Addition of atrasentan to renin-angiotensin system blockade reduces albuminuria in diabetic nephropathy

Sex differences in response to the endothelin receptor antagonist atrasentan in individuals with type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease: a post hoc analysis of the SONAR trial

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

In the Study Of diabetic Nephropathy with AtRasentan (SONAR), the endothelin receptor antagonist (ERA) atrasentan slowed progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Pre-clinical research suggests sex-based differences in the endothelin system might influence the efficacy and safety of atrasentan. We therefore assessed the effects of atrasentan in men and women participating in SONAR.

METHODS

SONAR was a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial that compared atrasentan 0.75 mg/day with placebo in individuals with type 2 diabetes and CKD (eGFR 25-75 ml/min per 1.73 m2, urine albumin/creatinine ratio [UACR] 300-5000 mg/g). The primary endpoint was defined as the time from randomisation to the first occurrence of a doubling in serum creatinine or kidney failure (eGFR <15 ml/min per 1.73 m2, chronic dialysis, kidney transplantation or death from kidney failure). Hospitalisation for heart failure was the secondary endpoint. We performed Cox proportional hazards regression analyses to compare the treatment effect of atrasentan between male and female participants on the risk of the composite kidney outcome as well as hospitalisation for heart failure. Additionally, differences between male and female participants in atrasentan plasma exposure and eGFR change were assessed using, respectively, a t test and linear mixed effect model.

RESULTS

Among 3668 randomised participants, 946 (25.8%) were female. Atrasentan significantly reduced the risk of the composite kidney outcome in female participants (HR 0.46 [95% CI 0.28, 0.76]) but not in male participants (HR 0.83 [95% CI 0.65, 1.05]; p value for interaction 0.032). Atrasentan compared with placebo reduced eGFR decline to a greater extent in female than in male participants (treatment effect difference between male vs female participants -0.99 ml/min per 1.73 m2, p value for interaction=0.020). The RR for hospitalisation for heart failure with atrasentan vs placebo was 1.14 (95% CI 0.74, 1.76) in male participants and 1.88 (95% CI 0.98, 3.63) in female participants (p value for interaction=0.217). Female participants also had significantly higher atrasentan plasma exposure than male participants (geometric mean AUC 54.5 vs 42.6 ng/ml×h; p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

Atrasentan showed greater kidney protection in female than in male participants but also induced more heart failure events in the female participants. These data suggest that sex-specific dosing regimens may be considered to optimise ERA treatment.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01858532.

Endothelin receptor antagonists in chronic kidney disease

Endothelin-1 is a potent vasoconstrictor that has diverse physiological functions in the kidney, including in the regulation of blood flow and glomerular filtration, electrolyte homeostasis and endothelial function. Overexpression of endothelin-1 contributes to the pathophysiology of both diabetic and non-diabetic chronic kidney disease (CKD). Selective endothelin receptor antagonists (ERAs) that target the endothelin A (ETA) receptor have demonstrated benefits in animal models of kidney disease and in clinical trials. In patients with type 2 diabetes and CKD, the selective ETA ERA, atrasentan, reduced albuminuria and kidney function decline. Concerns about the increased risks of fluid retention and heart failure with ERA use have led to the design of further trials to optimize dosing and patient selection. More recent studies have shown that the dual ETA receptor and angiotensin receptor blocker, sparsentan, preserved kidney function with minimal fluid retention in patients with IgA nephropathy. Moreover, combined administration of a low dose of the ETA-selective ERA, zibotentan, with the sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, dapagliflozin, enhanced albuminuria reduction and mitigated fluid retention in patients with CKD. Notably, sparsentan and aprocitentan have received FDA approval for the treatment of IgA nephropathy and treatment-resistant hypertension, respectively. This Review describes our current understanding of the use of ERAs in patients with CKD to guide their optimal safe and effective use in clinical practice.

Dual blockade of endothelin A and angiotensin II type 1 receptors with sparsentan as a novel treatment strategy to alleviate IgA nephropathy

INTRODUCTION

Although immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN) had been discovered more than 50 years ago, 30-40% of IgAN patients still have primary glomerular disease that progresses to end-stage renal disease. However, various treatment strategies for IgAN have rapidly expanded in recent years to include endothelin (ET) receptor antagonists.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we discuss the role of the ET-1/ETA receptor axis in the development of IgAN, especially focusing on the potential of sparsentan, a dual ET and angiotensin receptor antagonist as a novel therapy for IgAN.

EXPERT OPINION

Evaluation of the MEST-C score at the time of renal biopsy in IgAN is important in determining treatment strategies. If lesions are mainly in the acute phase, such as crescents, steroid therapy should be continued. However, if lesions are mainly in the chronic phase, such as glomerulosclerosis, sparsentan rather than steroid or angiotensin II receptor blocker alone may improve renal outcomes. Although further clinical studies are needed to back up these assumptions, appropriate combination of new drugs containing sparsentan and conventional drugs for IgAN treatment at the appropriate disease stage is expected to further inhibit the progression of renal damage.

Endothelin Inhibitors in Chronic Kidney Disease: New Treatment Prospects

The endothelin system is reported to play a significant role in glomerular and tubulointerstitial kidney disease. In the kidney, endothelins are produced in mesangial cells and the glomerular basement membrane by the endothelium and podocytes. The endothelin system regulates glomerular function by inducing proliferation, increasing permeability and in effect proteinuria, and stimulating inflammation, tubular fibrosis, and glomerular scarring. Endothelin A receptor antagonists have been proven to delay the progression of chronic kidney disease and play a protective role in immunoglobulin A nephropathy, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, and diabetic nephropathy. There are several ongoing research studies with ETAR antagonists in nondiabetic nephropathy, Alport disease, vasculitis and scleroderma nephropathy, which results are promising. Some reports suggest that the endothelin system might contribute to ischemia-reperfusion injury, acute graft rejection and deterioration of graft function. Endothelin inhibition in renal transplantation and its influence on graft survival is the future direction needing further research. The most frequent side effects associated with ETAR antagonists is fluid retention. Additionally, it should be considered if selective ETAR antagonists therapy needs to be co-administered with sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone inhibitors or diuretics and which patients should be recruited to such treatment to minimize the risk of adverse outcomes.

Targeting endothelin signaling in podocyte injury and diabetic nephropathy-diabetic kidney disease

Despite advances in diabetes management, there is an urgent need for novel therapeutic strategies since the current treatments remain insufficient in halting the progression of diabetic nephropathy-diabetic kidney disease (DN-DKD). This review is mainly addressed on the pivotal role of endothelin-1 in the pathophysiology of DN, with a specific focus on its effects on podocytes and the glomerular filtration barrier. Endothelin-1 promotes mesangial cell proliferation, sclerosis, and direct podocyte injury via the activation of endothelin type A and B receptors, that drive the progression of glomerulosclerosis in DN-DKD. Endothelin receptor antagonists, including drugs like atrasentan and sparsentan, have demonstrated nephroprotective effects in experimental models by reducing proteinuria and podocyte injury. The therapeutic potential to slow the progression of DN to end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) of these endothelin receptor antagonists in clinical practice is currently under evaluation. However, fluid retention and increased risk of heart failure associated with endothelin receptor antagonists need careful consideration. This review aims to provide an in-depth analysis of the pathophysiological role of endothelin and the emerging therapeutic implications of targeting this pathway in DN-DKD and discusses efficacy, safety, and the possibility of combining the new generation of endothelin receptor antagonists with the standard treatment of CKD and DN-DKD.

A review of novel endothelin antagonists and overview of non-steroidal mineralocorticoid antagonists for treating resistant hypertension: An update

Several agents are emerging from five different novel classes of antihypertensive medications. We will focus on endothelin antagonists and non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists. While several agents exist in this later class, only a couple have demonstrated superior efficacy in resistant hypertension management. Endothelin receptor antagonists are effective therapy for primary and resistant hypertension, but they are not widely used. This is due to side effects demonstrated in large clinical trials, specifically increased peripheral edema and worsening heart failure in some cases, as well as the availability of many alternative agents to manage blood pressure effectively. However, the relationship between endothelin and its close ties to hypertension is evolving. Recent pre-clinical work explores new applications of more selective endothelin receptor antagonists. They suggest that specific subtypes of hypertension may benefit more from endothelin receptor blockade than simply those with primary hypertension. We review this topic and other related data. Lastly, we also provide a brief overview of non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists as some in the class show promise as antihypertensive agents.

From Plan to Pivot: How Model-Informed Drug Development Shaped the Dose Strategy of the Zibotentan/Dapagliflozin ZENITH Trials

Getting the dose right is a key challenge in drug development; model-informed drug development (MIDD) provides powerful tools to shape dose strategies and inform decision making. In this tutorial, the case study of the ZENITH trials showcases how a set of clinical pharmacology and MIDD approaches informed an impactful dose strategy. The endothelin A receptor antagonist zibotentan, combined with the sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitor dapagliflozin, has yielded a robust and significant albuminuria reduction in the Phase IIb trial ZENITH-CKD and is being investigated for reduction of kidney function decline in a high-risk chronic kidney disease population in the Phase III trial ZENITH High Proteinuria. Endothelin antagonist treatment has, until now, been limited by the class effect fluid retention. ZENITH-CKD investigated a wide range of zibotentan doses based on pharmacokinetics in renal impairment, competitor-data exposure-response modeling, and clinical trial simulations. Recruitment delays reduced interim analysis data availability; here, supportive dose-response modeling recovered decision-making confidence. At trial completion, the low-dose arm enabled Phase III dose selection between Phase IIb doses. Dose-response modeling of efficacy and Kaplan-Meier analyses of tolerability identified a kidney-function-based low-dose strategy of 0.25 or 0.75 mg zibotentan (with 10 mg dapagliflozin) to balance benefit/risk in ZENITH High Proteinuria. The applied clinical pharmacology and MIDD principles enabled successful Phase IIb dose finding, rationalized and built confidence in the innovative Phase III dosing strategy and identified a potential therapeutic window for zibotentan/dapagliflozin, providing the opportunity for a significant improvement in the treatment of chronic kidney disease with high proteinuria.

Mechanism of protective actions of sparsentan in the kidney: lessons from studies in models of chronic kidney disease

Simultaneous inhibition of angiotensin II AT1 and endothelin ETA receptors has emerged as a promising approach for treatment of chronic progressive kidney disease. This therapeutic approach has been advanced by the introduction of sparsentan, the first dual AT1 and ETA receptor antagonist. Sparsentan is a single molecule with high affinity for both receptors. It is US Food and Drug Administration approved for immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN) and is currently being developed as a treatment for rare kidney diseases, such as focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. Clinical studies have demonstrated the efficacy and safety of sparsentan in these conditions. In parallel with clinical development, studies have been conducted to elucidate the mechanisms of action of sparsentan and its position in the context of published evidence characterizing the nephroprotective effects of dual ETA and AT1 receptor inhibition. This review summarizes this evidence, documenting beneficial anti-inflammatory, antifibrotic, and hemodynamic actions of sparsentan in the kidney and protective actions in glomerular endothelial cells, mesangial cells, the tubulointerstitium, and podocytes, thus providing the rationale for the use of sparsentan as therapy for focal segmental glomerulosclerosis and IgAN and suggesting potential benefits in other renal diseases, such as Alport syndrome.

Sparsentan for Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis in the DUET Open-Label Extension: Long-term Efficacy and Safety

Rationale & Objective

Sparsentan is a novel, non-immunosuppressive, single-molecule, dual endothelin angiotensin receptor antagonist (DEARA) examined in the ongoing phase 2 DUET trial for focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). In the DUET 8-week double-blind period, sparsentan resulted in greater proteinuria reduction versus irbesartan. We report the long-term efficacy and safety of sparsentan during the open-label extension over more than 4 years.

Study Design

Patients were examined from their first sparsentan dose (double-blind period or open-label extension) through 4.6 years.

Setting & Participants

Patients with FSGS, excluding secondary FSGS.

Intervention

Sparsentan (200, 400, and 800 mg/d).

Outcomes

Urinary protein-creatinine ratio, FSGS partial remission endpoint (urinary protein-creatinine ratio ≤1.5 g/g and >40% reduction from baseline), estimated glomerular filtration rate, and blood pressure approximately every 12 weeks. Treatment-emergent adverse events by year and cases/100 patient-years.

Results

109 patients were enrolled; 108 received ≥1 sparsentan dose; 103 entered the open-label extension (68 sparsentan, 35 irbesartan during the double-blind period). Sparsentan was ongoing in 45/108 patients (41.7%); median time to treatment discontinuation was 3.9 years (95% CI, 2.6-5.2). Mean percent proteinuria reduction from baseline was sustained through follow-up. Achieving partial remission within 9 months of first sparsentan dose (52.8% of patients) versus not achieving (47.2%) was associated with significantly slower rate of estimated glomerular filtration rate decline over the entire treatment period (-2.70 vs -6.56; P = 0.03) and in the first 2 years (-1.69 vs -6.46; P = 0.03). The most common treatment-emergent adverse events (>9 cases/100 patient-years) were headache, peripheral edema, upper respiratory infection, hyperkalemia, and hypotension. Peripheral edema and hypotension declined from year 1 (13.9% and 15.7% of patients, respectively) to ≤4% in years ≥2. There were no cases of heart failure and no patient deaths.

Limitations

The open-label extension does not include a comparison group.

Conclusions

Long-term sparsentan treatment showed sustained proteinuria reduction and a consistent safety profile.

Endothelin receptor antagonists in diabetic and non-diabetic chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality, affecting >800 million persons globally. While we still lack efficient, targeted therapies addressing the major underlying pathophysiologic processes in CKD, findings of several recent trials have brought about a shifting landscape of promising therapies. The endothelin system has been implicated in the pathophysiology of CKD and endothelin receptor antagonists are one class of drugs for which we have increasing evidence of efficacy in these patients. In this review we summarize the most recent findings on the safety and efficacy of endothelin receptor antagonists in diabetic and non-diabetic CKD, future directions of research and upcoming treatments.

Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis Patient Baseline Characteristics in the Sparsentan Phase 3 DUPLEX Study

Introduction

The phase 3 DUPLEX trial is evaluating sparsentan, a novel, nonimmunosuppressive, single-molecule dual endothelin angiotensin receptor antagonist, in patients with focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS).

Methods

DUPLEX (NCT03493685) is a global, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, active-controlled study evaluating the efficacy and safety of sparsentan 800 mg once daily versus irbesartan 300 mg once daily in patients aged 8 to 75 years (USA/UK) and 18 to 75 years (ex-USA/UK) weighing ≥20 kg with biopsy-proven FSGS or documented genetic mutation in a podocyte protein associated with FSGS, and urine protein-to-creatinine ratio (UP/C) ≥1.5 g/g. Baseline characteristics blinded to treatment allocation are reported descriptively.

Results

The primary analysis population includes 371 patients (336 adult, 35 pediatric [<18 years]) who were randomized and received study drug (median age, 42 years). Patients were White (73.0%), Asian (13.2%), Black/African American (6.7%), or Other race (7.0%); and from North America (38.8%), Europe (36.1%), South America (12.7%), or Asia Pacific (12.4%). Baseline median UP/C was 3.0 g/g; 42.6% in nephrotic-range (UP/C >3.5 g/g [adults]; >2.0 g/g [pediatrics]). Patients were evenly distributed across estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) categories corresponding to chronic kidney disease (CKD) stages 1 to 3b. Thirty-three patients (9.4% of 352 evaluable samples) had pathogenic or likely pathogenic (P/LP) variants of genes essential to podocyte structural integrity and function, 27 (7.7%) had P/LP collagen gene (COL4A3/4/5) variants, and 14 (4.0%) had high-risk APOL1 genotypes.

Conclusions

Patient enrollment in DUPLEX, the largest interventional study in FSGS to date, will enable important characterization of the treatment effect of sparsentan in a geographically broad and clinically diverse FSGS population.

Practical Considerations for the Use of Sparsentan in the Treatment of Patients with IgAN in Clinical Practice

Immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN) is the most common primary glomerulonephritis worldwide. It is characterized by the mesangial deposition of IgA-containing immune complexes, triggering damage to the glomerular filtration barrier that is amplified by the tandem action of endothelin-1 and angiotensin II at their receptors. Proteinuria and progressive glomerular damage cause loss of kidney function in up to 50% of patients within 10-20 years. The risk of progression is strongly associated with persistent proteinuria (>0.75-1 g/day). Current standard of care involves interventions to decrease proteinuria and control blood pressure. Immunosuppressive agents, used in selected patients at high risk for progression, can be associated with significant side effects. Sparsentan, a novel non-immunosuppressive single-molecule Dual Endothelin Angiotensin Receptor Antagonist (DEARA), received FDA accelerated approval based on interim results from the PROTECT trial, which demonstrated that sparsentan-treated patients achieved a significantly greater reduction in proteinuria from baseline versus the active control irbesartan and that sparsentan was generally safe and well tolerated. Sparsentan is the first non-immunosuppressive treatment to be FDA-approved for the reduction of proteinuria in adults with IgAN at high risk of disease progression. We provide practical guidance for the clinical use of sparsentan in adults with IgAN.

Zibotentan in combination with dapagliflozin compared with dapagliflozin in patients with chronic kidney disease (ZENITH-CKD): a multicentre, randomised, active-controlled, phase 2b, clinical trial

BACKGROUND

In patients with chronic kidney disease, SGLT2 inhibitors and endothelin A receptor antagonists (ERAs) can reduce albuminuria and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) decline. We assessed the albuminuria-lowering efficacy and safety of the ERA zibotentan combined with the SGLT2 inhibitor dapagliflozin.

METHODS

ZENITH-CKD was a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, active-controlled clinical trial, done in 170 clinical practice sites in 18 countries. Adults (≥18 to ≤90 years) with an estimated GFR (eGFR) of 20 mL/min per 1·73 m2 or greater and a urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) of 150-5000 mg/g were randomly assigned (2:1:2) to 12 weeks of daily treatment with zibotentan 1·5 mg plus dapagliflozin 10 mg, zibotentan 0·25 mg plus dapagliflozin 10 mg, or dapagliflozin 10 mg plus placebo, as adjunct to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers if tolerated. The primary endpoint was a change from baseline in log-transformed UACR (zibotentan 1·5 mg plus dapagliflozin vs dapagliflozin plus placebo) at week 12. Fluid retention was an event of special interest, defined as an increase in bodyweight of at least 3% (at least 2·5% must have been from total body water) from baseline or an increase of at least 100% in B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and either a BNP concentration greater than 200 pg/mL if without atrial fibrillation or BNP greater than 400 pg/mL if with atrial fibrillation. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04724837, and is completed.

FINDINGS

Between April 28, 2021, and Jan 17, 2023, we assessed 1492 participants for eligibility. For the main analysis, we randomly assigned 449 (30%) participants, 447 (99%) of whom (mean age 62·8 years [SD 12·1], 138 [31%] female, 309 [69%] male, 305 [68%] White, mean eGFR 46·7 mL/min per 1·73 m2 [SD 22·4], and median UACR 565·5 mg/g [IQR 243·0-1212·6]) received treatment with zibotentan 1·5 mg plus dapagliflozin (n=179 [40%]), zibotentan 0·25 mg plus dapagliflozin (n=91 [20%]), or dapagliflozin plus placebo (n=177 [40%]). Zibotentan 1·5 mg plus dapagliflozin and zibotentan 0·25 mg plus dapagliflozin reduced UACR versus dapagliflozin plus placebo throughout the treatment period of the study. At week 12, the difference in UACR versus dapagliflozin plus placebo was -33·7% (90% CI -42·5 to -23·5; p<0·0001) for zibotentan 1·5 mg plus dapagliflozin and -27·0% (90% CI -38·4 to -13·6; p=0·0022) for zibotentan 0·25 mg plus dapagliflozin. Fluid-retention events were observed in 33 (18%) of 179 participants in the zibotentan 1·5 mg plus dapagliflozin group, eight (9%) of 91 in the zibotentan 0·25 mg plus dapagliflozin group, and 14 (8%) of 177 in the dapagliflozin plus placebo group.

INTERPRETATION

Zibotentan combined with dapagliflozin reduced albuminuria with an acceptable tolerability and safety profile and is an option to reduce chronic kidney disease progression in patients already receiving currently recommended therapy.

FUNDING

AstraZeneca.

Obstructive nephropathy and molecular pathophysiology of renal interstitial fibrosis

The kidneys play a key role in maintaining total body homeostasis. The complexity of this task is reflected in the unique architecture of the organ. Ureteral obstruction greatly affects renal physiology by altering hemodynamics, changing glomerular filtration and renal metabolism, and inducing architectural malformations of the kidney parenchyma, most importantly renal fibrosis. Persisting pathological changes lead to chronic kidney disease, which currently affects ∼10% of the global population and is one of the major causes of death worldwide. Studies on the consequences of ureteral obstruction date back to the 1800s. Even today, experimental unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) remains the standard model for tubulointerstitial fibrosis. However, the model has certain limitations when it comes to studying tubular injury and repair, as well as a limited potential for human translation. Nevertheless, ureteral obstruction has provided the scientific community with a wealth of knowledge on renal (patho)physiology. With the introduction of advanced omics techniques, the classical UUO model has remained relevant to this day and has been instrumental in understanding renal fibrosis at the molecular, genomic, and cellular levels. This review details key concepts and recent advances in the understanding of obstructive nephropathy, highlighting the pathophysiological hallmarks responsible for the functional and architectural changes induced by ureteral obstruction, with a special emphasis on renal fibrosis.

Endothelin Receptor Antagonists in Kidney Disease

Endothelin (ET) is found to be increased in kidney disease secondary to hyperglycaemia, hypertension, acidosis, and the presence of insulin or proinflammatory cytokines. In this context, ET, via the endothelin receptor type A (ETA) activation, causes sustained vasoconstriction of the afferent arterioles that produces deleterious effects such as hyperfiltration, podocyte damage, proteinuria and, eventually, GFR decline. Therefore, endothelin receptor antagonists (ERAs) have been proposed as a therapeutic strategy to reduce proteinuria and slow the progression of kidney disease. Preclinical and clinical evidence has revealed that the administration of ERAs reduces kidney fibrosis, inflammation and proteinuria. Currently, the efficacy of many ERAs to treat kidney disease is being tested in randomized controlled trials; however, some of these, such as avosentan and atrasentan, were not commercialized due to the adverse events related to their use. Therefore, to take advantage of the protective properties of the ERAs, the use of ETA receptor-specific antagonists and/or combining them with sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) has been proposed to prevent oedemas, the main ERAs-related deleterious effect. The use of a dual angiotensin-II type 1/endothelin receptor blocker (sparsentan) is also being evaluated to treat kidney disease. Here, we reviewed the main ERAs developed and the preclinical and clinical evidence of their kidney-protective effects. Additionally, we provided an overview of new strategies that have been proposed to integrate ERAs in kidney disease treatment.

Nutritional Assessment and Support in Children with Chronic Kidney Disease: The Benefits of Working with a Registered Dietitian

BACKGROUND

An unbalanced dietary pattern, characterized by high animal protein content: may worsen metabolic control, accelerate renal deterioration and consequently aggravate the stage of the chronic kidney disease (CKD) in pediatric patients with this condition.

AIM

to assess the effect of a registered dietitian (RD) intervention on the CKD children's eating habits.

METHODS

Anthropometric and dietetic parameters, obtained at baseline and 12 months after implementing healthy eating and nutrition education sessions, were compared in 16 patients (50% girls) of 8.1 (1-15) years. On each occasion, anthropometry, 3-day food records and a food consumption frequency questionnaire were carried out. The corresponding relative intake of macro- and micronutrients was contrasted with the current advice by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and with consumption data obtained using the Spanish dietary guidelines. Student's paired t-test, Wilcoxon test and Mc Nemar test were used.

RESULTS

At Baseline 6% were overweight, 69% were of normal weight and 25% were underweight. Their diets were imbalanced in macronutrient composition. Following nutritional education and dietary intervention 63%, 75% and 56% met the Dietary Reference Values requirements for fats, carbohydrates and fiber, respectively, but not significantly. CKD children decreased protein intake (p < 0.001), increased dietary fiber intake at the expense of plant-based foods consumption (p < 0.001) and a corresponding reduction in meat, dairy and processed food intake was noticed. There were no changes in the medical treatment followed or in the progression of the stages.

CONCLUSIONS

RD-led nutrition intervention focused on good dieting is a compelling helpful therapeutic tool to improve diet quality in pediatric CKD patients.

Blood Pressure Control in Patients with Diabetic Kidney Disease

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is the most common cause of end-stage kidney disease. Blood pressure (BP) control can reduce the risks of cardiovascular (CV) morbidity, mortality, and kidney disease progression. Recently, the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) guidelines have suggested the implementation of a more intensive BP control with a target systolic BP (SBP) of <120 mmHg based on the evidence that the CV benefits obtained is outweighed by the kidney injury risk associated with a lower BP target. However, an extremely low BP level may paradoxically aggravate renal function and CV outcomes. Herein, we aimed to review the existing literature regarding optimal BP control using medications for DKD.

Advances in the management of diabetic kidney disease: beyond sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors

Progress in the treatment of diabetic kidney disease (DKD) has been modest since the early trials on renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors (RAASis). Although sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) have revolutionized the management of DKD by lowering proteinuria and protecting organs, other novel treatment approaches with good evidence and efficacy that can be used in conjunction with a RAASi or SGLT2i in managing DKD have emerged in the past few years. This review discusses the evidence for glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, selective mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist, and selective endothelin A receptor antagonist, emerging treatment options for DKD beyond SGLT2 inhibition.

Repurposing drugs for highly prevalent diseases: pentoxifylline, an old drug and a new opportunity for diabetic kidney disease

Diabetic kidney disease is one of the most frequent complications in patients with diabetes and constitutes a major cause of end-stage kidney disease. The prevalence of diabetic kidney disease continues to increase as a result of the growing epidemic of diabetes and obesity. Therefore, there is mounting urgency to design and optimize novel strategies and drugs that delay the progression of this pathology and contain this trend. The new approaches should go beyond the current therapy focussed on the control of traditional risk factors such as hyperglycaemia and hypertension. In this scenario, drug repurposing constitutes an economic and feasible approach based on the discovery of useful activities for old drugs. Pentoxifylline is a nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor currently indicated for peripheral artery disease. Clinical trials and meta-analyses have shown renoprotection secondary to anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic effects in diabetic patients treated with this old known drug, which makes pentoxifylline a candidate for repurposing in diabetic kidney disease.

Cardiometabolic and Kidney Protection in Kidney Transplant Recipients With Diabetes: Mechanisms, Clinical Applications, and Summary of Clinical Trials

Kidney transplantation is the therapy of choice for patients with end-stage renal disease. Preexisting diabetes is highly prevalent in kidney transplant recipients (KTR), and the development of posttransplant diabetes is common because of a number of transplant-specific risk factors such as the use of diabetogenic immunosuppressive medications and posttransplant weight gain. The presence of pretransplant and posttransplant diabetes in KTR significantly and variably affect the risk of graft failure, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and death. Among the many available therapies for diabetes, there are little data to determine the glucose-lowering agent(s) of choice in KTR. Furthermore, despite the high burden of graft loss and CVD among KTR with diabetes, evidence for strategies offering cardiovascular and kidney protection is lacking. Recent accumulating evidence convincingly shows glucose-independent cardiorenal protective effects in non-KTR with glucose-lowering agents, such as sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists. Therefore, our aim was to review cardiorenal protective strategies, including the evidence, mechanisms, and rationale for the use of these glucose-lowering agents in KTR with diabetes.

Identification of copper-related biomarkers and potential molecule mechanism in diabetic nephropathy

BACKGROUND

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a chronic microvascular complication in patients with diabetes mellitus, which is the leading cause of end-stage renal disease. However, the role of copper-related genes (CRGs) in DN development remains unclear.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

CRGs were acquired from the GeneCards and NCBI databases. Based on the GSE96804 and GSE111154 datasets from the GEO repository, we identified hub CRGs for DN progression by taking the intersection of differentially expressed CRGs (DECRGs) and genes in the key module from Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis. The Maximal Clique Centrality algorithm was used to identify the key CRGs from hub CRGs. Transcriptional factors (TFs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) targeting hub CRGs were acquired from publicly available databases. The CIBERSORT algorithm was used to perform comparative immune cell infiltration analysis between normal and DN samples.

RESULTS

Eighty-two DECRGs were identified between normal and DN samples, as were 10 hub CRGs, namely PTGS2, DUSP1, JUN, FOS, S100A8, S100A12, NAIP, CLEC4E, CXCR1, and CXCR2. Thirty-nine TFs and 165 miRNAs potentially targeted these 10 hub CRGs. PTGS2 was identified as the key CRG and FOS as the most significant gene among all of DECRGs. RELA was identified as the hub TF interacting with PTGS2 by taking the intersection of potential TFs from the ChEA and JASPAR public databases. let-7b-5p was identified as the hub miRNA targeting PTGS2 by taking the intersection of miRNAs from the miRwalk, RNA22, RNAInter, TargetMiner, miRTarBase, and ENCORI databases. Similarly, CREB1, E2F1, and RELA were revealed as hub TFs for FOS, and miR-338-3p as the hub miRNA. Finally, compared with those in healthy samples, there are more infiltrating memory B cells, M1 macrophages, M2 macrophages, and resting mast cells and fewer infiltrating activated mast cells and neutrophils in DN samples (all p< 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The 10 identified hub copper-related genes provide insight into the mechanisms of DN development. It is beneficial to examine and understand the interaction between hub CRGs and potential regulatory molecules in DN. This knowledge may provide a novel theoretical foundation for the development of diagnostic biomarkers and copper-related therapy targets in DN.

New Aspects in the Management of Hypertension in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease not on Renal Replacement Therapy

With chronic kidney disease (CKD) being a global arising health problem, strategies for delaying kidney disease progression and reducing the high cardiovascular risk inherent to CKD, are the main objectives of the actual management of patients with kidney diseases. In these patients, the control of arterial hypertension is essential, as high blood pressure (BP) is a strong determinant of worst cardiovascular and renal outcomes. Achieving target blood pressures recommended by international guidelines is mandatory and often demands a multiple levels management, including several pharmacological and lifestyle measures. Even in the presence of adequate BP control, the residual cardiovascular risk remains high. In this respect, the recent demonstration that novel agents such as sodium glucose transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors or the new non-steroidal mineralocorticoid antagonist finerenone can retard the progression of kidney diseases and reduce cardiovascular mortality on top of standard of care treatment with renin-angiotensin system inhibitors represent enormous progresses. These studies also demonstrate that cardiovascular and renal protection can be obtained beyond blood pressure control. Other promising novelties are still to come such as renal denervation and endothelin receptor antagonists in the setting of diabetic and non-diabetic kidney diseases. In the present review, we shall discuss the classic and the new aspects for the management of hypertension in CKD, integrating the new data from recent clinical studies.

Endothelin Receptor Antagonists as a Potential Treatment of Diabetic Nephropathy: A Systematic Review

Diabetic nephropathy is becoming a more predominant cause of end-stage renal disease, as the prevalence of diabetes mellitus worldwide is on the rise. In this systematic review, we aimed to define the role of endothelin receptor antagonists, in the prevention and treatment of diabetic nephropathy, in addition to determining their safety. For this review, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Cochrane Library databases, in addition to ClinicalTrials.gov, were searched for publications in the last 20 years. We included 14 studies, seven randomized control trials, and seven post hoc analyses in this paper. Atrasentan decreased albuminuria, reduced blood pressure, and improved lipid profiles with more manageable fluid overload-related adverse events than avosentan and bosentan. Overall, endothelin receptor antagonists, in combination with renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors, effectively reduce albuminuria and prevent the progression of diabetic kidney disease. However, more extensive clinical trials still need to be conducted to confirm these relationships and to learn more about the specific factors affecting their efficacy in individual patients.

A renaissance in the treatment of diabetic kidney disease, hypertension in chronic kidney disease, and beyond

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) affects approximately 15% of the US population and is associated with significant cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The two leading causes of end stage kidney disease are hypertension and diabetes mellitus, both of which are modifiable risk factors. The cornerstones of CKD care include early detection, management of associated risk factors, modification of cardiovascular disease risk, slowing progression of disease, and management of complications including anemia, acid base disturbance, and mineral and bone disorders. For the last 20 years, renin-angiotensin system inhibitors were the mainstay treatment for proteinuric diabetic and nondiabetic kidney disease. Recently, new therapies such as sodium-glucose linked transporter 2 inhibitors, have emerged as powerful tools in the treatment of CKD with indications in both diabetic and nondiabetic kidney disease. In this article, we define CKD staging, review new hypertension and diabetic guidelines for CKD patients, and discuss major trials for new potential therapies in CKD, particularly diabetic kidney disease. We will provide practical guidance for primary care physicians to diagnose CKD and implement these agents early in the disease course to prevent the progression of disease and reduce the morbidity and mortality of this vulnerable population.

Current treatment of IgA nephropathy

IgA nephropathy (IgAN) is the most common type of glomerulonephritis in Asia and the Western world. In most patients, it follows an asymptomatic to oligosymptomatic course and GFR loss, if any, is slow. The mainstay of therapy therefore is optimized supportive care, i.e., measures that lower blood pressure, reduce proteinuria, minimize lifestyle risk factors, and otherwise help to reduce non-specific insults to the kidneys. The value of immunosuppression has become controversial and if at all, systemic high-dose corticosteroid therapy should be considered for a few months taking into account patient characteristics that would caution against or preclude such therapy. In addition, adverse events related to corticosteroid therapy markedly increase as GFR declines. Beyond corticosteroids, there is little evidence that any additional immunosuppression is helpful, with the exception of mycophenolate mofetil in patients of Asian descent. A considerable number of clinical trials ranging from enteric coated budesonide to blockade of B-cell function to complement inhibitors are currently ongoing and will hopefully allow a more targeted therapy of high-risk patients with progressive IgAN in the future.

A Non-purine Xanthine Oxidoreductase Inhibitor Reduces Albuminuria in Patients with DKD: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is characterized by albuminuria and reduced renal function. Whether xanthine oxidoreductase inhibitors (XORIs) have a renoprotective effect in DKD patients with type 2 diabetes remains controversial. We conducted a proof-of-concept study to investigate the renal effects of a novel XORI, TMX-049, in patients with DKD and type 2 diabetes.

Methods

This is a multicenter, 12-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2a trial conducted at 49 centers across the United States between April 2018 and June 2019. In total, 130 patients with type 2 diabetes, urine albumin-creatinine ratio (UACR) 200 - 3000 mg/g, eGFR ≥30 ml/min per 1.73 m2, and serum uric acid (sUA) 4 - 10 mg/dl were randomized 1:1:1 to TMX-049 200 mg (n=44) or 40 mg (n=44), or placebo (n=42). The primary end point was change in log-transformed UACR at week 12 from baseline. The secondary end points included changes in UACR, eGFR, and sUA from baseline.

Results

The least squares mean differences for changes in log-transformed UACR from baseline to week 12 compared with placebo were -0.43 (95% confidence interval [95% CI], -0.82 to -0.04, P=0.03) for TMX-049 200 mg and -0.05 (95% CI, -0.44 to 0.34, P=0.80) for 40 mg; a 35% reduction in UACR was observed with TMX-049 200 mg (ratio versus placebo, 0.65; 95% CI, 0.44 to 0.96) but not 40 mg (0.95; 95% CI, 0.64 to 1.41). Throughout the treatment period, marked reductions in sUA levels but no changes in eGFR were observed with both TMX-049 doses. TMX-049 was generally well tolerated, although two patients with TMX-049 200 mg developed gout.

Conclusions

TMX-049 200 mg reduced albuminuria at 12 weeks in patients with DKD and type 2 diabetes. TMX-049 may exert a renoprotective effect independent of its sUA-lowering effect.

Endothelin receptors in renal interstitial cells do not contribute to the development of fibrosis during experimental kidney disease

Renal interstitial fibrosis is characterized by the development of myofibroblasts, originating from resident renal and immigrating cells. Myofibroblast formation and extracellular matrix production during kidney damage are triggered by various factors. Among these, endothelins have been discussed as potential modulators of renal fibrosis. Utilizing mouse models of adenine nephropathy (AN) and unilateral ureter occlusion (UUO), this study aimed to investigate the contribution of endothelin signaling in stromal mesenchymal resident renal interstitial cells. We found in controls that adenine feeding and UUO caused marked upregulations of endothelin-1 (ET-1) gene expression in endothelial and in tubular cells and a strong upregulation of ET_A-receptor (ET_A-R) gene expression in interstitial and mesangial cells, while the gene expression of ET_B-receptor (ET_B-R) did not change. Conditional deletion of ET_A-R and ET_B-R gene expression in the FoxD1 stromal cell compartment which includes interstitial cells significantly reduced renal ET_A-R gene expression and moderately lowered renal ET_B-R gene expression. ET receptor (ET-R) deletion exerted no apparent effects on kidney development nor on kidney function. Adenine feeding and UUO led to similar increases in profibrotic and proinflammatory gene expression in control as well as in ET_A^flflET_B^flfl FoxD1^Cre+ mice (ET-Ko). In summary, our findings suggest that adenine feeding and UUO activate endothelin signaling in interstitial cells which is due to upregulated ET_A-R expression and enhanced renal ET-1 production Our data also suggest that the activation of endothelin signaling in interstitial cells has less impact for the development of experimentally induced fibrosis.

Endothelial Endothelin Receptor A Expression Is Associated With Podocyte Injury and Oxidative Stress in Patients With Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis

INTRODUCTION

The podocyte is thought to be the mainly affected cell type in focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). However, recent studies have also indicated a role for glomerular endothelial cells and podocyte-endothelial crosstalk in FSGS development. An experimental model for podocyte injury showed that increased endothelin-1 (ET-1) signaling between podocytes and endothelial cells induces endothelial oxidative stress and subsequent podocyte loss. In the current study, we investigated endothelial endothelin receptor A (ETAR) expression in patients with FSGS and its association with podocyte injury and glomerular oxidative stress.

METHODS

We selected 39 biopsy samples of patients with FSGS and 8 healthy control subjects, and stained them for ETAR, nephrin and 8-oxo-guanine, a DNA lesion caused by oxidative damage. Glomeruli with ETAR-positive endothelium and with nephrin loss were scored, and the 8-oxo-guanine-positive glomerular area was measured.

RESULTS

The mean percentage of glomeruli with ETAR-positive endothelial cells in patients with FSGS was higher compared to that in healthy control subjects (52% vs. 7%; P < 0.001). The presence of glomerular ETAR-positive endothelium was strongly associated with nephrin loss both on the biopsy level (rho = 0.47; P < 0.01), as on the level of individual glomeruli (odds ratio = 2.0; P < 0.001). Moreover, glomeruli with ETAR-positive endothelium showed more 8-oxo-guanine-positive staining (1.9% vs. 2.4%; P = 0.037). Finally, 8-oxo-guanine positivity in glomeruli was associated with increased levels of proteinuria.

CONCLUSION

Taking together our findings, we show that ETAR is increased in glomerular endothelial cells of patients with FSGS and associated with podocyte damage and glomerular oxidative stress. These findings support the hypothesis that ET-1 signaling in glomerular endothelial cells contributes to disease development in patients with FSGS.

Blood pressure control in patients with chronic kidney disease

Uncontrolled blood pressure (BP) in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) can lead to serious adverse outcomes. To prevent the occurrence of cardiovascular events (CVEs), and end-stage kidney disease, achieving an optimal BP level is important. Recently, there has been a paradigm shift in the management of BP largely as a result of the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial (SPRINT), which showed a reduction in CVEs by lowering systolic BP to 120 mmHg. A lower systolic blood pressure (SBP) target has been accepted by the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) 2021 guidelines. However, whether intensive control of SBP targeting < 120 mmHg is also effective in patients with CKD is controversial. Notably, this lower target SBP is associated with a higher risk of adverse kidney outcomes. Unfortunately, there have been no randomized controlled trials on this issue involving only patients with CKD, particularly those with advanced CKD. In this review, we discuss the optimal control of BP in patients with CKD in terms of reduction in death and CVEs as well as attenuation of CKD progression based on the evidence-based literature.

Endothelin-1 and Parameters of Systolic Blood Pressure in Hemodialysis

BACKGROUND

Hypertension is common in hemodialysis (HD) patients. Increased blood pressure (BP) variability, particularly higher and lower extremes, is associated with adverse outcomes. We explored the association of endothelin-1 (ET-1), a potent vasoconstrictor, with different BP parameters (pre-HD, intra-HD, and post-HD) during HD in a contemporary patient cohort.

METHODS

This study uses the DaVita Biorepository, a longitudinal prospective cohort study with quarterly collection of clinical data and biospecimens. Unadjusted and adjusted linear mixed effects regression models were fit to determine association of pre-HD ET-1 (log-transformed and quartiles) with HD-related systolic BP (SBP) parameters (pre-HD, nadir intra-HD, and post-HD). As ET-1 was measured at baseline, analyses were restricted to 1 year of follow-up.

RESULTS

Among 769 participants, mean age was 52 years, 42% were females, and 41% were Black. Mean pre-HD SBP was 152 (±28) mm Hg and mean ET-1 concentration was 2.3 (±1.2) ng/ml. In fully adjusted models, each unit increase in SD of log-transformed ET-1 was associated with a 2.7 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.5, 4.0) mm Hg higher pre-SBP; 1.6 (95% CI 0.9, 2.3) mm Hg higher nadir SBP; and 2.0 (95% CI 1.1, 2.9) mm Hg higher post-SBP. Each SD increase in log-transformed ET-1 was associated with 21% higher odds of experiencing intradialytic hypertension (odds ratio 1.21; 95% CI 1.10-1.34).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher baseline ET-1 levels are independently associated with higher SBP and higher odds of intradialytic hypertension. These results highlight a potential role for ET-1 in BP control in HD patients and raise the possibility of ET-1 antagonism as a therapeutic target.

Individual Atrasentan Exposure is Associated With Long-term Kidney and Heart Failure Outcomes in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes and Chronic Kidney Disease

Atrasentan, an endothelin receptor antagonist, showed clinically significant albuminuria reduction with minimal signs of fluid retention in phase II trials. We evaluated whether plasma exposure was associated with long-term outcomes for kidney protection and heart failure in the phase III SONAR trial (n = 3668) in type 2 diabetics with chronic kidney disease. A population pharmacokinetic model was used to estimate plasma exposure of atrasentan 0.75 mg/day. Parametric time-to-event models were used to quantify the association between plasma exposure and long-term outcomes. Mean atrasentan plasma exposure was 41.4 ng.h/mL (2.5th to 97.5th P: 14.2 to 139.9). Compared with placebo, a mean atrasentan exposure translated in a hazard ratio of 0.76 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.28-0.85) for kidney events and 1.13 (95% CI: 1.03-2.20) for heart failure events. At the mean atrasentan exposure, the kidney protective effect was larger than the increase in heart failure supporting the atrasentan 0.75 mg/day dose in this population.

Empagliflozin Inhibits IL-1β-Mediated Inflammatory Response in Human Proximal Tubular Cells

SGLT2 inhibitor-related nephroprotection is—at least partially—mediated by anti-inflammatory drug effects, as previously demonstrated in diabetic animal and human studies, as well as hyperglycemic cell culture models. We recently presented first evidence for anti-inflammatory potential of empagliflozin (Empa) under normoglycemic conditions in human proximal tubular cells (HPTC) by demonstrating Empa-mediated inhibition of IL-1β-induced MCP-1/CCL2 and ET-1 expression on the mRNA and protein level. We now add corroborating evidence on a genome-wide level by demonstrating that Empa attenuates the expression of several inflammatory response genes in IL-1β-induced (10 ng/mL) normoglycemic HPTCs. Using microarray-hybridization analysis, 19 inflammatory response genes out of >30.000 human genes presented a consistent expression pattern, that is, inhibition of IL-1β (10 ng/mL)-stimulated gene expression by Empa (500 nM), in both HK-2 and RPTEC/TERT1 cells. Pathway enrichment analysis demonstrated statistically significant clustering of annotated pathways (enrichment score 3.64). Our transcriptomic approach reveals novel genes such as CXCL8/IL8, LOX, NOV, PTX3, and SGK1 that might be causally involved in glycemia-independent nephroprotection by SGLT2i.

Endothelin receptor antagonists for the treatment of diabetic and nondiabetic chronic kidney disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To summarize new clinical findings of endothelin receptor antagonists (ERA) in various etiologies of kidney disease targeted in clinical trials.

RECENT FINDINGS

Endothelin-1 is a multifunctional peptide with potential relevance to glomerular and tubulointerstitial kidney diseases. The phase 3 SONAR trial demonstrated a significant reduction in clinically relevant kidney outcomes for patients with diabetic kidney disease (DKD) after long-term treatment with the ERA, atrasentan, in addition to blockade of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Promising preclinical disease models and small clinical trials in non-DKD resulted in the initiation of phase 3 trials investigating the effects of long-term treatment with ERA in patients with immunoglobulin A (IgA) nephropathy and focal segmental glomeruloscelerosis (FSGS). The mechanisms by which ERA protects the kidneys have been extensively studied with evidence for the protection of tubule cells, podocytes, mesangial cells, the endothelial glycocalyx, and a reduction in glomerular perfusion pressure. The occurrence of fluid retention during ERA treatment, particularly in susceptible populations, necessitates strategies to support safe and effective treatment.

SUMMARY

Treatment with ERA induces long-term kidney protection in DKD. Phase 3 trials are underway to investigate ERA effects in patients with IgA nephropathy and FSGS.

Glomerular Diseases in Diabetic Patients: Implications for Diagnosis and Management

The prevalence of diabetes continues to rise worldwide. In addition to rising rates of diabetic kidney disease, we are also seeing a parallel rise in nondiabetic kidney disease among patients with diabetes. These nondiabetic lesions include focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, IgA nephropathy, membranous nephropathy, and other glomerular diseases. The management of diabetic kidney disease is rapidly evolving to include, beyond glycemic control and renin angiotensin inhibition, the use of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists. These and other new treatment strategies should be applicable to managing glomerular disease in diabetic patients to reduce toxicities associated with immunosuppression and, in particular, corticosteroids. The prevalence of glomerular disease in diabetic patients is underappreciated. Diagnosis and appropriately treating these diseases remain an important avenue to modify kidney outcomes in diabetic patients.

Towards Better Drug Repositioning: Targeted Immunoinflammatory Therapy for Diabetic Nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is one of the most common and important microvascular complications of diabetes mellitus (DM). The main clinical features of DN are proteinuria and a progressive decline in renal function, which are associated with structural and functional changes in the kidney. The pathogenesis of DN is multifactorial, including genetic, metabolic, and haemodynamic factors, which can trigger a sequence of events. Controlling metabolic risks such as hyperglycaemia, hypertension, and dyslipidaemia is not enough to slow the progression of DN. Recent studies emphasized immunoinflammation as a critical pathogenic factor in the progression of DN. Therefore, targeting inflammation is considered a potential and novel treatment strategy for DN. In this review, we will briefly introduce the inflammatory process of DN and discuss the anti-inflammatory effects of antidiabetic drugs when treating DN.

Endothelin-targeted new treatments for proteinuric and inflammatory glomerular diseases: focus on the added value to anti-renin-angiotensin system inhibition

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is the main cause of end-stage renal disease worldwide arising as a frequent complication of diabetes, obesity, and hypertension. Current therapeutic options, mainly based of inhibition of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), provide imperfect renoprotection if started at an advanced phase of the disease, and treatments that show or even reverse the progression of CKD are needed. The endothelin (ET) system contributes to the normal renal physiology; however, robust evidence suggests a key role of ET-1 and its cognate receptors, in the progression of CKD. The effectiveness of ET receptor antagonists in ameliorating renal hemodynamics and fibrosis has been largely demonstrated in different experimental models. A significant antiproteinuric effect of ET receptor antagonists has been found in diabetic and non-diabetic CKD patients even on top of RAS blockade, and emerging evidence from ongoing clinical trials highlights their beneficial effects on a wide range of kidney disorders.

Inter-individual variability in atrasentan exposure partly explains variability in kidney protection and fluid retention responses: A post hoc analysis of the SONAR trial

AIM

To evaluate whether atrasentan plasma exposure explains between-patient variability in urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) response, a surrogate for kidney protection, and B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) response, a surrogate for fluid expansion.

METHODS

Type 2 diabetic patients with chronic kidney disease (n = 4775) received 0.75 mg atrasentan for 6 weeks in the active run-in period. Individual area under the concentration-time-curve (AUC) was estimated using a population pharmacokinetic model. The association between atrasentan AUC, other clinical characteristics, and UACR and BNP response, was estimated using linear regression.

RESULTS

The median atrasentan AUC was 43.8 ng.h/mL with a large variation among patients (2.5th-97.5th percentiles [P]: 12.6 to 197.5 ng.h/mL). Median UACR change at the end of enrichment was -36.0% and median BNP change was 8.7%, which also varied among patients (UACR, 2.5th-97.5th P: -76.2% to 44.5%; BNP, 2.5th-97.5th P: -71.5% to 300.0%). In the multivariable analysis, higher atrasentan AUC was associated with greater UACR reduction (4.88% per doubling in ng.h/mL [95% confidence interval {CI}: 6.21% to 3.52%], P < .01) and greater BNP increase (3.08% per doubling in ng.h/mL [95% CI: 1.12% to 4.11%], P < .01) independent of estimated glomerular filtration rate, haemoglobin or BNP. Caucasian patients compared with black patients had greater UACR reduction (7.06% [95% CI: 1.38% to 13.07%]) and also greater BNP increase (8.75% [95% CI: 1.65% to 15.35%]). UACR response was not associated with BNP response (r = 0.06).

CONCLUSION

Atrasentan plasma exposure varied among individual patients and partially explained between-patient variability in efficacy and safety response.

Efficacy and safety of endothelin receptor antagonists in type 2 diabetic kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

AIM

To analyse the efficacy and safety of endothelin receptor antagonists for people with diabetic kidney disease.

METHODS

Randomized controlled trials comparing endothelin receptor antagonists with placebo in people with diabetic kidney disease were identified through PubMed, Embase and the Cochrane Library. We used a random-effect model to calculate the mean difference or risk ratio with the 95% CI.

RESULTS

Seven studies with a total of 4730 participants were included. Overall, endothelin receptor antagonists significantly reduced albuminuria compared with placebo (standardized mean difference -0.48, 95% CI -0.64 to -0.33). Atrasentan, in particular, effectively reduced albuminuria (standardized mean difference -0.58, 95% CI -1.00 to -0.17) and the risk of composite renal endpoints (risk ratio 0.65; 95% CI 0.49 to 0.88), with insignificant change in the rate of congestive heart failure (risk ratio 1.40, 95% CI 0.76 to 2.56) and mortality (risk ratio 1.11, 95% CI 0.77 to 1.61). In contrast, although avosentan reduced albuminuria (standardized mean difference -0.47, 95% CI -0.57 to -0.36) and the risk of composite renal endpoints (risk ratio 0.63, 95% CI 0.42 to 0.94), it was associated with a significant increase in congestive heart failure risk (risk ratio 2.61, 95% CI 1.36 to 5.00) and an insignificant increase in mortality risk (risk ratio 1.50, 95% CI 0.81, 2.78). No significant change in efficacy or safety outcomes with bosentan was detected. Dose-response analysis indicated that 0.75 mg/day atrasentan is expected to be optimal for renoprotection, with maximal albuminuria reduction and minimal fluid retention events.

CONCLUSIONS

Among the endothelin receptor antagonists, atrasentan and avosentan, but not bosentan, are effective for renoprotection in people with diabetic kidney disease. Compared with other types and doses, atrasentan 0.75 mg/day is the most promising, with maximal albuminuria reduction and minimal fluid retention. Vigilant monitoring of congestive heart failure risk is needed in future clinical practice. (PROSPERO registration no. CRD42020169840).

Selective endothelin A receptor antagonism in patients with proteinuric chronic kidney disease

Introduction: Selective antagonists of Endothelin-1 receptors (ERA) have been tested in diabetic and nondiabetic chronic kidney disease (CKD). The SONAR trial (Study Of diabetic Nephropathy with AtRasentan) was the first randomized, phase 3, study assessing the long-term effect of ERA on CKD progression.Areas covered: We examine the ERA effects in proteinuric CKD. We discuss the results of the main clinical studies on ERA in CKD and offer an opinion on the findings of SONAR study and future perspectives in this field. We searched in PubMed and ISI Web of Science databases for including experimental and clinical studies that evaluated ERA in proteinuric CKD.Expert opinion: The SONAR study demonstrated that ERA confers protection against risk for CKD progression. This trial stimulated clinical research on ERA, to expand the therapeutic opportunities in CKD patients. Two novel phase 3 studies testing ERA in patients with glomerular disease are ongoing. Within the context of personalized medicine, we think it would be relevant to evaluate the effect of multiple treatments, including ERA, in proteinuric CKD patients. Testing ERA in clinical trials of novel design will also help at identifying the patients who would more benefit from these drugs.

Endothelin receptor antagonists for the treatment of diabetic nephropathy: A meta-analysis and systematic review

BACKGROUND

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the main cause of chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease worldwide. Although available clinical trials have shown that endothelin receptor (ER) antagonists may be a novel and beneficial drug for DN, no consistent conclusions regarding their sufficient effectiveness and safety for patients with DN have been presented.

AIM

To assess the effectiveness and safety of ER antagonists among patients with DN.

METHODS

The EMBASE, PubMed, MEDLINE, Cochrane, and ClinicalTrials.gov databases were searched without any language restrictions. Relative risks with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for dichotomous data and mean differences or standardized mean difference with 95%CIs for continuous data were calculated using Review Manager 5.3 software. Publication bias was assessed using Egger's test with Stata/SE software.

RESULTS

We enrolled seven studies with six data sets and 5271 participants. The ER antagonists group showed a significantly greater reduction in albuminuria and more patients with 40% reduction in urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio than the control group (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.02, respectively). Subgroup analysis for reductions in estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) showed that for the middle-dosage subgroup, the ER antagonists group exhibited lower eGFR reduction than the control group (P < 0.00001; mean difference, 0.70 95%CI: 0.66, 0.74). Moreover, significant reductions in systolic and diastolic blood pressure were observed in the invention group.

CONCLUSION

ER blockades combined with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor /angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers may be an effective treatment to lower blood pressure and reduce proteinuria in DN with declined eGFR. However, attention should be given to adverse events, including cardiac failure, anemia, and hypoglycemia, as well as serious adverse events.

Empagliflozin Inhibits Basal and IL-1β-Mediated MCP-1/CCL2 and Endothelin-1 Expression in Human Proximal Tubular Cells

SGLT2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) slow the progression of chronic kidney disease; however, evidence for the underlying molecular mechanisms is scarce. We investigated SGLT2i-mediated effects on differential gene expression in two independent human proximal tubular cell (HPTC) lines (HK-2 and RPTEC/TERT1) at the mRNA and protein levels under normoglycemic conditions, utilizing IL-1β as a pro-inflammatory mediator. Microarray hybridization identified 259 genes that were uniformly upregulated by IL-1β (10 mg/mL) and downregulated by empagliflozin (Empa) (500 nM) after 24 h of stimulation in two independent HPTC lines (n = 2, each). The functional annotation of these genes identified eight pathway clusters. Among 12 genes annotated to the highest ranked cluster (enrichment score, 3.51), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1/CC-chemokine ligand 2 (MCP-1/CCL2) and endothelin-1 (ET-1) were selected for verification at mRNA and protein levels based on their established involvement in the early pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease: IL-1β upregulated basal MCP-1/CCL2 (15- and 19-fold) and ET-1 (3- and 8-fold) mRNA expression, while Empa downregulated basal MCP-1/CCL2 (0.6- and 0.5-fold) and ET-1 (0.3- and 0.2-fold) mRNA expression as early as 1 h after stimulation and for at least 24 h in HK-2 and RPTEC/TERT1 cells, respectively. The co-administration of Empa inhibited IL-1β-mediated MCP-1/CCL2 (0.2-fold, each) and ET-1 (0.2-fold, each) mRNA expression as early as 1 h after ligand stimulation and for at least 24 h in both HPTC lines, respectively. This inhibitory effect of Empa on basal and IL-1β-mediated MCP-1/CCL2 and ET-1 mRNA expression was corroborated at the protein level. Our study presents novel evidence for the interference of SGLT2 inhibition with tubular inflammatory response mechanisms under normoglycemic conditions that might account for SGLT2i-mediated nephroprotection.

Beneficial effect on podocyte number in experimental diabetic nephropathy resulting from combined atrasentan and RAAS inhibition therapy

Podocyte loss and proteinuria are both key features of human diabetic nephropathy (DN). The leptin-deficient BTBR mouse strain with the ob/ob mutation develops progressive weight gain, type 2 diabetes, and diabetic nephropathy that has many features of advanced human DN, including increased mesangial matrix, mesangiolysis, podocyte loss, and proteinuria. Selective antagonism of the endothelin-1 type A receptor (ET_AR) by atrasentan treatment in combination with renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibition with losartan has been shown to have the therapeutic benefit of lowering proteinuria in patients with DN, but the underlying mechanism for this benefit is not well understood. Using a similar therapeutic approach in diabetic BTBR ob/ob mice, this treatment regimen significantly increased glomerular podocyte number compared with diabetic BTBR ob/ob controls and suggested that parietal epithelial cells were a source for podocyte restoration. Atrasentan treatment alone also increased podocyte number but to a lesser degree. Mice treated with atrasentan demonstrated a reduction in proteinuria, matching the functional improvement reported in humans. This is a first demonstration that treatment with the highly selective ET_AR antagonist atrasentan can lead to restoration of the diminished podocyte number characteristic of DN in humans and thereby underlies the reduction in proteinuria in patients with diabetes undergoing similar treatment. The benefit of ET_AR antagonism in DN extended to a decrease in mesangial matrix as measured by a reduction in accumulations of collagen type IV in both the atrasentan and atrasentan + losartan-treated groups compared with untreated controls.

Endothelin Receptor Antagonists: Status Quo and Future Perspectives for Targeted Therapy

The endothelin axis, recognized for its vasoconstrictive action, plays a central role in the pathology of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). Treatment with approved endothelin receptor antagonists (ERAs), such as bosentan, ambrisentan, or macitentan, slow down PAH progression and relieves symptoms. Several findings have indicated that endothelin is further involved in the pathogenesis of certain other diseases, making ERAs potentially beneficial in the treatment of various conditions. In addition to PAH, this review summarizes the use and perspectives of ERAs in cancer, renal disease, fibrotic disorders, systemic scleroderma, vasospasm, and pain management. Bosentan has proven to be effective in systemic sclerosis PAH and in decreasing the development of vasospasm-related digital ulcers. The selective ERA clazosentan has been shown to be effective in preventing cerebral vasospasm and delaying ischemic neurological deficits and new infarcts. Furthermore, in the SONAR (Study Of Diabetic Nephropathy With Atrasentan) trial, the selective ERA atrasentan reduced the risk of renal events in patients with diabetes and chronic kidney disease. These data suggest atrasentan as a new therapy in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy and possibly other renal diseases. Preclinical studies regarding heart failure, cancer, and fibrotic diseases have demonstrated promising effects, but clinical trials have not yet produced measurable results. Nevertheless, the potential benefits of ERAs may not be fully realized.

Endothelins in cardiovascular biology and therapeutics

Cardiovascular disease is a major contributor to global morbidity and mortality and is the common end point of many chronic diseases. The endothelins comprise three structurally similar peptides of 21 amino acids in length. Endothelin 1 (ET-1) and ET-2 activate two G protein-coupled receptors - endothelin receptor type A (ET_A) and endothelin receptor type B (ET_B) - with equal affinity, whereas ET-3 has a lower affinity for ET_A. ET-1 is the most potent vasoconstrictor in the human cardiovascular system and has remarkably long-lasting actions. ET-1 contributes to vasoconstriction, vascular and cardiac hypertrophy, inflammation, and to the development and progression of cardiovascular disease. Endothelin receptor antagonists have revolutionized the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Clinical trials continue to explore new applications of endothelin receptor antagonists, particularly in treatment-resistant hypertension, chronic kidney disease and patients receiving antiangiogenic therapies. Translational studies have identified important roles for the endothelin isoforms and new therapeutic targets during development, in fluid-electrolyte homeostasis, and in cardiovascular and neuronal function. Novel pharmacological strategies are emerging in the form of small-molecule epigenetic modulators, biologics (such as monoclonal antibodies for ET_B) and possibly signalling pathway-biased agonists and antagonists.

Understanding molecular upsets in diabetic nephropathy to identify novel targets and treatment opportunities

Diabetes and related complications are becoming a global encumbrance. Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a major cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The available therapeutic modalities related to DN do not treat DN at the molecular level, proposing further amendments in the management of DN based on the pathogenesis of DN. This manuscript discusses the concept and applications of nanomedicine for the treatment of DN that can improve renal targeting, retention and localization. This review also highlights the current issues related to targeting DN, challenges and allied opportunities toward the development of next-generation drugs and treatments for the management of DN.

Study Design of the Phase 3 Sparsentan Versus Irbesartan (DUPLEX) Study in Patients With Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis

Introduction

Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), a histologic lesion in the kidney caused by varied pathophysiological processes, leads to end-stage kidney disease in a large proportion of patients. Sparsentan is a first-in-class orally active compound combining endothelin type A (ET_A) receptor blockade with angiotensin II type 1 (AT₁) receptor antagonism in a single molecule. A Randomized, Multicenter, Double-Blind, Parallel, Active-Control Study of the Effects of Sparsentan, a Dual Endothelin Receptor and Angiotensin Receptor Blocker, on Renal Outcomes in Patients With Primary FSGS (DUPLEX) study evaluates the long-term antiproteinuric efficacy, nephroprotective potential, and safety profile of sparsentan compared with an AT₁ receptor blocker alone in patients with FSGS.

Methods

DUPLEX is a multicenter, international, phase 3, randomized, double-blind, active-controlled study of sparsentan in patients with FSGS. Approximately 300 patients aged 8 to 75 years, inclusive (United States), and 18 to 75 years, inclusive (outside United States) will be randomized 1:1 to daily treatment with sparsentan or irbesartan. After renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitor washout, treatment will be administered for 108 weeks, with the final assessment at week 112, four weeks after withdrawal of study drug.

Results

The primary endpoint will be the slope of estimated glomerular filtration rate from week 6 to week 108. A novel surrogate efficacy endpoint, the proportion of patients achieving urinary protein-to-creatinine (UP/C) ratio of ≤1.5 g/g and >40% reduction from baseline in UP/C (FSGS partial remission endpoint: FPRE), will be evaluated at a planned interim analysis at week 36. Safety and tolerability of sparsentan will also be assessed.

Conclusion

The phase 3 DUPLEX study will characterize the long-term antiproteinuric efficacy and nephroprotective potential of dual ET_A and AT₁ receptor blockade with sparsentan in patients with FSGS.