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Mayer C, Lee J, Carossino M, Nevarez JG. RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY IN A CAPTIVE POPULATION OF CRYPTOSPORIDIUM-POSITIVE LOUISIANA PINE SNAKES ( PITUOPHIS RUTHVENI). J Zoo Wildl Med 2024; 55:355-368. [PMID: 38875192 DOI: 10.1638/2023-0096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024] Open
Abstract
The Louisiana pine snake (Pituophis ruthveni) is a diurnal colubrid species native to Louisiana and eastern Texas whose free-ranging populations have been declining over at least the past 30 yr. The creation and maintenance of sustainable captive breeding programs of P. ruthveni to restore native populations has also provided ample opportunity for research into this species and for P. ruthveni to serve as a research model for other colubrid snakes. However, no investigation into prevalent causes of morbidity and mortality in captive populations of this species has been described. A research population of P. ruthveni was maintained at Louisiana State University (LSU) for over 4 yr due to unsuitability for breeding after testing positive for Cryptosporidium serpentis. Since arrival at LSU, the snakes were under close veterinary surveillance. Complete postmortem examinations were performed on 12 snakes that died or were euthanized. The aim of this study was to further understanding of common factors influencing morbidity and mortality in captive P. ruthveni infected with C. serpentis, by retrospectively reviewing postmortem exam findings from the 12 deceased members of the population at LSU. A predominant finding across individuals included bacterial infections, which were responsible for major illness or death in 37.5% of the animals. Fifty percent of snakes tested positive for Cryptosporidium sp. based on PCR performed from postmortem samples; it was directly implicated as cause of death or morbidity in 83.3% of positive cases. Although infectious disease represented the most common pathologic postmortem finding, several noninfectious disease processes were identified, including gout, goiter, and neoplasia. These findings mirror those of other retrospective investigations of reptile collections at various institutions and highlight the need for appropriate emphasis on the identification, treatment, and prevention of infectious disease as part of routine veterinary care.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Mayer
- Louisiana State University, School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA,
| | - J Lee
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences and Louisiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - M Carossino
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences and Louisiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - J G Nevarez
- Louisiana State University, School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
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2
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Capobianco CM, Bosch SN, Stacy NI, Wellehan JFX. Lactococcus garvieae-associated septicemia in a central bearded dragon. J Vet Diagn Invest 2024; 36:477-480. [PMID: 38516722 PMCID: PMC11110774 DOI: 10.1177/10406387241239912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Lactococcus garvieae is the causative agent of lactococcosis in fish and an emerging zoonotic pathogen with high levels of antimicrobial resistance. We report a case of L. garvieae-associated septicemia in a central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) confirmed via whole-blood PCR and direct sequencing. Following a 30-d course of ceftazidime (20 mg/kg IM q72h), the animal's clinical condition had not resolved; leukopenia persisted, with heterophil toxic change. Coelomic ultrasound findings were consistent with preovulatory follicular stasis, folliculitis, and coelomitis. Following surgical ovariectomy and an additional 30-d course of ceftazidime, the animal's behavior and appetite returned to normal, the animal tested negative via whole-blood PCR assay, and the CBC was unremarkable. To our knowledge, L. garvieae with L. garvieae-associated clinical disease has not been reported previously in a bearded dragon. We conclude that L. garvieae should be considered as a possible etiologic agent in cases of septicemia in bearded dragons, with the potential for zoonotic transmission warranting further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian M. Capobianco
- Departments of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Sarah N. Bosch
- Departments of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Nicole I. Stacy
- Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - James F. X. Wellehan
- Departments of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Walter B, Johnson S, Sladky K, Cox S, Thurber M. SERUM FENTANYL CONCENTRATIONS AND BEHAVIOR ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSDERMAL FENTANYL APPLICATION ON HEALTHY CORN SNAKES ( PANTHEROPHIS GUTTATUS). J Zoo Wildl Med 2024; 54:738-745. [PMID: 38251997 DOI: 10.1638/2022-0162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Snakes are common household pets and frequently managed in zoos. Geriatric snakes commonly develop osteoarthritis, leading to a declining quality of life that often results in euthanasia. Anecdotally, the application of transdermal fentanyl patches (TFP) appears to contribute to clinical improvement, including increased activity level, in osteoarthritic snakes presumed to be in pain. This study evaluated serum fentanyl concentrations over time and the effects of TFP on the normal behavior of healthy, captive, adult corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus) using constant video monitoring. Serum fentanyl concentrations were evaluated over 4 wk during 12.5 µg/h TFP application, and the results demonstrated long-lasting (>4 wk) serum concentrations that were consistent with analgesic efficacy in mammalian species during TFP application. At 4 wk of TFP application, mean serum fentanyl concentrations were 11.5 ± 5.5 ng/ml. Snakes were videotaped for 1 wk prior to and 2 wk after 12.5 µg/h TFP application, and behavior was evaluated by an ethogram. Behavioral changes associated with TFP application included decreased mean time spent active, decreased mean number of climbs, and decreased mean number of water visits; feeding behavior was unchanged. Overall, these results suggest that TFP application may provide safe, clinically effective analgesia in healthy corn snakes for at least 4 wk without inducing deleterious side effects, and may therefore be appropriate analgesia for management of osteoarthritic snakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Walter
- Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Stephen Johnson
- Departments of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Kurt Sladky
- Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Sherry Cox
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Mary Thurber
- Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA,
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Pees M, Brockmann M, Steiner N, Marschang RE. Salmonella in reptiles: a review of occurrence, interactions, shedding and risk factors for human infections. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1251036. [PMID: 37822870 PMCID: PMC10562597 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1251036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella are considered a part of the normal reptile gut microbiota, but have also been associated with disease in reptiles. Reptile-associated salmonellosis (RAS) can pose a serious health threat to humans, especially children, and an estimated 6% of human sporadic salmonellosis cases have been attributed to direct or indirect contact with reptiles, although the exact number is not known. Two literature searches were conducted for this review. The first evaluated reports of the prevalence of Salmonella in the intestinal tracts of healthy reptiles. Salmonella were most commonly detected in snakes (56.0% overall), followed by lizards (36.9%) and tortoises (34.2%), with lower detection rates reported for turtles (18.6%) and crocodilians (9%). Reptiles in captivity were significantly more likely to shed Salmonella than those sampled in the wild. The majority of Salmonella strains described in reptiles belonged to subspecies I (70.3%), followed by subspecies IIIb (29.7%) and subspecies II (19.6%). The second literature search focused on reports of RAS, revealing that the highest number of cases was associated with contact with turtles (35.3%), followed by lizards (27.1%) and snakes (20.0%). Reptiles associated with RAS therefore did not directly reflect prevalence of Salmonella reported in healthy representatives of a given reptile group. Clinical symptoms associated with RAS predominantly involved the gastrointestinal tract, but also included fever, central nervous symptoms, problems with circulation, respiratory symptoms and others. Disease caused by Salmonella in reptiles appears to be dependent on additional factors, including stress, inadequate husbandry and hygiene, and other infectious agents. While it has been suggested that reptile serovars may cause more severe disease than human-derived strains, and some data is available on invasiveness of individual strains in cell culture, limited information is available on potential mechanisms influencing invasiveness and immune evasion in reptiles and in RAS. Strategies to mitigate the spread of Salmonella through reptiles and to reduce RAS focus mostly on education and hygiene, and have often been met with some success, but additional efforts are needed. Many aspects regarding Salmonella in reptiles remain poorly understood, including the mechanisms by which Salmonella persist in reptile hosts without causing disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Pees
- Department of Small Mammal, Reptile and Avian Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | | | - Natalie Steiner
- Department of Small Mammal, Reptile and Avian Diseases, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
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Armstrong JF. Neurologic Assessment and Critical Care of Exotic Animals: Approach to the Neurologic Exam, Species Differences, Prognostic Scales, Commonly Encountered Conditions, Ancillary Diagnostic Tests, and Caring for Neurologically Impaired Patients. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2023:S1094-9194(23)00025-7. [PMID: 37385906 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2023.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/01/2023]
Abstract
Many disorders of other body systems have been well characterized in exotic species; however, data regarding neurologic conditions is limited. Across some of these species, correlates between feline and canine neurology can be made, but variations in the nervous system anatomy make evaluation more challenging. With accurate neurolocalization a focused list of differential diagnoses can be created. Performing the neurologic examination should be methodical for all patients, and the order and extent of examination may depend upon the patient's clinical condition and cooperation. Applications of objective scale measures (such as coma scales), and ancillary diagnostics (electrodiagnostics, advanced imaging, biopsy techniques, and BAER testing) complement physical assessment and clinicopathologic assessment in these neurologic patients. Once a neurolocalization, likely diagnosis, and prognosis have been established, specific considerations for hospitalization and care of neurologic patients can be implemented while treatment is instituted.
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Jerdy H, Werneck M, Barbosa L, Hauser-Davis RA, De-Oliveira-Nogueira CH, da Silveira LS. First report on Phyllobothrium delphini infection and Crassicauda sp. parasitism resulting in osseous metaplasia in a Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris) from the Brazilian region. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2022; 17:60-64. [PMID: 34984168 PMCID: PMC8693148 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2021.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2021] [Revised: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A female Cuvier's Beaked Whale (Ziphius cavirostris) specimen measuring 580 cm in length died after being stranded in Southeastern Brazil. Following a necropsy, organ samples were obtained, fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin and histopathologically analyzed. A severe and generalized hypodermis infection by Phyllobothrium delphini (Phyllobothriidae) was observed, resulting in granulomatous panniculitis. Severe renal and arterial lesions were also noted, including a severe bone metaplasia in the aorta artery, associated with a massive infection by Crassicauda sp, (Tetrameridae). A significant thoracic hemorrhage due to thoracic aorta artery rupture was noted, also likely due to this infection, resulting in a fatal injury. This study contributes towards knowledge on histopathologic changes in the scarcely studied Cuvier's Beaked Whale, is the first to associate a Crassicauda sp. infection in this whale species in the Brazilian region and also the first to indicate a resulting osseous metaplasia due to this parasitism and granulomatous dermatitis associated with Phyllobothrium delphini. Furthermore, this is also, to the best of our knowledge, the first report of Phyllobothrium delphini cysts in a Ziphius cavirostris specimen to date. A new record of Phyllobothrium delphini in Ziphius cavirostris is reported. Detailed Phyllobothrium delphini cyst lesions images are provided. Rare bone metaplasia is reported for the first time for Ziphius cavirostris. Bone metaplasia was associated to Crassicauda sp. infection. This is only the second bone metaplasia report described for cetaceans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hassan Jerdy
- ORCA Institute, Rua José Barcellos de Mattos, 603 B, Parque Areia Preta, Guarapari, ES, Cep 29200-720, Brazil
- Corresponding author.
| | - Max Werneck
- Instituto BW, Est. da Praia Seca n, 12.143 (L. 41), CEP 28.970-000, Paia Seca, Araruama, RJ, Brazil
| | - Lupercio Barbosa
- ORCA Institute, Rua José Barcellos de Mattos, 603 B, Parque Areia Preta, Guarapari, ES, Cep 29200-720, Brazil
| | - Rachel Ann Hauser-Davis
- Laboratório de Avaliação e Promoção da Saúde Ambiental, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), 21040-360, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
- Corresponding author.
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7
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Rasche BL, Parker M, Lewbart GA, Petritz O, Negrao Watanabe TT. Pathology in Practice. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2021; 260:305-307. [DOI: 10.2460/javma.21.07.0328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brittany L. Rasche
- 1Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
| | - Maryanna Parker
- 2Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
| | - Gregory A. Lewbart
- 2Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
| | - Olivia Petritz
- 2Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
| | - Tatiane Terumi Negrao Watanabe
- 1Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
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8
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Vetere A, Bertocchi M, Pelizzone I, Moggia E, Gerosa S, Di Ianni F. Klebsiella sp.-related infectious spondylitis in a bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps). BMC Vet Res 2021; 17:230. [PMID: 34187470 PMCID: PMC8244127 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-021-02933-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Spondylitis is an inflammation of the vertebrae that leads to a destructive process with exuberant new bone formation. Osteomyelitis can produce a distortion of the bone architecture, degenerative joint changes and ankyloses of adjacent vertebrae. In reptiles, intervertebral discs are absent, so the term discospondylitis is not used. In lizards, vertebral lesions have not been well studied. The present paper describes the first case of Klebsiella sp.-related spondylitis in a pet lizard (Pogona vitticeps). Case presentation A 2-year-old, female bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) was presented for clinical examination due to a decreased activity level, decreased appetite and constipation. Blood tests showed no remarkable alterations. The haemogram showed normal parameters with relative lymphocytosis, although the absolute number of lymphocytes did not differ from the reference values. A computed tomography scan revealed a mixed osteolytic-proliferative bone lesion diffusing to the first and last tracts of the pre-sacral vertebrae together. A small amount of material obtained from the spinal swelling was sampled with an aseptic technique for bacterial culture, which was positive for Klebsiella sp. The antibiogram revealed sensitivity to enrofloxacin, marbofloxacin, and chloramphenicol and intermediate sensitivity to gentamicin. Complete return to spontaneous feeding was achieved 15 days after the beginning of antibiotic and anti-inflammatory therapy. Conclusions In veterinary medicine, spondylitis represents a well-known disease in small companion animals. In mammals, the most common aetiologic agents are fungi and bacteria. Antibiotic therapy was set based on the antibiogram, and marbofloxacin was chosen at a dosage of 10 mg/kg subcutaneously (SC) once per day (SID). After only 7 days of antibiotic therapy, the clinical condition improved significantly; the patient started feeding and drinking spontaneously and gained weight. This case should remind clinicians of the importance of always performing antibiograms before choosing any antibiotic therapy. Considering reptiles, there have been few papers about spinal diseases, mostly regarding snakes and a few about Iguana iguana. Relative to other species of saurians, the literature remains lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Vetere
- Clinica Veterinaria Modena Sud, Piazza dei Tintori, 1, Spilamberto (MO), Italy
| | - Mara Bertocchi
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Strada del Taglio 10, 43126, Parma (PR), Italy.
| | - Igor Pelizzone
- Ambulatorio Veterinario Belvedere, Via Pietro Bembo 12, 42123, Reggio Emilia (RE), Italy
| | - Emanuele Moggia
- Ambulatorio Veterinario Levante, Via Alberto Salietti, 6, 16043, Chiavari (GE), Italy
| | - Sebastiano Gerosa
- Ospedale Veterinario San Francesco, via Newton 2, 20148, Milano (MI), Italy
| | - Francesco Di Ianni
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Strada del Taglio 10, 43126, Parma (PR), Italy
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9
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Survey of Post-Cranial Skeletal Pathology in Snakes. J Comp Pathol 2021; 183:39-44. [PMID: 33714430 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2021.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Previous reports on skeletal pathology in captive snakes did not clarify the relationship of lesions to captive or free-ranging status. In this study, post-cranial skeletons from 7,950 captive and free-ranging snakes in nine of the major North American collections were examined macroscopically, microscopically and radiologically for the presence of pathology. Micro-computerized tomography was performed on two skeletons on which surface microscopy failed to provide a definitive diagnosis. Osteomyelitis was identified in the vertebrae of 24 snakes and spondyloarthropathy in one snake. Neoplasia or congenital anomalies were not found. Osteomyelitis was four times as common in Viperidae than in Colubridae and twice as common as in Boidae, independent of captive or free-ranging status. A lytic lesion in the vertebrae of one snake was suggestive of fungal disease. The progression of bone lesions was greater in captive snakes, but the prevalence was independent of captive or free-ranging status. The results of this study indicate that bone alterations, previously proposed as neoplastic disease, in archival snake skeletons were most likely of infectious aetiology, and establish macroscopic examination as a useful technique for characterizing skeletal pathology in snakes.
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NEUROLOGIC AND COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY FINDINGS IN SEA TURTLES WITH HISTORY OF TRAUMATIC INJURY. J Zoo Wildl Med 2019; 50:350-361. [PMID: 31260200 DOI: 10.1638/2018-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Boat strikes have been widely documented as a major cause of anthropogenic trauma and mortality in sea turtles. Axial trauma in these species involves the head and/or carapace and may cause severe damage to the nervous and pulmonary systems. The aims of this study were to develop an updated protocol for neurologic examinations in sea turtles, to describe computed tomography (CT) findings in sea turtles with sustained trauma, and to associate CT findings with neurologic status in sea turtles with and without traumatic injury. Ten sea turtles were examined, six green (Chelonia mydas) and four loggerhead (Caretta caretta) turtles: seven underwent neurologic and CT examinations, two had CT examinations only, and one had a neurologic examination only. The updated neurologic examination protocol was considered useful in differentiating normal from abnormal neurologic status, however some of these tests remain unreliable in sea turtles. Sea turtles with no history of trauma were found to have normal carapace shape, vertebral column, and neurologic status. Sea turtles with history of traumatic injury (more than 10 years prior to examination) had findings dependent on trauma site. Those with head trauma had variable presentations dependent on location of injury; while those with carapace trauma had varying degrees of kyphosis, lordosis, and scoliosis of the carapace, vertebral fractures, and paraparesis. Kyphosis of the carapace was associated with vertebral fractures detected on CT; however, the severity of vertebral abnormalities was not associated with the severity of neurologic deficits. These findings suggest that a combination of neurologic and CT examination may be beneficial in determining clinical significance of carapace deformation and associated neurologic deficits in sea turtles with traumatic injury.
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Altan E, Kubiski SV, Burchell J, Bicknese E, Deng X, Delwart E. The first reptilian circovirus identified infects gut and liver tissues of black-headed pythons. Vet Res 2019; 50:35. [PMID: 31097029 PMCID: PMC6524214 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-019-0653-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral metagenomic analysis of the liver of a black headed python (Aspidites melanocephalus) euthanized for a proliferative spinal lesion of unknown etiology yielded the first characterized genome of a reptile-infecting circovirus (black-headed python circovirus or BhPyCV). BhPyCV-specific in situ hybridization (ISH) showed that viral nucleic acids were strongly expressed in the intestinal lining and mucosa and multifocally in the liver. To investigate the presence of this virus in other snakes and its possible pathogenicity, 17 snakes in the python family with spinal disease were screened with ISH yielding a second BhP positive in intestinal tissue, and a Boelen’s python (Morelia boeleni) positive in the liver. BhPyCV specific PCR was used to screen available frozen tissues from 13 of these pythons, four additional deceased pythons with and without spinal disease, and fecal samples from 37 live snakes of multiple species with unknown disease status. PCR detected multiple positive tissues in both of the ISH positive BhP and in the feces of another two live BhP and two live annulated tree boas (Corallus annulatus). Preliminary analysis indicates this circovirus can infect BhPs where it was found in 4/5 BhPs tested (2/2 with spinal disease, 2/3 live with unknown status), Boelen’s python (1/2 with spinal disease), and annulated tree boa (2/6 live with unknown status) but was not detected in other python species with the same spinal lesions. This circovirus’ causal or contributory role in spinal disease remains speculative and not well supported by these initial data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eda Altan
- Vitalant Research Institute, San Francisco, CA, 94118, USA.,Dept. of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94118, USA
| | - Steven V Kubiski
- Institute for Conservation Research, San Diego Zoo Global, San Diego, CA, 92112, USA
| | - Jennifer Burchell
- Institute for Conservation Research, San Diego Zoo Global, San Diego, CA, 92112, USA
| | | | - Xutao Deng
- Vitalant Research Institute, San Francisco, CA, 94118, USA.,Dept. of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94118, USA
| | - Eric Delwart
- Vitalant Research Institute, San Francisco, CA, 94118, USA. .,Dept. of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94118, USA.
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12
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Abstract
Musculoskeletal disorders are a common cause for presentation of reptiles and amphibians to the veterinarian. A clinical approach to orthopedic cases starts with a thorough history and review of husbandry, and identification of any underlying or concomitant disease. Medical management is indicated for pathologic fractures. Traumatic fractures may require surgical intervention. Stabilization options include external coaptation and/or external and internal fixation. Special considerations must be given to shell fractures in chelonians. Many techniques used in mammalian practice can be applied to reptiles and amphibians, although some species may require prolonged healing times by comparison.
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13
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DISSEMINATED OSSEOUS METAPLASIA OF THE VENTRAL SCALES OF A GRAY-BANDED KINGSNAKE ( LAMPROPELTIS ALTERNA). J Zoo Wildl Med 2018; 49:1021-1024. [PMID: 30592934 DOI: 10.1638/2016-0289.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A 22-yr-old, female gray-banded kingsnake ( Lampropeltis alterna) was examined for stomatitis and hard ventral scales. On examination, the ventral scales palpated as rigid and brittle. A blood sample yielded marked hypovitaminosis D (11 nmol/L). Radiographs revealed a generalized bone radiopacity outlining the ventral scales; scale biopsies were obtained for histologic examination and presented linear, superficial, and midzonal foci of well-differentiated dermal bone and bone marrow. The stomatitis was successfully treated, but the general condition of the snake declined, and it was euthanized. The most significant finding in the postmortem examination was abnormally pale kidneys. Histologic examination revealed diffuse renal gout and diffuse osseous metaplasia in the dermis of all of the ventral scales. Generalized osseous metaplasia of the ventral scales in snakes has not, to our knowledge, been reported; the cause in this report was not identified, but given the extensiveness of the lesion, it is likely that the cause was multifactorial.
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Albino AM, Rothschild B, Carrillo-Briceño JD, Neenan JM. Spondyloarthropathy in vertebrae of the aquatic Cretaceous snake Lunaophis aquaticus, and its first recognition in modern snakes. Naturwissenschaften 2018; 105:51. [PMID: 30291451 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-018-1576-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/04/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory arthritis is documented for the first time in snakes. Ossification of the intervertebral capsule and zygapophyseal joints resulting in segmental vertebral fusion was observed in the aquatic Cretaceous snake Lunaophis aquaticus. Such pathologic alterations are pathognomonic for the spondyloarthropathy form of inflammatory arthritis. A survey of 2144 snakes in recent collections, performed to identify Holocene prevalence, revealed only two occurrences in extant snakes. The findings in Bitis gabonica and Elaphe taeniura were indistinguishable from those noted in Lunaophis aquaticus and identical to those previously recognized in modern varanids. The pathology likely represents a form of reactive arthritis related to enteropathic infection. While the disease probably did not affect general locomotion, its vertebral column position may have compromised mating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana María Albino
- CONICET, Departamento de Biología, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Funes 3250, B7602AYJ, Mar del Plata, Argentina.
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15
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Barboza T, Beaufrère H, Chalmers H. Epipterygoid Bone Salmonella Abscess in a Savannah Monitor (Varanus exanthematicus). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.5818/17-04-106.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Trinita Barboza
- Health Sciences Centre, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road, Guelph, N1G 4S7, ON, Canada
| | - Hugues Beaufrère
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road, Guelph, N1G 4S7, ON, Canada
| | - Heather Chalmers
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road, Guelph, N1G 4S7, ON, Canada
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Whiley H, Gardner MG, Ross K. A Review of Salmonella and Squamates (Lizards, Snakes and Amphisbians): Implications for Public Health. Pathogens 2017; 6:pathogens6030038. [PMID: 28829352 PMCID: PMC5617995 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens6030038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2017] [Revised: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Globally, there has been an increase in squamates (particularly lizards and snakes) being kept as pets. Additionally, urban spread has resulted in greater human encroachment and interaction with the natural habitat of wild squamates. A potential consequence of increasing human interaction with squamates is the increased potential for disease transfer. This review collates the literature describing clinical salmonellosis cases that were definitively linked to a squamate through testing of the animal and population-based studies which investigate the risk of salmonellosis linked to pet squamates. It was demonstrated that although squamate-acquired salmonellosis accounted for a small percentage of total cases, children under five were at greatest risk, with the clinical manifestations tending to be more severe. In many cases, it was noted that the patient was unaware of the risks associated with keeping squamates and did not practice proper hand hygiene after handling the animals or cleaning cages. This highlights the need for more education focused on informing the general public of ways to reduce the risk of salmonellosis from pet squamates. There is also the need for future research into the role of wild squamates in the spread of human salmonellosis, both directly and indirectly through cross contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harriet Whiley
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia.
| | - Michael G Gardner
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia.
- Evolutionary Biology Unit, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia.
| | - Kirstin Ross
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia.
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Waugh L, Ramachandran A, Talent S, Cole G, D'Agostino J. Survey of Aerobic and Anaerobic Blood Cultures in Free-Ranging Western Ratsnakes (Pantherophis obsoletus). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.5818/1529-9651-27.1-2.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lynnette Waugh
- 1. Oklahoma City Zoo, 2101 NE 50th, Oklahoma City, OK 73111, USA
| | - Akhilesh Ramachandran
- 2. Oklahoma Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, W Farm Road, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Scott Talent
- 2. Oklahoma Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, W Farm Road, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Gretchen Cole
- 1. Oklahoma City Zoo, 2101 NE 50th, Oklahoma City, OK 73111, USA
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Clancy MM, Davis M, Valitutto MT, Nelson K, Sykes JM. Salmonella infection and carriage in reptiles in a zoological collection. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2016; 248:1050-9. [PMID: 27074614 DOI: 10.2460/javma.248.9.1050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify important subspecies and serovars of Salmonella enterica in a captive reptile population and clinically relevant risk factors for and signs of illness in Salmonella-positive reptiles. DESIGN Retrospective cross-sectional study. ANIMALS 11 crocodilians (4 samples), 78 snakes (91 samples), 59 lizards (57 samples), and 34 chelonians (23 samples) at the Bronx Zoo from 2000 through 2012. PROCEDURES Data pertaining to various types of biological samples obtained from reptiles with positive Salmonella culture results and the reptiles themselves were analyzed to determine period prevalence of and risk factors for various Salmonella-related outcomes. RESULTS Serovar distribution differences were identified for sample type, reptile phylogenetic family, and reptile origin and health. Salmonella enterica subsp enterica was the most common subspecies in Salmonella cultures (78/175 [45%]), identified across all reptilian taxa. Salmonella enterica subsp diarizonae was also common (42/175 [24%]) and was recovered almost exclusively from snakes (n = 33), many of which had been clinically ill (17). Clinically ill reptiles provided 37% (64) of Salmonella cultures. Factors associated with an increased risk of illness in reptiles with a positive culture result were carnivorous diet and prior confiscation. Snakes had a higher risk of illness than other reptile groups, whereas lizards had a lower risk. Bony changes, dermatitis, and anorexia were the most common clinical signs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE This study provided new information on Salmonella infection or carriage and associated clinical disease in reptiles. Associations identified between serovars or subspecies and reptile groups or clinical disease can guide management of Salmonella-positive captive reptiles.
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MANAGEMENT OF OSTEOMYELITIS CAUSED BY SALMONELLA ENTERICA SUBSP. HOUTENAE IN A TAYLOR'S CANTIL (AGKISTRODON BILINEATUS TAYLORI) USING AMIKACIN DELIVERED VIA OSMOTIC PUMP. J Zoo Wildl Med 2016; 47:691-4. [PMID: 27468053 DOI: 10.1638/2015-0207.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
An adult female Taylor's cantil (Agkistrodon bilineatus taylori) presented with marked spinal and mandibular osteomyelitis that cultured positive for Salmonella enterica subsp. houtenae, serovar IV 43:z4,z32:-. Progression of osteomyelitis was arrested by treatment using amikacin (0.026 mg/kg per hour) delivered via subcutaneous osmotic pump for 10 mo, replacing the pump every 4 wk. No adverse effects on renal function were appreciated throughout the course of therapy. Amikacin therapy was discontinued after improvement with treatment, but 5 mo later, bony lesions worsened, and an additional abscess formed at the previous pump site. The animal's condition declined and euthanasia was elected. Postmortem examination confirmed marked osteomyelitis with Salmonella infection of same serovar as the initial biopsy. This report highlights the pathogenicity of the S. enterica subsp. houtenae serovar and the ability to deliver effective amikacin dosage via osmotic pump to arrest osteomyelitis due to salmonellosis in a venomous snake.
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20
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Osseous Metaplasia in a Free-living Snake (Patagonian Green Racer; Philodryas patagoniensis) in Brazil, 2012. J Wildl Dis 2016; 52:430-2. [DOI: 10.7589/2015-08-213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Senter P, Juengst SL. Record-Breaking Pain: The Largest Number and Variety of Forelimb Bone Maladies in a Theropod Dinosaur. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149140. [PMID: 26909701 PMCID: PMC4765892 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone abnormalities are common in theropod dinosaur skeletons, but before now no specimen was known with more than four afflicted bones of the pectoral girdle and/or forelimb. Here we describe the pathology of a specimen of the theropod dinosaur Dilophosaurus wetherilli with eight afflicted bones of the pectoral girdle and forelimb. On its left side the animal has a fractured scapula and radius and large fibriscesses in the ulna and the proximal thumb phalanx. On its right side the animal has abnormal torsion of the humeral shaft, bony tumors on the radius, a truncated distal articular surface of metacarpal III, and angular deformities of the first phalanx of the third finger. Healing and remodeling indicates that the animal survived for months and possibly years after its ailments began, but its right third finger was permanently deformed and lacked the capability of flexion. The deformities of the humerus and the right third finger may be due to developmental osteodysplasia, a condition known in extant birds but unreported in non-avian dinosaurs before now.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phil Senter
- Department of Biological Sciences, Fayetteville State University, Fayetteville, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Sara L. Juengst
- Department of Anthropology, Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina, United States of America
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23
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COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY–GUIDED BONE BIOPSIES FOR EVALUATION OF PROLIFERATIVE VERTEBRAL LESIONS IN TWO BOA CONSTRICTORS (BOA CONSTRICTOR IMPERATOR). J Zoo Wildl Med 2014; 45:973-8. [DOI: 10.1638/2014-0049.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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OSTEOMYELITIS CAUSED BYSALMONELLA ENTERICASEROVAR DERBY IN BOA CONSTRICTOR. J Zoo Wildl Med 2014; 45:642-4. [DOI: 10.1638/2013-0050r2.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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PARAVERTEBRAL MASSES IN BLUE-TAILED MONITOR,VARANUS DORIANUS,INDICATIVE OF SOFT-TISSUE INFECTION WITH ASSOCIATED OSTEOMYELITIS. J Zoo Wildl Med 2014; 45:47-52. [DOI: 10.1638/2012-0295r.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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La Sala LF, Pozzi LM, McAloose D, Kaplan FS, Shore EM, Kompanje EJO, Sidor IF, Musmeci L, Uhart MM. Severe soft tissue ossification in a southern right whale Eubalaena australis. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2012; 102:149-56. [PMID: 23269389 PMCID: PMC3670425 DOI: 10.3354/dao02538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The carcass of a stranded southern right whale Eubalaena australis, discovered on the coast of Golfo Nuevo in Península Valdés, Argentina, exhibited extensive orthotopic and heterotopic ossification, osteochondroma-like lesions, and early degenerative joint disease. Extensive soft tissue ossification led to ankylosis of the axial skeleton in a pattern that, in many respects, appeared more similar to a disabling human genetic disorder, fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP), than to more common skeletal system diseases in cetaceans and other species. This is the first reported case of a FOP-like condition in a marine mammal and raises important questions about conserved mechanisms of orthotopic and heterotopic ossification in this clade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciano F La Sala
- Southern Right Whale Health Monitoring Program, Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina.
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Klaphake E. A fresh look at metabolic bone diseases in reptiles and amphibians. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2010; 13:375-92. [PMID: 20682425 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2010.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic bone diseases (MBDs) are a common presenting complaint in reptiles and amphibians to veterinarians; however, understanding of the causes and diagnostic and treatment options is often extrapolated from human or other mammalian medicine models. Although the roles of UV-B, calcium, phosphorus, and cholecalciferol are better understood in some MBDs, there remain many X factors that are not. Likewise, quantitative diagnosis of MBDs has been difficult not only in terms of staging a disease but also regarding whether or not a condition is present. Treatment options also present challenges in corrective husbandry and diet modifications, medication/modality selection, and dosing/regimen parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Klaphake
- Animal Medical Center, 216 North 8th Avenue, Bozeman, MT 59715, USA.
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29
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Shilton CM, Brown GP, Benedict S, Shine R. Spinal arthropathy associated with Ochrobactrum anthropi in free-ranging cane toads (Chaunus [Bufo] marinus) in Australia. Vet Pathol 2008; 45:85-94. [PMID: 18192584 DOI: 10.1354/vp.45-1-85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory or degenerative pathology involving the vertebral bodies and/or ventral intervertebral joints has been described in numerous species, both captive and free ranging, including mammals, birds, and snakes, although never in amphibians. We described 15 cases of a newly recognized spinal arthropathy in adult cane toads (Chaunus [Bufo] marinus), an invasive species in Australia. Grossly appreciable lesions consisted primarily of ventral proliferation of bone and cartilage that resulted in ankylosis. Histologic examination of the entire vertebral columns of the 15 affected toads revealed 13 toads to have lesions at multiple intervertebral sites, totalling 41 intervertebral joints with lesions. Most lesions involved bone and cartilage proliferation that resulted in fusion of the joint, with (n = 15) or without (n = 9) associated pyogranulomatous inflammation. In the remaining 17 affected joints, histologic lesions were characterized by degeneration of articular cartilage without joint fusion. In addition, in one of these joints, there was also hemorrhage and pyogranulomatous inflammation. Bacterial culture of affected joints in 9 toads and grossly normal joints in 4 control toads resulted in isolation of Ochrobactrum anthropi in 7 affected toads but in none of the controls (P < .01). We proposed an interaction between degenerative and bacterial etiologies in the pathogenesis of this condition. Invasive toads may be predisposed to this condition because of their large size; increased rates of movement; and, possibly, immunosuppression resulting from inhabiting a novel environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Shilton
- Berrimah Veterinary Laboratories, Northern Territory Government, Berrimah, Northern Territory, Australia.
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An R, Sreevatsan S, Grewal PS. Moraxella osloensis gene expression in the slug host Deroceras reticulatum. BMC Microbiol 2008; 8:19. [PMID: 18226222 PMCID: PMC2266756 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-8-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2007] [Accepted: 01/28/2008] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The bacterium Moraxella osloensis is a mutualistic symbiont of the slug-parasitic nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita. In nature, P. hermaphrodita vectors M. osloensis into the shell cavity of the slug host Deroceras reticulatum in which the bacteria multiply and kill the slug. As M. osloensis is the main killing agent, genes expressed by M. osloensis in the slug are likely to play important roles in virulence. Studies on pathogenic interactions between bacteria and lower order hosts are few, but such studies have the potential to shed light on the evolution of bacterial virulence. Therefore, we investigated such an interaction by determining gene expression of M. osloensis in its slug host D. reticulatum by selectively capturing transcribed sequences. Results Thirteen M. osloensis genes were identified to be up-regulated post infection in D. reticulatum. Compared to the in vitro expressed genes in the stationary phase, we found that genes of ubiquinone synthetase (ubiS) and acyl-coA synthetase (acs) were up-regulated in both D. reticulatum and stationary phase in vitro cultures, but the remaining 11 genes were exclusively expressed in D. reticulatum and are hence infection specific. Mutational analysis on genes of protein-disulfide isomerase (dsbC) and ubiS showed that the virulence of both mutants to slugs was markedly reduced and could be complemented. Further, compared to the growth rate of wild-type M. osloensis, the dsbC and ubiS mutants showed normal and reduced growth rate in vitro, respectively. Conclusion We conclude that 11 out of the 13 up-regulated M. osloensis genes are infection specific. Distribution of these identified genes in various bacterial pathogens indicates that the virulence genes are conserved among different pathogen-host interactions. Mutagenesis, growth rate and virulence bioassays further confirmed that ubiS and dsbC genes play important roles in M. osloensis survival and virulence, respectively in D. reticulatum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruisheng An
- Entomology Department, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA.
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Mariani CL. The neurologic examination and neurodiagnostic techniques for reptiles. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2007; 10:855-91, vii. [PMID: 17765851 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2007.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
This article will focus on specifics of performing the neurologic examination and neurodiagnostic testing in reptiles, and how these examinations differ from those performed in more conventional species. Physical examination and history are discussed, as well as invasive and noninvasive testing modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher L Mariani
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, 4700 Hillsborough Street, Raleigh, NC 27606-1428, USA.
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Abstract
Because the central nervous system (CNS) is encased almost entirely in bone, the means by which the clinician can evaluate it are limited. Additionally, the small size of many exotic companion animals further complicates diagnostic evaluation of the brain and spinal cord. Knowledge of the advantages and limitations of different imaging modalities, along with the neuroanatomical localization and assessment of likely causes of disease, will permit the clinician to choose the most appropriate imaging method for the patient. This article discusses the basic imaging principles of radiology, myelography, CT, and MRI of the nervous system of companion exotic animals to aid exotic animal clinicians in selecting imaging modalities and interpreting the results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marguerite F Knipe
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, 2122 Tupper Hall, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Grupka LM, Ramsay EC, Bemis DA. SALMONELLA SURVEILLANCE IN A COLLECTION OF RATTLESNAKES (CROTALUS SPP). J Zoo Wildl Med 2006; 37:306-12. [PMID: 17319129 DOI: 10.1638/05-059.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past 15 yr, Salmonella enterica ssp. arizonae (IIIa) 56:z4,z23:- has repeatedly been isolated from individual Crotalus willardi rattlesnakes with progressively debilitating osteomyelitis at the Knoxville Zoological Gardens. In April 2004, the serotype was linked with a fatal case of septicemia in another Crotalus species in this collection. Although the association of IIIa 56:z4,z23:- with disease in this colony of C. willardi is well established, prior disease or isolation of this serotype outside of the C. willardi colony had not been documented previously, and the serotype's distribution throughout the remainder of the Crotalus collection had yet to be determined. Forty-one fecal samples were obtained from each individual (n = 36) or exhibit group (n = 5) of crotalid snakes, representing nine species, housed at the zoo. Salmonella spp. were isolated from every sample, with 21 different serotypes. The 21 serotypes were distributed among S. enterica ssp. I (24%), IIIa (9%), and IIIb (67%). Although not recovered in the primary study, S. arizonae 56:z4,z23:- was recovered from additional samples taken from two C. willardi willardi. Although the overall recovery rate of this serotype from feces has been low, it seems that its distribution among the Crotalus collection at Knoxville Zoological Gardens remains largely restricted to the C. willardi species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M Grupka
- Department of Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996-4544, USA
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Bemis DA, Owston MA, Lickey ALA, Kania SA, Ebner P, Rohrbach BW, Ramsay EC. Comparison of phenotypic traits and genetic relatedness of Salmonella enterica subspecies arizonae isolates from a colony of ridgenose rattlesnakes with osteomyelitis. J Vet Diagn Invest 2003; 15:382-7. [PMID: 12918823 DOI: 10.1177/104063870301500415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Reptiles are well-known sources of human Salmonella infections; however, little is known about the ability of Salmonella to cause disease in reptiles. Thirty-seven isolates of Salmonella enterica subspecies arizonae (S. arizonae) were obtained from retrospective and prospective studies of a closed colony of ridgenose rattlesnakes (Crotalus willardi) with osteomyelitis. All isolates (N = 7) from bone lesions were of a single serotype, 56:z4,z23, and this serotype was found on only 1 occasion among 8 other serotypes isolated from 21 cloacal and intestinal samples. The remainder (N = 7) of serotype 56:z4,z23 isolates were from other extraintestinal sites, including liver, ovary, blood, and testis. S. arizonae isolates were susceptible to most antimicrobials, and plasmid profiles did not correlate with serotype or antimicrobial resistance. Isolates of the 56:z4,z23 serotype (N = 14) formed a tight cluster with 95% similarity by XbaI macrorestriction analysis. Individual isolates of serotypes, 56:z4,z23, 38:(k)-z35, and 48:i-z invaded HeLa cells but an isolate of serotype 50:r-z did not. The same individual isolates of serotype 56:z4,z23 and 48:i-z also invaded viper heart cells. The Salmonella InvA gene was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in all S. arizonae serotypes tested, including 5 serotype 56:z4,z23 isolates and individual isolates of serotypes 48:i-z and 50:r-z. A source or possible explanation for increased virulence of S. arizonae serotype 56:z4,z23 in this unique host has not been found.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Bemis
- Department of Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37901, USA
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