivariable analysis for the predictor of lifetime SHB, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (p = 0.016) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD; p = 0.042) were determined as risk factors, while for current SHB, only tic severity (p < 0.0001) was statistically significant. When comparing predictors of SHB for children and adults, tic severity was determined as predictor for lifetime SHB in children (p < 0.0001), while the anxiety disorder was associated with lifetime SHB in adults (p = 0.05). Similarly, tic severity was a predictor of current SHB in the children group (p = 0.001), but this was not confirmed for adults. The group of patients with tic-related and non-tic-related SHB did not differ. Conclusions: Self-harm behavior appears mostly in children and adolescents and rarely begins in adulthood. Self-harm behavior is associated mainly with tic severity, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical correlates of SHB are age related and differ at different points of life. Tic severity is the main factor associated with SHB in children. In the adult group, anxiety disorder and other psychiatric comorbidities may play the most important role.

Epidemiological and Clinical Gender Differences in OCD

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review highlights recent research regarding gender differences in OCD, with a focus on prevalence, course of illness, symptom presentation, comorbidity, and treatment response.

RECENT FINDINGS

Overall, findings remain mixed. OCD may be more common among males in childhood, but is more common among females in adolescence and adulthood. Males tend to report an earlier age of onset and present with symptoms related to blasphemous thoughts. Females often describe symptom onset as occurring during or after puberty or pregnancy and present with symptoms related to contamination and/or aggressive obsessions. Females also tend to report significantly higher depression and anxiety. There are no reported gender differences in treatment outcome. Gender may play a role in the onset, presentation, and impact of OCD symptoms. However, more work is needed to account for differences across studies, with one promising future direction being the study of reproductive hormones.

Obsessive-Compulsive Symptomatology in Community Youth: Typical Development or a Red Flag for Psychopathology?

OBJECTIVE

Obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) are common throughout development and often considered developmentally appropriate. We evaluated the prevalence and phenotypic heterogeneity of self-reported OCS in a large community youth sample not ascertained for seeking mental-health help. We aimed to identify patterns in OCS that are associated with serious psychopathology and may thus represent a "red flag" that merits psychiatric evaluation.

METHOD

Data were analyzed from youth from the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort (N = 7,054, aged 11-21 years, 54% female). Participants underwent structured psychiatric interviews, including screening for OCS (8 obsessions, 8 compulsions, and hoarding) and other major psychopathology domains. Factor analysis was conducted to identify clustering of OCS presentation. Regression models were used to investigate association of OCS with threshold lifetime diagnoses of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), depressive episode, psychosis, and suicide ideation.

RESULTS

OCS were common in non-mental health-seeking individuals (38.2%), although only 3% met threshold OCD criteria. OCS were more common in female participants and postpuberty. Factor analyses resulted in 4 factors: F1 - Bad Thoughts; F2 - Repeating/Checking; F3 - Symmetry; F4 - Cleaning/Contamination; and Hoarding as a separate item. All OCS were associated with higher rates of OCD, depression, psychosis, and suicide ideation. However, endorsement of F1 symptoms, prevalent in more than 20% of the sample, showed the most substantial associations with major psychiatric conditions.

CONCLUSION

OCS are common in community youth. Although for most youths OCS symptoms may be benign, some patterns of OCS are associated with major psychiatric conditions. These findings may help to identify youth at risk for serious psychopathology.

Mental health profile and its relation with parental alcohol use problems and/or the experience of abuse in a sample of Moroccan high school students: an explorative study

BACKGROUND

Studies on mental health are scarce from Arab countries, especially studies focusing on adolescents. In addition to the neurobiological and physiological changes that occur during adolescent development, psychological, societal and cultural influences have strong effects on adolescents' behavior and on their somatic and mental health. The present study aimed (1) to describe the mental health profile, operationalized as psychological distress, of a sample of Moroccan adolescents, and (2) to investigate how specific psychosocial factors (parental alcohol use problems and the experience of physical and/or psychological abuse) may affect adolescents' mental health.

METHODS

The sample included 375 adolescents from conveniently selected classes of four high schools in the city of Tetouan in Morocco. The participants responded to an anonymous survey containing, beside other inventories, the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) and identified those reporting parental alcohol use problems and/or the previous experience of abuse. The sample characteristics were defined using descriptive statistics. The effects of the defined psychosocial factors were identified using the Kruskal-Wallis test, followed by the post hoc Fisher's least significant difference test.

RESULTS

The most common problems found in high school students from an urban region of Morocco were memory problems, concentration difficulties, restlessness, fear, nervosity and feelings of inadequacy during interpersonal interactions. The female students reported significantly higher psychological distress levels when compared to the male students (p < 0.001). The adolescents reporting parental alcohol use problems and the experience of physical/psychological abuse showed significantly higher levels of psychological distress (p = 0.02), especially symptoms of somatization (p < 0.001), hostility (p = 0.005) and anxiety (p = 0.01), than those not reporting any of these psychosocial factors.

CONCLUSION

The mental health profile of female adolescents from an urban area of Morocco is worse than that of their male fellow students. Adolescents reporting parental alcohol use problems and/or the experience of physical/psychological abuse need synchronized support from social- and healthcare services.

Clinical profile and outcome in a large sample of children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A chart review from a tertiary care center in India

BACKGROUND

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a common psychiatric illness in children and adolescents. Till date, the sample sizes in the Indian studies have been relatively small.

METHODOLOGY

The present study is a retrospective chart review of a large sample of children and adolescents diagnosed with OCD in a tertiary care center.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study were to characterize the clinical profile and to evaluate outcome of OCD in children and adolescents.

RESULTS

Fear of contamination and washing/cleaning compulsions were the most common presenting symptoms. Most of the patients were male with two-thirds having a comorbid disorder. Major depressive disorder was the most common comorbid disorder. The rates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, disruptive behavioral disorders, and tic disorders were low when compared to Western studies. One-third of the patients received adequate trial of serotonin reuptake inhibitors and 36% received cognitive behavior therapy. Fifty-four percent of patients had a poor outcome with hospitalization, longer duration of illness, earlier onset of OC symptoms, and family history of OCD being the predictors of poor outcome.

CONCLUSION

The present study of a large sample of patients with juvenile OCD highlights the low rate of comorbid disruptive behavior disorders as reported in the earlier Indian studies and a favorable short-term outcome in approximately 56% of the patients.

Examining the role of sex differences in obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a notably heterogeneous disorder. As such, there has been increased interest in subtyping OCD into homogeneous entities using biological characteristics such as sex. Whereas there is large consensus in the literature regarding sex differences in the phenotypic expression of OCD, there are numerous disadvantages to how OCD has been previously measured and assessed. The present investigation explored potential sex differences in OCD symptoms using the Dimensional Obsessive Compulsive Scale (DOCS), a redesigned measure that more reliably assesses the four most commonly replicated OCD symptom dimensions. A large sample of community participants with elevated levels of OCD symptoms (N = 297) was recruited from an online crowdsourcing marketplace. Surprisingly, no differences in means were observed across sexes. However, results did reveal sex differences when examining relations between OCD dimensions. In particular, correlations between the OCD symptom dimensions were stronger in males compared to females. The common perception of OCD as a heterogeneous disorder may hold for females more so than for males. Future research should seek to replicate these findings using multimethod approaches including clinical, behavioral, and neuroimaging assessments.

The Child Behavior Checklist-Obsessive-Compulsive Subscale Detects Severe Psychopathology and Behavioral Problems Among School-Aged Children

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this study were (1) to assess obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) dimensionally in a school-aged community sample and to correlate them with clinical and demographical variables; (2) to determine a subgroup with significant OCS ("at-risk for OCD") using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL-OCS) and (3) to compare it with the rest of the sample; (4) To review the CBCL-OCS subscale properties as a screening tool for pediatric OCD.

METHODS

Data from the Brazilian High Risk Cohort were analyzed. The presence and severity of OCS were assessed through the CBCL-OCS subscale. DSM-IV psychiatric diagnoses were obtained by the Developmental and Well-Being Assessment. Behavioral problems were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, the Youth Strengths Inventory, and the CBCL internalizing and externalizing behavior subscales.

RESULTS

A total of 2512 (mean age: 8.86 ± 1.84 years; 55.0% male) children were included. Moderate correlations were found between OCS severity and functional impairment (r = 0.36, p < 0.001). Children with higher levels of OCS had higher rates of psychiatric comorbidity and behavioral problems (p < 0.001). A score of 5 or higher in the CBCL-OCS scale determined an "at-risk for OCD" subgroup, comprising 9.7% of the sample (n = 244), with behavioral patterns and psychiatric comorbidities (e.g., tics [odds ratios, OR = 6.41, p < 0.001]), anxiety disorders grouped [OR = 3.68, p < 0.001] and depressive disorders [OR = 3.0, p < 0.001] very similar to those described in OCD. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of the CBCL-OCS for OCD diagnosis were, respectively, 48%, 91.5%; 15.1%, and 98.2%.

CONCLUSIONS

The dimensional approach suggests that the presence of OCS in children is associated with higher rates of comorbidity, behavioral problems, and impairment. The "at-risk for OCD" group defined by the CBCL revealed a group of patients phenotypically similar to full blown OCD.

Quality of life in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a seriously impairing psychiatric condition that affects 1%-3% of youth. Investigating the quality of life (QOL) is an important issue for treatment planning of this disorder, as targeting symptoms without taking it into account may bias assessment and prognosis when the patient presents with reduced symptoms that do not correspond to improved QOL. However, QOL in young individuals with OCD has been understudied. This meta-analysis summarized current evidence that assessed differences in global, social and school QOL dimensions, between children/adolescents with OCD and screened controls. Age, sex and OCD severity were examined as moderators. Case-control studies were included if children/adolescents with primary OCD were compared with screened controls on validated self-reported QOL outcomes. Online databases (January 1966-January 2016) were searched. Five case-control studies were included (n=543, 17 effect sizes overall). On global QOL, a large effect size emerged (d=-1.16, P<0.001), suggesting that individuals with OCD had lower global QOL than controls. Moderate effect sizes emerged for school (d=-0.61, P<0.01) and social QOL (d=-0.54, P<0.01), respectively, indicating worse QOL on these domains for individuals with OCD. For samples with higher OCD severity, global QOL of individuals with OCD was lower than that for controls (β=-0.02, P<0.05). For samples with lower percentages of females, global QOL of individuals with OCD was more impaired (β=0.02, P<0.001). Age was not correlated with effect sizes. Assessment and treatment should target QOL for young males suffering from more severe OCD. The small number of included studies highlighted that QOL is under-recognized. Future research should focus on additional QOL domains and compare which ones are impaired among individuals with OCD compared with other psychiatric conditions. Overall, the results pointed out the importance of addressing QOL in both practice and research on assessment and treatment of children/adolescents with this condition.

Are obsessive-compulsive symptoms impulsive, compulsive or both?

BACKGROUND

The relationships between obsessive-compulsive symptoms and distinct forms of impulsivity and compulsivity are unclear. Such examination would be relevant in terms of how best to classify psychiatric disorders and in understanding candidate 'traits' that extend across a continuum between normalcy and clinical disorders.

METHOD

515 young adults (aged 18-29years) completed the Padua Inventory and undertook detailed clinical and neurocognitive assessments. Relationships between obsessive-compulsive symptoms and distinct types of impulsivity and compulsivity were evaluated using linear regression modeling.

RESULTS

Obsessive-Compulsive symptoms were significantly predicted by female gender, lower quality of life, psychiatric disorders in general (but not impulse control disorders), and worse extra-dimensional set-shifting. Obsessive-Compulsive symptoms were not significantly predicted by alcohol/nicotine consumption, stop-signal reaction times, or decision-making abilities.

CONCLUSION

These data indicate that obsessive-compulsive symptoms are more related to certain forms of compulsivity than to impulsivity. These findings have important implications for diagnostic conceptualizations and neurobiological models.

Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms as a Risk Factor for Suicidality in U.S. College Students

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to assess the association of obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) with suicide risk among college students.

METHODS

Subjects were 474 college students who attended mental health screenings at two private universities and completed multiple self-report questionnaires.

RESULTS

Presence of one or more OCS was associated with an increased odds ratio of suicide risk of approximately 2.4, although this was no longer a significant risk factor when controlling for depressive symptoms. Of the OCS assessed, only obsessions about speaking or acting violently remained an independent risk factor for suicidality over and above depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Although our study was cross-sectional in nature and thus cannot determine causality, increased burden of particular OCS symptom clusters, such as violent or aggressive obsessions, may increase risk among college students, for suicidal ideation.

The Toronto Obsessive-Compulsive Scale: Psychometrics of a Dimensional Measure of Obsessive-Compulsive Traits

OBJECTIVE

To describe the Toronto Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (TOCS), a novel 21-item parent- or self-report questionnaire that covers wide variation in obsessive-compulsive (OC) traits, and to evaluate its psychometric properties in a community-based pediatric sample.

METHOD

The TOCS was completed for 16,718 children and adolescents between the ages of 6 and 17 years in a community setting. Internal consistency, convergent validity with the Obsessive-Compulsive Scale of the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL-OCS), divergent validity with the Strengths and Weaknesses of ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) Symptoms and Normal Behaviour Rating Scale (SWAN), interrater reliability, as well as sensitivity and specificity of the TOCS were assessed.

RESULTS

The internal consistency of the 21 TOCS items was excellent (Cronbach's α = 0.94). TOCS was moderately correlated with the CBCL-OCS (Spearman correlation = 0.51) and poorly correlated with the SWAN (Pearson correlation = 0.02). Sensitivity and specificity analyses indicated that a TOCS total score of greater than 0 successfully discriminated community-reported obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) cases from noncases. OC traits were continuously distributed both at the total score and dimensional level in our pediatric community sample.

CONCLUSION

TOCS is a multidimensional measure of OC traits in children and adolescents with sound psychometric properties. TOCS reveals that OC traits are common and continuously distributed in a community sample. TOCS may be a useful measure for studies of the characteristics and etiology of OC traits.

Obsessive-compulsive symptoms are associated with psychiatric comorbidities, behavioral and clinical problems: a population-based study of Brazilian school children

Pediatric-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is underdiagnosed, and many affected children are untreated. The present study seeks to evaluate the presence and the clinical impact of OCD and obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) in a large sample of school-age children. In Phase I, we performed an initial screening using the Family History Screen (FHS). In Phase II, we identified an "at-risk" sample, as well as a randomly selected group of children. A total of 2,512 children (6-12 years old) were assessed using the FHS, the Development and Well-Being Assessment (DAWBA), the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Data analyses included descriptive and multivariate analytical techniques. 2,512 children (mean age: 8.86 ± 1.84 years; 55.0% male) were categorized into one of the three diagnostic groups: OCD (n = 77), OCS (n = 488), and unaffected controls (n = 1,947). There were no significant socio-demographic differences (age, gender, socioeconomic status) across groups. The OCS group resembled the OCD on overall impairment, including school problems and delinquent behaviors. However, the OCD group did have significantly higher rates of several comorbid psychiatric disorders, including separation anxiety, generalized anxiety, and major depressive disorder, than OCS or unaffected controls. Moreover, the OCD group also scored higher than the SDQ, as well as on each of CBCL items rated by the parent. Our findings suggest that there is a psychopathological continuum between OCS and OCD in school-aged children. The presence of OCS is associated with functional impairment, which needs further investigation in longitudinal studies.

Obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions in a population-based, cross-sectional sample of school-aged children

BACKGROUND

Obsessive-compulsive disorder can be expressed as four potentially overlapping obsessive-compulsive symptom (OCS) dimensions (OCSD) ("symmetry/ordering", "contamination/cleaning", "aggressive/sexual/religious" and "collecting/hoarding"). In clinical samples, some dimensions are more familial and associated with increased psychiatric comorbidity and malfunctioning. However, data concerning OCS and OCSD are scarce in non-clinical samples, particularly among children. The present study aims to estimate: (1) the prevalence and sex/age distribution of OCS/OCSD in a community-based sample of schoolchildren; (2) the association between OCS and additional clinical factors; and (3) the degree of familial aggregation of OCS/OCSD.

METHODS

OCS and OCSD were evaluated in 9937 Brazilian school-children (6-12 years-old) and their biological relatives using the Family History Screen. Data analyses included gradient estimated equations and post-hoc tests.

RESULTS

We included data on 9937 index-children, 3305 siblings (13-18 years-old), and 16,218 parents. Biological mothers were the informants in 87.6% of the interviews. OCS were present in 14.7% of the index-children; 15.6% of their siblings; 34.6% of their mothers and 12.1% of their fathers. The prevalence of OCS and each of the OCSD gradually increased from ages 6 to 12 years. Overall, OCS in children were associated with the presence of other psychiatric symptoms, as well as behavioral/school impairment. OCS and each of the four OCSD aggregated significantly within families.

CONCLUSIONS

OCS are prevalent and associated with psychiatric symptoms and clinical impairment among school-aged children. OCSD aggregate within families in a dimension-specific fashion. These findings suggest a natural continuum between OCS and OCD with regard to their dimensional character.