An integrated study on antimicrobial activity and ecotoxicity of quantum dots and quantum dots coated with the antimicrobial peptide indolicidin

Immobilised antimicrobial peptides in downregulation of biofilm

Colonisation of sessile bacterial species on biotic and abiotic surfaces is responsible for the development of various infections in humans. At present, biofilm-associated chronic infections have been a prime concern among the healthcare practitioners since they are impermeable to drugs, resulting in the development of antibiotic resistance or multi-drug resistance. For a few decades, a lot of research activity has been performed in the development of alternative therapeutics to combat biofilm-associated chronic infections. The presence of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) prevents the permeation of most of the drugs rendering drug failures. The use of small molecules has been necessary to penetrate easily through the EPS and act on the targeted cells. In present days, the use of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) has gained immense importance as alternative therapeutics since they exhibit a novel class of antibiotics exhibiting a wide spectrum of activity and possess a low rate of development of resistance. In the last few decades, a large number of AMPs have been identified from varied groups of organisms as effector molecules for innate immune system acting as an important line of defence. In this review, we will discuss the use of AMPs as effective agents to combat various biofilm-associated chronic infections.

Antimicrobial peptides: An alternative to traditional antibiotics

As antibiotic-resistant bacteria and genes continue to emerge, the identification of effective alternatives to traditional antibiotics has become a pressing issue. Antimicrobial peptides are favored for their safety, low residue, and low resistance properties, and their unique antimicrobial mechanisms show significant potential in combating antibiotic resistance. However, the high production cost and weak activity of antimicrobial peptides limit their application. Moreover, traditional laboratory methods for identifying and designing new antimicrobial peptides are time-consuming and labor-intensive, hindering their development. Currently, novel technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI) are being employed to develop and design new antimicrobial peptide resources, offering new opportunities for the advancement of antimicrobial peptides. This article summarizes the basic characteristics and antimicrobial mechanisms of antimicrobial peptides, as well as their advantages and limitations, and explores the application of AI in antimicrobial peptides prediction amd design. This highlights the crucial role of AI in enhancing the efficiency of antimicrobial peptide research and provides a reference for antimicrobial drug development.

Biochemistry, Mechanistic Intricacies, and Therapeutic Potential of Antimicrobial Peptides: An Alternative to Traditional Antibiotics

The emergence of drug-resistant strains of pathogens becomes a major obstacle to treating human diseases. Antibiotics and antivirals are in the application for a long time but now these drugs are not much effective anymore against disease-causing drugresistant microbes and gradually it is becoming a serious complication worldwide. The development of new antibiotics cannot be a stable solution to treat drug-resistant strains due to their evolving nature and escaping antibiotics. At this stage, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) may provide us with novel therapeutic leads against drug-resistant pathogens. Structurally, antimicrobial peptides are mostly α-helical peptide molecules with amphiphilic properties that carry the positive charge (cationic) and belong to host defense peptides. These positively charged AMPs can interact with negatively charged bacterial cell membranes and may cause the alteration in electrochemical potential on bacterial cell membranes and consequently lead to the death of microbial cells. In the present study, we will elaborate on the implication of AMPs in the treatment of various diseases along with their specific structural and functional properties. This review will provide information which assists in the development of new synthetic peptide analogues to natural AMPs. These analogues will eliminate the limitations of natural AMPs like toxicity and severe hemolytic activities.

Multigenerational tests on Daphnia spp.: a vision and new perspectives

Multigenerational toxicity testing is a valuable tool for understanding the long-term effects of contaminants on aquatic organisms. This review focuses on the use of multigenerational tests with Daphnia, a widely used model organism in aquatic toxicological studies. The review highlights the importance of studying multiple generations to assess Daphnia spp. reproductive, growth, and physiological responses to various contaminants. We discuss the outcomes of multigenerational tests involving different contaminants, including nanoparticles, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals. The results reveal that multigenerational exposure can lead to transgenerational effects, where the impacts of contaminants are observed in subsequent generations even after the initial exposure has ceased. These transgenerational effects often manifest as reproduction, growth, and development alterations. Furthermore, we emphasize the need for standardized protocols in multigenerational testing to ensure comparability and reproducibility of results across studies. We also discuss the implications of multigenerational testing for ecological risk assessment, as it provides a more realistic representation of the long-term effects of contaminants on populations and ecosystems. Overall, this review highlights the significance of multigenerational tests with Daphnia in advancing our understanding of the ecological impacts of contaminants. Such tests provide valuable insights into the potential risks associated with long-term exposure to pollutants and contribute to the development of effective mitigation strategies for aquatic ecosystems.

Exploring the multifunctional roles of quantum dots for unlocking the future of biology and medicine

With recent advancements in nanomedicines and their associated research with biological fields, their translation into clinically-applicable products is still below promises. Quantum dots (QDs) have received immense research attention and investment in the four decades since their discovery. We explored the extensive biomedical applications of QDs, viz. Bio-imaging, drug research, drug delivery, immune assays, biosensors, gene therapy, diagnostics, their toxic effects, and bio-compatibility. We unravelled the possibility of using emerging data-driven methodologies (bigdata, artificial intelligence, machine learning, high-throughput experimentation, computational automation) as excellent sources for time, space, and complexity optimization. We also discussed ongoing clinical trials, related challenges, and the technical aspects that should be considered to improve the clinical fate of QDs and promising future research directions.

Antimicrobial Peptides: Challenging Journey to the Pharmaceutical, Biomedical, and Cosmeceutical Use

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), or host defence peptides, are short proteins in various life forms. Here we discuss AMPs, which may become a promising substitute or adjuvant in pharmaceutical, biomedical, and cosmeceutical uses. Their pharmacological potential has been investigated intensively, especially as antibacterial and antifungal drugs and as promising antiviral and anticancer agents. AMPs exhibit many properties, and some of these have attracted the attention of the cosmetic industry. AMPs are being developed as novel antibiotics to combat multidrug-resistant pathogens and as potential treatments for various diseases, including cancer, inflammatory disorders, and viral infections. In biomedicine, AMPs are being developed as wound-healing agents because they promote cell growth and tissue repair. The immunomodulatory effects of AMPs could be helpful in the treatment of autoimmune diseases. In the cosmeceutical industry, AMPs are being investigated as potential ingredients in skincare products due to their antioxidant properties (anti-ageing effects) and antibacterial activity, which allows the killing of bacteria that contribute to acne and other skin conditions. The promising benefits of AMPs make them a thrilling area of research, and studies are underway to overcome obstacles and fully harness their therapeutic potential. This review presents the structure, mechanisms of action, possible applications, production methods, and market for AMPs.

The DNA damage potential of quantum dots: Toxicity, mechanism and challenge

Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor nanoparticles (1-10 nm) with excellent optical and electrical properties. As QDs show great promise for applications in fields such as biomedicine, their biosafety is widely emphasized. Therefore, studies on the potential 'nanotoxicity' of QDs in genetic material are warranted. This review summarizes and discusses recent reports derived from different cell lines or animal models concerning the effects of QDs on genetic material. QDs could induce many types of genetic material damage, which subsequently triggers a series of cellular adverse outcomes, including apoptosis, cell cycle arrest and senescence. However, the individual biological and ecological significance of the genotoxicity of QDs is not yet clear. In terms of mechanisms of genotoxicity, QDs can damage DNA either through their own nanomorphology or through the released metal ions. It also includes the reactive oxygen species generation, inflammation and failure of DNA damage repair. Notably, apoptosis may lead to false positive results in genotoxicity tests. Finally, given the different uses of QDs and the interference of the physicochemical properties of QDs on the test method, genotoxicity testing of QDs should be different from traditional toxic compounds, which requires further research.

Imidacloprid: Comparative toxicity, DNA damage, ROS production and risk assessment for aquatic non-target organisms

Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid systemic insecticide used worldwide. Despite its hazardous impact on non-target organisms, few studies have been conducted concerning the potential eco-genotoxic effects in invertebrates of surface waters where this pesticide is detected from units of ng/L to tens of μg/L. The aim of the present work was to determine the acute, the sub-chronic and the chronic toxicity of imidacloprid in producers and primary consumers of the freshwater trophic chain. The organisms under investigation were the green alga Raphidocelis subcapitata, the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus, the cladoceran crustacean Ceriodaphnia dubia and the benthic ostracod Heterocypris incongruens. In addition, potential DNA damage and ROS production were evaluated in C. dubia. Furthermore, in accordance with European guidelines, toxicological risk assessment of imidacloprid was performed for all continents considering its global occurrence in surface waters. In addition, we assessed the genotoxicological risk and median inhibition of reproduction was observed at units of mg/L for rotifers and daphnids. Algae showed the lowest level of sensitivity to the pesticide with effective concentrations from units to hundreds of mg/L. DNA lesions were marked from 7 μg/L with a significant increase in damage as concentrations increased. Chronic toxicity risk quotient values were generally below to a threshold value of 1, with no consequential environmental concern other than for the Canadian areas. On the contrary, the genotoxicological risk quotient values were found higher than the threshold value in all continents.

Influence of the Polysaccharide Capsule on the Bactericidal Activity of Indolicidin on Streptococcus pneumoniae

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a pathogen responsible for high morbidity and mortality worldwide. The polysaccharide capsule confers protection against phagocytosis and influences many aspects of pneumococcal pathogenesis. The capsular polysaccharides (CPS) are highly immunogenic and exhibit great structural variability, with more than 100 serotypes described so far. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are an important part of the innate defense mechanisms against many pathogens. Indolicidin is a cationic AMP produced by bovine neutrophils, with bactericidal effects against several bacteria. CPS has been shown to interfere with the ability of AMPs to kill pneumococci, but the effects of capsule variability on susceptibility to indolicidin have not been explored. The present work determined the effects of capsule on resistance to indolicidin in vitro. Using a bactericidal plate assay, we observed that different pneumococcal serotypes exhibited variable resistance to indolicidin, which correlated with the capsule net charge. Interestingly, the effect of capsule expression on resistance to indolicidin was dependent on the serotype; bacteria with lower zeta potential were more resistant to indolicidin when capsule was present, while those with less negative surface charge were more resistant in the absence of capsule. The addition of purified CPS partially rescued the bacteria from the bactericidal effects of indolicidin, while the addition of anticapsular antibodies accentuated the peptide’s bactericidal action, suggesting a possible new protective mechanism induced by polysaccharide-based pneumococcal vaccines.

Acute Adverse Effects of Metallic Nanomaterials on Cardiac and Behavioral Changes in Daphnia magna

Nanomaterials are widely believed to induce toxic effects on organisms by evoking oxidative stress. We evaluated the toxic effects of nanomaterials on the cardiac and behavioral changes in Daphnia magna under varying exposure conditions. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs), silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), and silver nitrate (AgNO3) were selected for the acute toxicity tests. The adverse effects of the substances on the neonates including heart rate, swimming speed, and oxidative stress were measured. The heart rate level decreased as the concentration of both NPs and silver ions (Ag+) increased. The average swimming speed was measured to be approximately 15 mm/min for the control group. The swimming speed generally increased with a longer exposure to both NPs although it reached a plateau at the lowest concentration of AgNPs. A similar but less clear trend was observed for Ag+. For all substances, the overall swimming speed exhibited no correlation or weak negative correlations with the exposure concentration. The oxidative stress levels increased after exposure compared with the control group. We conclude that aquatic nanotoxicity tests should consider multilevel physicochemical, physiological, and behavioral parameters for the official guidelines to quantify more robust adverse outcomes.

The Preparation and Characterization of Quantum Dots in Polysaccharide Carriers (Starch/Chitosan) as Elements of Smart Packaging and Their Impact on the Growth of Microorganisms in Food

Nanocomposite materials are increasingly commonly used to ensure food safety and quality. Thanks to their unique properties, stemming from the presence of nanoparticles, they are used to develop advanced sensors and biosensors, e.g., for various harmful substances, heavy metals, microorganism growth, and environmental changes in food products. The aim of this study is to produce novel films based on natural resources-potato starch and chitosan-incorporating generated quantum dots of zinc sulfide and cadmium sulfide. The biocomposites were subjected to the following assays: FTIR spectroscopy, UV-VIS spectroscopy, photoluminescence spectroscopy, and SEM/TEM spectroscopy. Their mechanical properties were also analyzed, a colorimetric analysis was performed, and the water content, solubility, and water absorption capacity were determined. A storage test was also performed, using poultry meat covered with the produced films, to assess the microbiological quality. The results confirmed the presence of the quantum dots in the starch-chitosan matrix. The unique optical properties of the films were also demonstrated. It was shown that the composites with nanoparticles limited the growth of selected microorganisms in poultry meat. The food storage time was found to have an impact on the fluorescent properties of the composites. The results point to the possibility of using the produced films as active and smart packaging.

Analyses of the response of carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa against monotherapy and combined therapy using quantum dots and proteomics

Carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa (CRPA) has become a serious public health problem and the biofilm formation aggravates this problem. The study aimed to evaluate the occurrence of β-lactamases and quorum sensing (QS) genes in CRPA isolates, analyze production of biofilm, evaluate the response against meropenem (MPM) and∕or polymyxin B (POL B) and its association with azythromicin (AZT) using quantum dots (QDs) and proteomic analysis. Six CRPA isolates were analyzed. β-lactamases and QS genes were search using specific PCRs and were tested for biofilm production by quantitative technique. A CRPA isolate, containing blaKPC gene and biofilm-producing, was selected to assess its response to therapy using QDs and the MALDI-TOF. The β-lactamase detected was blaKPC in 66.7% of the isolates. All isolates were biofilm producers and carriers of the QS genes. QDs-MPM conjugates triggered the formation of biofilm and the association with AZT inhibited this effect. Proteomics analysis showed that treatments with MPM or POL B suppressed the expression of the transglycosylase protein, while combined therapy with AZT induced expression of the RpoN protein. Thus, this study shows that the use of fluorescence combined with the proteomics analysis was promising to understand how a CRPA strain reacts to antimicrobial treatment.

Comparative Toxicological Evaluation of Tattoo Inks on Two Model Organisms

Tattooing is a technique that introduces colored substances under the skin in order to color it permanently. Decomposition products of tattoo pigments produce numerous damages for the skin and other organs. We studied the effects of a commercial red ink tattoo, PR170, on Xenopus laevis embryos and Daphnia magna nauplii using concentrations of 10, 20, and 40 mg/L. For Xenopus, we applied the FETAX protocol analyzing survival, malformations, growth, heart rate, and the expression of genes involved in the development. In D. magna, we evaluated the toxicity with an immobilization test. Moreover, we investigated the production of ROS, antioxidant enzymes, and the expression of the ATP-binding cassette in both models. Our results indicate that PR170 pigment has nanoparticle dimensions, modifies the survival and the ATP-binding cassette activity, and induces oxidative stress that probably produces the observed effects in both models. Deformed embryos were observed in Xenopus, probably due to the modification of expression of genes involved in development. The expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was also modified in this amphibian. We think that these effects are due to the accumulation of PR170 and, in particular, to the presence of the azoic group in the chemical structure of this pigment. Further studies needed to better understand the effects of commercial tattoo inks.

Long-term multi-endpoint exposure of the microalga Raphidocelis subcapitata to lanthanum and cerium

Significant release of rare earth elements (REEs) into the environment is mainly due to active or abandoned mining sites, but their presence is globally increasing due to their use in several industrial sectors. The effects on primary producers as Raphidocelis subcapitata are still limited. This research focused on La and Ce as the two most widespread REEs that can be currently found up to hundreds of μg/L in water and wastewater. Microalgae were exposed to La and Ce for 3 days (pH = 7.8) (short-term exposure) to derive the effective concentrations inhibiting the growth on 10% (EC10) of the exposed population. EC10 values (0.5 mg/L of La and 0.4 mg/L of Ce) were used for the 28 days long-term exposure (renewal test) to observe after 7, 14, 21, and 28 days on a multi-endpoint basis microalgae growth inhibition (GI), biomarkers of stress (reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT)), and bioconcentration. Results evidenced that La and Ce EC10 increased GI (day 28) up to 38% and 28%, respectively. ROS, CAT, and SOD activities showed differential responses from day 7 to day 14, 21, and 28, suggesting, in most of the cases, that La and Ce effects were counteracted (i.e., being the values at day 28 not significantly different, p > 0.05, from the relative negative controls), except for La-related ROS activities. La and Ce significantly bioconcentrated in microalgae populations up to 2- and 5-fold (i.e., at day 28 compared to day 7), in that order. Bioconcentrated La and Ce were up to 3157 and 1232 μg/g dry weight (day 28), respectively. These results suggested that low La and Ce concentrations can be slightly toxic to R. subcapitata having the potential to be bioaccumulated and potentially transferred along the food web.

Discovery, Optimization, and Clinical Application of Natural Antimicrobial Peptides

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are widespread in multicellular organisms. These structurally diverse molecules are produced as the first line of defense against pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Also known as host defense peptides in higher eukaryotic organisms, AMPs display immunomodulatory and anticancer activities. During the last 30 years, technological advances have boosted the research on antimicrobial peptides, which have also attracted great interest as an alternative to tackling the antimicrobial resistance scenario mainly provoked by some bacterial and fungal pathogens. However, the introduction of natural AMPs in clinical trials faces challenges such as proteolytic digestion, short half-lives, and cytotoxicity upon systemic and oral application. Therefore, some strategies have been implemented to improve the properties of AMPs aiming to be used as effective therapeutic agents. In the present review, we summarize the discovery path of AMPs, focusing on preclinical development, recent advances in chemical optimization and peptide delivery systems, and their introduction into the market.

Cytosolic delivery of membrane-penetrating QDs into T cell lymphocytes: implications in immunotherapy and drug delivery

We report single-particle characterization of membrane-penetrating semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) in T cell lymphocytes. We functionalized water-soluble CdSe/CdZnS QDs with a cell-penetrating peptide composed of an Asp-Ser-Ser (DSS) repeat sequence. DSS and peptide-free control QDs displayed concentration-dependent internalization. Intensity profiles from single-particle imaging revealed a propensity of DSS-QDs to maintain a monomeric state in the T cell cytosol, whereas control QDs formed pronounced clusters. Single-particle tracking showed a direct correlation between individual QD clusters' mobility and aggregation state. A significant portion of control QDs colocalized with an endosome marker inside the T cells, while the percentage of DSS-QDs colocalized dropped to 9%. Endocytosis inhibition abrogated the internalization of control QDs, while DSS-QD internalization only mildly decreased, suggesting an alternative cell-entry mechanism. Using 3D single-particle tracking, we captured the rapid membrane-penetrating activity of a DSS-QD. The ability to characterize membrane penetrating activities in live T cells creates inroads for the optimization of gene therapy and drug delivery through the use of novel nanomaterials.

Light-Emitting Probes for Labeling Peptides

Peptides are versatile biopolymers composed of 2-100 amino acid residues that present a wide range of biological functions and constitute potential therapies for numerous diseases, partly due to their ability to penetrate cell membranes. However, their mechanisms of action have not been fully elucidated due to the lack of appropriate tools. Existing light-emitting probes are limited by their cytotoxicity and large size, which can alter peptide structure and function. Here, we describe the available fluorescent, bioluminescent, and chemiluminescent probes for labeling peptides, with a focus on minimalistic options.

Activity of carbonyl cyanide-3-chlorophenylhydrazone on biofilm formation and antimicrobial resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa using quantum dots-meropenem conjugates as nanotools

Hospital infections associated with multidrug-resistant (MDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa are a worldwide public health problem. Efflux systems and biofilm formation are mechanisms related to resistance to carbapenemics. In this study, quantum dots (QDs) were used to evaluate the effect of carbonyl cyanide-3-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), an efflux pump system inhibitor, on biofilm formation and antimicrobial resistance profile of P. aeruginosa strains. For this, QDs were covalently conjugated to meropenem (MPM) and incubated with a P. aeruginosa resistant isolate (P118) or a control sensitive strain (ATCC Pa27853). P118 was also analyzed with conjugates after previous CCCP efflux inhibitor incubation. Fluorescence microscopy images showed that both sensitive and resistant bacteria were efficiently labeled. Nevertheless, P118 isolates presented fluorescent cell agglomerates, suggesting biofilm formation. The addition of the CCCP changed the labeling profile of the resistant isolate, and the absence of agglomerates was observed, indicating no biofilm formation. Genetic assays revealed the presence of MexA and MexE genes encoding channel proteins from efflux pump systems in both resistant and sensitive strains. Disk-diffusion and broth microdilution tests determined drug susceptibility profiles in the presence and absence of CCCP for P118 isolates. We verified that the CCCP efflux system inhibitor may contribute to P. aeruginosa resistant phenotype reduction for some antimicrobials. This study verified the efficiency of QD-MPM conjugates to trigger and study biofilm formation, or its inhibition, before and after CCCP addition. QDs conjugated to antimicrobials can be used as nanotools to investigate multidrug-resistant bacterial strains on biofilm formation.

Dimeric γ-AApeptides With Potent and Selective Antibacterial Activity

Over the past few decades, the emergence of antibiotic resistance developed by life-threatening bacteria has become increasingly prevalent. Thus, there is an urgent demand to develop novel antibiotics capable of mitigating this trend. Herein, we report a series of dimeric γ-AApeptide derivatives as potential antibiotic agents with limited toxicity and excellent selectivity against Gram-positive strains. Among them, compound 2 was identified to have the best MICs without inducing drug resistance, even after exposure to MRSA for 20 passages. Time-kill kinetics and mechanistic studies suggested that 2 could mimic host-defense peptides (HDPs) and rapidly eradicate MRSA within 2 hours through disturbing the bacteria membrane. Meanwhile, biofilm formation was successfully inhibited even at a low concentration. Taken together, these results suggested the great potential of dimeric γ-AApeptide derivatives as antibacterial agents.

Clinical Applications of Antimicrobial Peptides (AMPs): Where do we Stand Now?

In this era of multi-drug resistance (MDR), antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are one of the most promising classes of potential drug candidates to combat communicable as well as noncommunicable diseases such as cancers and diabetes. AMPs show a wide spectrum of biological activities which include antiviral, antifungal, anti-mitogenic, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties. Apart from these prospective therapeutic potentials, the AMPs can act as food preservatives and immune modulators. Therefore, AMPs have the potential to replace conventional drugs and may gain a significant global drug market share. Although several AMPs have shown therapeutic potential in vitro or in vivo, in most cases they have failed the clinical trial owing to various issues. In this review, we discuss in brief (i) molecular mechanisms of AMPs in various diseases, (ii) importance of AMPs in pharmaceutical industries, (iii) the challenges in using AMPs as therapeutics and how to overcome, (iv) available AMP therapeutics in market, and (v) AMPs under clinical trials. Here, we specifically focus on the therapeutic AMPs in the areas of dermatology, surgery, oncology and metabolic diseases.

Poly(oxanorbornene)-Coated CdTe Quantum Dots as Antibacterial Agents

In this study, synthetic mimics of antimicrobial peptides based on poly(oxanorbornene) molecules (or PONs) were used to coat CdTe quantum dots (QDs). These PONs-CdTe QDs were investigated for their activity against Escherichia coli, a bacterium with antibiotic resistant strains. At the same time, the antibacterial activity of the PONs-CdTe QDs was compared to the antibacterial activity of free PONs and free CdTe QDs. The observed antibacterial activity of the PONs-CdTe QDs was additive and concentration dependent. The conjugates had a significantly lower minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) than the free PONs and QDs, particularly for PONs-CdTe QDs which contained PONs of high amine density. The maximum activity of PONs-CdTe QDs was not realized by conjugating PONs with the highest intrinsic antibacterial activity (i.e., the lowest MIC in solution as free PONs), indicating that the mechanism of action for free PONs and PONs-CdTe QDs is different. Equally important, conjugating PONs to CdTe QDs decreased their hemolytic activity against red blood cells compared to free PONs, lending to higher therapeutic indices against E. coli. This could potentially enable the use of higher, and therefore more effective, PONs-QDs concentrations when addressing bacterial contamination, without concerns of adverse impacts on mammalian cells and organisms.

Toxicity Evaluation of Quantum Dots (ZnS and CdS) Singly and Combined in Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

The exponential growth of nanotechnology has led to the production of large quantities of nanomaterials for numerous industrial, technological, agricultural, environmental, food and many other applications. However, this huge production has raised growing concerns about the adverse effects that the release of these nanomaterials may have on the environment and on living organisms. Regarding the effects of QDs on aquatic organisms, existing data is scarce and often contradictory. Thus, more information is needed to understand the mechanisms associated with the potential toxicity of these nanomaterials in the aquatic environment. The toxicity of QDs (ZnS and CdS) was evaluated in the freshwater fish Danio rerio. The fishes were exposed for seven days to different concentrations of QDs (10, 100 and 1000 µg/L) individually and combined. Oxidative stress enzymes (catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione S-transferase), lipid peroxidation, HSP70 and total ubiquitin were assessed. In general, results suggest low to moderate toxicity as shown by the increase in catalase activity and lipid peroxidation levels. The QDs (ZnS and CdS) appear to cause more adverse effects singly than when tested combined. However, LPO results suggest that exposure to CdS singly caused more oxidative stress in zebrafish than ZnS or when the two QDs were tested combined. Levels of Zn and Cd measured in fish tissues indicate that both elements were bioaccumulated by fish and the concentrations increased in tissues according to the concentrations tested. The increase in HSP70 measured in fish exposed to 100 µg ZnS-QDs/L may be associated with high levels of Zn determined in fish tissues. No significant changes were detected for total ubiquitin. More experiments should be performed to fully understand the effects of QDs exposure to aquatic biota.

Bioremediation of Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)-Contaminated Agricultural Soils: Potential of Two Autochthonous Saprotrophic Fungal Strains

DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was used worldwide as an organochlorine insecticide to control agricultural pests and vectors of several insect-borne human diseases. It was banned in most industrialized countries; however, due to its persistence in the environment, DDT residues remain in environmental compartments, becoming long-term sources of exposure. To identify and select fungal species suitable for bioremediation of DDT-contaminated sites, soil samples were collected from DDT-contaminated agricultural soils in Poland, and 38 fungal taxa among 18 genera were isolated. Two of them, Trichoderma hamatum FBL 587 and Rhizopus arrhizus FBL 578, were tested for tolerance in the presence of 1-mg liter^-1 DDT concentration by using two indices based on fungal growth rate and biomass production (the tolerance indices Rt:Rc and TI), showing a clear tolerance to DDT. The two selected strains were studied to evaluate catabolic versatility on 95 carbon sources with or without DDT by using the Phenotype MicroArray system and to investigate the induced oxidative stress responses. The two strains were able to use most of the substrates provided, resulting in both high metabolic versatility and ecological functionality in the use of carbon sources, despite the presence of DDT. The activation of specific metabolic responses with species-dependent antioxidant enzymes to cope with the induced chemical stress has been hypothesized, since the presence of DDT promoted a higher formation of reactive oxygen species in fungal cells than the controls. The tested fungi represent attractive potential candidates for bioremediation of DDT-contaminated soil and are worthy of further investigations.IMPORTANCE The spread and environmental accumulation of DDT over the years represent not only a threat to human health and ecological security but also a major challenge because of the complex chemical processes and technologies required for remediation. Saprotrophic fungi, isolated from contaminated sites, hold promise for their bioremediation potential toward toxic organic compounds, since they might provide an environment-friendly solution to contamination. Once we verified the high tolerance of autochthonous fungal strains to high concentrations of DDT, we showed how fungi from different phyla demonstrate a high metabolic versatility in the presence of DDT. The isolates showed the singular ability to keep their functionality, despite the DDT-induced production of reactive oxygen species.

Chronic toxicity of treated and untreated aqueous solutions containing imidazole-based ionic liquids and their oxydized by-products

In the present work, an experimental study is presented aimed at assessing the chronic toxicity of three imidazole-based ionic liquids, i.e. imidazole (IM), 1-methylimidazole (1MIM), 1-ethyl-3-methyl-imidazolium chloride (1E3MIM), and 1-butyl-3-methyl-imidazolium chloride (1B3MIM), generally considered as environmentally friendly surrogates of traditional industrial solvents. In this study Daphnia magna was used as test organism due to its wide application in the ecotoxicological literature of ionic liquids, monitoring both the cumulative survival of exposed organisms, and their reproductive parameters. The intracellular oxidative stress of daphnids was also assessed through the determination of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and Catalase activity (CAT). The chronic toxicity of their oxidized by-products (BPs), generated by advanced oxidation treatment with UV₂₅₄/H₂O₂, was finally evaluated. Four generations of BPs were considered, each formed at reaction times higher than those required for the complete removal of the parent compounds. Results indicate that IM and 1MIM have a moderate chronic toxicity, which mainly affects reproductive parameters. On the contrary, 1E3MIM and 1B3MIM showed significantly higher chronic toxicity effects resulting in a significant increase in the mortality of exposed organisms compared to the controls. UV/H₂O₂ treatment of the compounds did not always reduce the observed effects, since the generated BPs have, in some cases, higher chronic toxicity than their corresponding parent compounds. Chronic toxic effects remained significant up to the fourth generation of BPs in the cases of 1E3MIM and 1B3MIM, whereas they were found to be negligible from the second generation of BPs in the case of IM and 1MIM. The results of oxidative stress measurements confirmed the previous findings, suggesting a potential risk for the aquatic ecosystem induced by the mentioned compounds and their BPs.

Understanding fungal potential in the mitigation of contaminated areas in the Czech Republic: tolerance, biotransformation of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and oxidative stress analysis

The study of the soil microbial community represents an important step in better understanding the environmental context. Therefore, biological characterisation and physicochemical integration are keys when defining contaminated sites. Fungi play a fundamental role in the soil, by providing and supporting ecological services for ecosystems and human wellbeing. In this research, 52 soil fungal taxa were isolated from in situ pilot reactors installed to a contaminated site in Czech Republic with a high concentration of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH). Among the identified isolates, 12 strains were selected to evaluate their tolerance to different isomers of HCH by using specific indices (Rt:Rc; T.I.) and to test their potential in xenobiotic biotransformation. Most of the selected taxa was not significantly affected by exposure to HCH, underlining the elevated tolerance of all the tested fungal taxa, and different metabolic intermediates of HCH dechlorination were observed. The oxidative stress responses to HCH for two selected species, Penicillium simplicissimum and Trichoderma harzianum, were investigated in order to explore their toxic responses and to evaluate their potential functioning in bioremediation of contaminated environments. This research suggests that the isolated fungal species may provide opportunities for new eco-friendly, integrated and cost-effective solutions for environmental management and remediation, considering their efficient adaptation to stressful conditions.

Antifungal effects of indolicidin-conjugated gold nanoparticles against fluconazole-resistant strains of Candida albicans isolated from patients with burn infection

Background:Candida albicans as an opportunistic fungus is one of the most important causes of late-onset morbidity and mortality in patients with major burns and severely impaired immune system. In recent years, the emergence of resistance to opportunistic fungi and toxicity of antimicrobial drugs make it necessary to develop new drugs.

Methods: In the present study, we investigated anticandidal effects of indolicidin, as a representative of host defense peptide, conjugated with gold nanoparticles in fluconazole-resistant clinical isolates of C. albicans. After characterizing the conjugation of indolicidin using biophysical methodologies, the cytotoxicity and hemolytic activity of the nanocomplex were examined. In addition, the expression level of ERG11, responsible for antifungal resistance, and the immunomodulatory effect of peptide-nanomaterial conjugates were assessed.

Results: Our data indicated that the nanocomplex was nontoxic for the fibroblast cells and erythrocytes. Treatment with the nanocomplex significantly reduced the expression levels of the ERG11 gene in fluconazole-resistant C. albicans isolates and the iNOS gene in macrophages.

Conclusion: The study data provides a chance to develop innovative therapies for the treatment of C. albicans burn infections. However, further investigation is required to examine the efficiency of the nanocomplex.

Biofilms: Novel Strategies Based on Antimicrobial Peptides

The problem of drug resistance is very worrying and ever increasing. Resistance is due not only to the reckless use of antibiotics but also to the fact that pathogens are able to adapt to different conditions and develop self-defense mechanisms such as living in biofilms; altogether these issues make the search for alternative drugs a real challenge. Antimicrobial peptides appear as promising alternatives but they have disadvantages that do not make them easily applicable in the medical field; thus many researches look for solutions to overcome the disadvantages and ensure that the advantages can be exploited. This review describes the biofilm characteristics and identifies the key features that antimicrobial peptides should have. Recalcitrant bacterial infections caused by the most obstinate bacterial species should be treated with a strategy to combine conventional peptides functionalized with nano-tools. This approach could effectively disrupt high density infections caused by biofilms. Moreover, the importance of using in vivo non mammalian models for biofilm studies is described. In particular, here we analyze the use of amphibians as a model to substitute the rodent model.

Cotton Cellulose-CdTe Quantum Dots Composite Films with Inhibition of Biofilm-Forming S. aureus

A cellulose-cadmium (Cd)-tellurium (TE) quantum dots (QDs) composite film was successfully synthesized by incorporating CdTe QDs onto a cellulose matrix derived from waste cotton linters. Cellulose-CdTe QDs composite film was characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The antibacterial activity of the prepared composite film was investigated using the multidrug-resistance (MTR) Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. In vitro antibacterial assays demonstrated that CdTe QDs composite film can efficiently inhibit biofilm formation. Our results showed that the cellulose-CdTe QDs composite film is a promising candidate for biomedical applications including wound dressing, medical instruments, burn treatments, implants, and other biotechnology fields.

A New Hope: Self-Assembling Peptides with Antimicrobial Activity

Peptide drugs hold great promise for the treatment of infectious diseases thanks to their novel mechanisms of action, low toxicity, high specificity, and ease of synthesis and modification. Naturally developing self-assembly in nature has inspired remarkable interest in self-assembly of peptides to functional nanomaterials. As a matter of fact, their structural, mechanical, and functional advantages, plus their high bio-compatibility and bio-degradability make them excellent candidates for facilitating biomedical applications. This review focuses on the self-assembly of peptides for the fabrication of antibacterial nanomaterials holding great interest for substituting antibiotics, with emphasis on strategies to achieve nano-architectures of self-assembly. The antibacterial activities achieved by these nanomaterials are also described.

A Review on Quantum Dots: Synthesis to In- silico Analysis as Next Generation Antibacterial Agents

Succumbing to Multi-Drug Resistant (MDR) bacteria is a great distress to the recent health care system. Out of the several attempts that have been made to kill MDR pathogens, a few gained short-lived success. The failures, of the discovered or innovated antimicrobials, were mostly due to their high level of toxicity to hosts and the phenomenal rate of developing resistance by the pathogens against the new arsenal. Recently, a few quantum dots were tested against the pathogenic bacteria and therefore, justified for potential stockpiling of next-generation antibacterial agents. The key players for antimicrobial properties of quantum dots are considered to be Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). The mechanism of reaction between bacteria and quantum dots needs to be better understood. They are generally targeted towards the cell wall and membrane components as lipoteichoic acid and phosphatidyl glycerol of bacteria have been documented here. In this paper, we have attempted to simulate ZnS quantum dots and have analysed their mechanism of reaction as well as binding potential to the above bacterial membrane components using CDOCKER. Results have shown a high level of antibacterial activity towards several pathogenic bacteria which specify their potentiality for future generation antibacterial drug development.

Efficiency of gold nanoparticles coated with the antimicrobial peptide indolicidin against biofilm formation and development of Candida spp. clinical isolates

BACKGROUND

This article examines the use of a novel nano-system, gold nanoparticles coated with indolicidin (AuNPs-indolicidin), against pathogenic Candida albicans biofilms. Candida species cause frequent infections owing to their ability to form biofilms, primarily on implant devices.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used an integrated approach, evaluating the effect of AuNPs-indolicidin on prevention and eradication of Candida biofilms formed in multi-well polystyrene plates, with relative gene expression assays. Four biofilm-associated genes (FG1, HWP1, ALS1 and ALS3, and CDR1 and CDR2) involved in efflux pump were analyzed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Treatment with the nano-complex significantly inhibits the capacity of C. albicans to form biofilms and impairs preformed mature biofilms. Treatment with AuNPs-indolicidin results in an increase in the kinetics of Rhodamine 6G efflux and a reduction in the expression of biofilm-related genes.

CONCLUSION

These data provide a chance to develop novel therapies against nosocomially acquired refractory C. albicans biofilms.

Enhanced Antimicrobial Activity and Structural Transitions of a Nanofibrillated Cellulose-Nisin Biocomposite Suspension

Resistance to antibiotics has posed a high demand for novel strategies to fight bacterial infections. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a promising alternative to conventional antibiotics. However, their poor solubility in water and sensitivity to degradation has limited their application. Here, we report the design of a smart, pH-responsive antimicrobial nanobiocomposite material based on the AMP nisin and 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxyl-oxidized nanofibrillated cellulose (TONFC). Morphological transformations of the nanoscale structure of nisin functionalized-TONFC fibrils were discovered at pH values between 5.8 and 8.0 using small-angle X-ray scattering. Complementary ζ potential measurements indicate that electrostatic attractions between the negatively charged TONFC surface and the positively charged nisin molecules are responsible for the integration of nisin. Modification of the pH level or increasing the ionic strength reduces the nisin binding capacity of TONFC. Biological evaluation studies using a bioluminescence-based reporter strain of Bacillus subtilis and a clinically relevant strain of Staphylococcus aureus indicated a significantly higher antimicrobial activity of the TONFC-nisin biocomposite compared to the pure nisin against both strains under physiological pH and ionic strength conditions. The in-depth characterization of this new class of antimicrobial biocomposite material based on nanocellulose and nisin may guide the rational design of sustainable antimicrobial materials.

Metabolomic and oxidative effects of quantum dots-indolicidin on three generations of Daphnia magna

This study evaluated the effect of QDs functionalized with the antimicrobial peptide indolicidin on oxidative stress and metabolomics profiles of Daphnia magna across three generations (F0, F1, and F2). Exposing D. magna to sub-lethal concentrations of the complex QDs-indolicidin, a normal survival of daphnids was observed from F0 to F2, but a delay of first brood, fewer broods per female, a decrease of length of about 50% compared to control. In addition, QDs-indolicidin induced a significantly higher production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) gradually in each generation and an impairment of enzymes response to oxidative stress such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione transferase (GST). Effects were confirmed by metabolomics profiles that pointed out a gradual decrease of metabolomics content over the three generations and a toxic effect of QDs-indolicidin likely related to the higher accumulation of ROS and decreased antioxidant capacity in F1 and F2 generations. Results highlighted the capability of metabolomics to reveal an early metabolic response to stress induced by environmental QDs-indolicidin complex.

Mining the tree of life: Host defense peptides as antiviral therapeutics

Discovering new therapeutics for human viral diseases is important for combatting emerging infectious viruses and omnipresent circulating viruses as well as those that can become resistant to the drugs we currently have available. The innate host defense peptide (HDP) repertoire present in animals is a wealth of potential antimicrobial agents that could be mined to meet these needs. While much of the body of research regarding HDPs is in the context of bacteria, there is increasing evidence that they can be an effective source for antivirals. Peptides can be identified in a number of ways, including eco-conservation-minded approaches. Those shown to have antiviral properties can be modified to exhibit desired properties as the relationship between structure and function is elucidated and then developed into therapeutics for human use. This review looks at the discovery and therapeutic potential of HDPs for human viral infections.

Assessment of metal pollution in the Lambro Creek (Italy)

This study assessed the effect of metal pollution in the Lambro Creek (Southern Italy). Water, sediment and biota were collected at six sampling sites (June) for metal concentration assessment (Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn). Sequential extraction was performed to determine the distribution of metals in different geochemical sediment fractions. The influence of pH and leaching time on the release of metals from sediment to the water column was investigated via remobilization tests. A battery of toxicity tests (Vibrio fischeri, Raphidocelis subcapitata, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, and Daphnia magna) with multi-endpoints (bioluminescence, growth inhibition, and immobilization) was used to determine the overall toxicity in sediment water extracts. The results showed that metals did not exceed the probable effect concentration levels, with Cr concentration exceeding the threshold effect concentration level at all sampling points except for the one closer to the source of the creek, suggesting potential negative effect on the biota. Considering the cumulative criterion unit, sediment contamination was moderate at all sampling sites, except for L3 and L5 where biota was exposed to a very high risk. With respect to sequential analysis, the most readily available fraction of metal can be generalised as Ni > Cr > Cu > Zn > Pb. For better understanding the fate of metals in the water-sediment environment, their biogeochemical cycles should also be investigated in small creeks including both fresh (watercourse) and saltwater (river mouth) sediments.

Antimicrobial Peptides: Diversity, Mechanism of Action and Strategies to Improve the Activity and Biocompatibility In Vivo

Antibiotic resistance is projected as one of the greatest threats to human health in the future and hence alternatives are being explored to combat resistance. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have shown great promise, because use of AMPs leads bacteria to develop no or low resistance. In this review, we discuss the diversity, history and the various mechanisms of action of AMPs. Although many AMPs have reached clinical trials, to date not many have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) due to issues with toxicity, protease cleavage and short half-life. Some of the recent strategies developed to improve the activity and biocompatibility of AMPs, such as chemical modifications and the use of delivery systems, are also reviewed in this article.

Modulation of quantum dots and clearance of Helicobacter pylori with synergy of cell autophagy

Helicobacter pylori (Hp) is one type of Gram-negative pathogenic bacterium that colonizes and causes a wide range of gastric diseases. Once Hp penetrates into cells, the currently recognized triple or quadruple therapy often loses effectiveness. Recent evidence suggests that autophagy is closely associated with Hp infection, and can play an important role in the eradication of Hp. More importantly, certain types of quantum dots (QDs) can induce and modulate cellular autophagy, and can be developed into conjugates making QDs potential candidates as new anti-Hp agents.

Membrane interactions and antimicrobial effects of inorganic nanoparticles

Interactions between nanoparticles and biological membranes are attracting increasing attention in current nanomedicine, and play a key role both for nanotoxicology and for utilizing nanomaterials in diagnostics, drug delivery, functional biomaterials, as well as combinations of these, e.g., in theranostics. In addition, there is considerable current interest in the use of nanomaterials as antimicrobial agents, motivated by increasing resistance development against conventional antibiotics. Here, various nanomaterials offer opportunities for triggered functionalites to combat challenging infections. Although the performance in these diverse applications is governed by a complex interplay between the nanomaterial, the properties of included drugs (if any), and the biological system, nanoparticle-membrane interactions constitute a key initial step and play a key role for the subsequent biological response. In the present overview, the current understanding of inorganic nanomaterials as antimicrobial agents is outlined, with special focus on the interplay between antimicrobial effects and membrane interactions, and how membrane interactions and antimicrobial effects of such materials depend on nanoparticle properties, membrane composition, and external (e.g., light and magnetic) fields.

Photodegradation and ecotoxicology of acyclovir in water under UV254 and UV254/H2O2 processes

The photochemical and ecotoxicological fate of acyclovir (ACY) through UV₂₅₄ direct photolysis and in the presence of hydroxyl radicals (UV₂₅₄/H₂O₂ process) were investigated in a microcapillary film (MCF) array photoreactor, which provided ultrarapid and accurate photochemical reaction kinetics. The UVC phototransformation of ACY was found to be unaffected by pH in the range from 4.5 to 8.0 and resembled an apparent autocatalytic reaction. The proposed mechanism included the formation of a photochemical intermediate (ϕ_ACY = (1.62 ± 0.07)·10^-3 mol ein^-1) that further reacted with ACY to form by-products (k' = (5.64 ± 0.03)·10^-3 M^-1 s^-1). The photolysis of ACY in the presence of hydrogen peroxide accelerated the removal of ACY as a result of formation of hydroxyl radicals. The kinetic constant for the reaction of OH radicals with ACY (k_OH/ACY) determined with the kinetic modeling method was (1.23 ± 0.07)·10⁹ M^-1 s^-1 and with the competition kinetics method was (2.30 ± 0.11)·10⁹ M^-1 s^-1 with competition kinetics. The acute and chronic effects of the treated aqueous mixtures on different living organisms (Vibrio fischeri, Raphidocelis subcapitata, D. magna) revealed significantly lower toxicity for the samples treated with UV₂₅₄/H₂O₂ in comparison to those collected during UV₂₅₄ treatment. This result suggests that the addition of moderate quantity of hydrogen peroxide (30-150 mg L^-1) might be a useful strategy to reduce the ecotoxicity of UV₂₅₄ based sanitary engineered systems for water reclamation.

Toxicity Effects of Functionalized Quantum Dots, Gold and Polystyrene Nanoparticles on Target Aquatic Biological Models: A Review

Nano-based products are widespread in several sectors, including textiles, medical-products, cosmetics, paints and plastics. Nanosafety and safe-by-design are driving nanoparticle (NP) production and applications through NP functionalization (@NPs). Indeed, @NPs frequently present biological effects that differ from the parent material. This paper reviews the impact of quantum dots (QDs), gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), and polystyrene-cored NPs (PSNPs), evidencing the role of NP functionalization in toxicity definition. Key biological models were taken into consideration for NP evaluation: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, fresh- (F) and saltwater (S) microalgae (Raphidocelis subcapitata (F), Scenedesmus obliquus (F) and Chlorella spp. (F), and Phaeodactylum tricornutum (S)), Daphnia magna, and Xenopus laevis. QDs are quite widespread in technological devices, and they are known to induce genotoxicity and oxidative stress that can drastically change according to the coating employed. For example, AuNPs are frequently functionalized with antimicrobial peptides, which is shown to both increase their activity and decrease the relative environmental toxicity. P-NPs are frequently coated with NH₂⁻ for cationic and COOH⁻ for anionic surfaces, but when positively charged toxicity effects can be observed. Careful assessment of functionalized and non-functionalized NPs is compulsory to also understand their potential direct and indirect effects when the coating is removed or degraded.

Cyclic Peptides as Novel Therapeutic Microbicides: Engineering of Human Defensin Mimetics

Cyclic peptides are receiving significant attention thanks to their antimicrobial activity and high serum stability, which is useful to develop and design novel antimicrobial agents. Antimicrobial peptides appear to be key components of innate defences against bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Among the others, defensins possess a strong microbicidial activity. Defensins are cationic and amphipathic peptides with six cysteine residues connected by three disulfide bonds found in plants, insects, and mammals; they are divided in three families: α-, β-, and θ-defensins. α-Defensins are contained in the primary granules of human neutrophils; β-defensins are expressed in human epithelia; and θ-defensins are pseudo-cyclic defensins not found in humans, but in rhesus macaques. The structural diversities among the three families are reflected in a different antimicrobial action as well as in serum stability. The engineering of these peptides is an exciting opportunity to obtain more functional antimicrobial molecules highlighting their potential as therapeutic agents. The present review reports the most recent advances in the field of cyclic peptides with a specific regard to defensin analogs.

Multigenerational effects and DNA alterations of QDs-Indolicidin on Daphnia magna

The complex QDs-Indolicidin (QDs-Ind) has been previously shown to be a good antimicrobial system with a low acute toxicity on Daphnia magna (D. magna). However, multigenerational effects caused by exposure to QDs-Ind and after subsequent recovery are still unknown. In this study, we performed multigenerational exposure tests and we evaluated individual fitness, population growth, DNA alteration, expression of Dhb (haemoglobin), Vtg (vitellogenin), CYP4 (cytochrome P450s CYP4 family), and CYP314 (cytochrome P450s mitochondrial family 314) genes on three generation of D. magna. Results showed that the total amount of eggs produced per female and total number of brood per female and body lengths were significantly decreased, Dhb, CYP4 were upregulated while Vtg was down-regulated except at reproduction days when it was slightly up-regulated under QDs-Ind exposure. Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method has proven to be useful to qualitative assess of DNA damage during generation and to underline modification in somatic or germinal cells. The results of the study suggest that effects of chronic exposure cannot be ignored.

Delivery systems for antimicrobial peptides

Due to rapidly increasing resistance development against conventional antibiotics, finding novel approaches for the treatment of infections has emerged as a key health issue. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have attracted interest in this context, and there is by now a considerable literature on the identification such peptides, as well as on their optimization to reach potent antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects at simultaneously low toxicity against human cells. In comparison, delivery systems for antimicrobial peptides have attracted considerably less interest. However, such delivery systems are likely to play a key role in the development of potent and safe AMP-based therapeutics, e.g., through reducing chemical or biological degradation of AMPs either in the formulation or after administration, by reducing adverse side-effects, by controlling AMP release rate, by promoting biofilm penetration, or through achieving co-localization with intracellular pathogens. Here, an overview is provided of the current understanding of delivery systems for antimicrobial peptides, with special focus on AMP-carrier interactions, as well as consequences of these interactions for antimicrobial and related biological effects of AMP-containing formulations.