Prescribing pattern of anti-psychotic medications in patients with dementia in Oman: a retrospective observational study

Background

Aggression, agitation, psychosis, and sleep disturbances are common behavioral symptoms of people with dementia and they can be distressing for both individuals and their carers. Due to their potential side effects, antipsychotic medications are recommended only for severe behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD). This study explores the prevalence, patterns, and associated factors with antipsychotic drug use among patients with dementia attending geriatric psychiatry services at Sultan Qaboos University Hospital (SQUH). Using a retrospective cross-sectional design, this study examines antipsychotic use among elderly patients aged 60 years or older with dementia who attended geriatric psychiatry services from January 2020 to December 2021. The following information was solicited: socio-demographic factors, type and severity of dementia, presence of co-morbid medical or mental illness, the psychotropic medications prescribed, the anti-psychotic medication use, duration of use, and the indication of use were solicited as well. A multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted.

Results

The total prevalence of anti-psychotic use among elderly patients with dementia was 56.6%, and among them, 59% were prescribed anti-psychotics for more than 2 years. Being female, having non-Alzheimer’s dementia, experiencing severe stages of dementia, and having other medical or mental co-morbid conditions were independent predictors of antipsychotic drug use (odds ratio [OR] =1.85, confidence interval [CI] =1.04–3.30; OR=2.77, C.I. 1.52–5.04; OR=4.47, C.I. 2.18–9.18; and OR=2.54, C.I. 1.11–5.78, respectively).

Conclusions

Antipsychotic medication use is prevalent among elderly patients with dementia in Oman. The results from this study will help the policymakers and psychiatrists in Oman to plan for the use of non-pharmacological strategies as the first line of management for BPSD.

Bipolar Disorder and Manic-Like Symptoms in Alzheimer's, Vascular and Frontotemporal Dementia: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

An increased risk of manic episodes has been reported in patients with neurodegenerative disorders, but the clinical features of bipolar disorder (BD) in different subtypes of dementia have not been thoroughly investigated.

OBJECTIVES

The main aim of this study is to systematically review clinical and therapeutic evidence about manic syndromes in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), vascular dementia (VaD), and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Since manic-mixed episodes have been associated to negative outcomes in patients with dementia and often require medical intervention, we also critically summarized selected studies with relevance for the treatment of mania in patients with cognitive decline.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines. PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were searched up to February 2022. Sixty-one articles on patients with AD, VaD, or FTD and BD or (hypo) mania have been included.

RESULTS

Manic symptoms seem to be associated to disease progression in AD, have a greatly variable temporal relationship with cognitive decline in VaD, and frequently coincide with or precede cognitive impairment in FTD. Overall, mood stabilizers, and electroconvulsive therapy may be the most effective treatments, while the benefits of short-term treatment with antipsychotic agents must be balanced with the associated risks. Importantly, low-dose lithium salts may exert neuroprotective activity in patients with AD.

CONCLUSION

Prevalence, course, and characteristics of manic syndromes in patients with dementia may be differentially affected by the nature of the underlying neurodegenerative conditions.

Antipsychotic prescription patterns and associated factors among the elderly with psychiatric illnesses

Prescribing rate of antipsychotics in elderly patients with psychiatric illnesses has been increasing all over the world. However, there is a lack of research examining the use of antipsychotics at psychiatric hospitals. We aim to find out long-term trends in antipsychotic prescriptions and factors associated with the use of antipsychotics in the elderly population. All outpatient visits with patients aged over 65 years between 2006 and 2015 in a psychiatric hospital were included in the analysis. Demographic and clinical data, including patient age, sex, National Health Insurance status, psychiatric diagnosis and antipsychotic prescription, were retrieved through the electronic medical information system. In this study, we found that prescribing rate of antipsychotics has increased around 5.07% through the study period (from 57.25% in 2006 to 60.15% in 2015, P < 0.001). Among all antipsychotics, there was an increase in the use of second-generation antipsychotics with a simultaneous decline in the use of first-generation antipsychotics. Logistic regression analysis showed advanced age, female gender and certification for catastrophic illnesses were positively associated with the use of antipsychotics. Furthermore, patients most likely to be prescribed an antipsychotic were those with psychotic disorders, followed by dementia, and then affective or neurotic disorders. The results of this study were consistent with the worldwide trend of increasing prescriptions of second-generation antipsychotics among elderly patients with psychiatric illnesses. Despite the potential benefits of these medications on certain psychiatric symptoms, clinicians need to exercise due caution as they may also cause potentially serious side effects among the elderly population.

Medications use among women with dementia: a cohort study

BACKGROUND

Older population with dementia use huge range of medications. In this study, we aimed to determine the prevalence of commonly used medications a year before and after first recorded dementia diagnosis among older Australian women.

METHODS

The study utilized Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health (ALSWH) data from 2090 women with known dementia, linked with administrative health datasets. The Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) data provided detailed information about prescribed medications. We applied latent class analysis (LCA) to the post-dementia data to identify patterns of medication use. Logistic regression model was used to explore the impact of potential predictors for medication utilization.

RESULTS

Antipsychotic use increased from 5% before dementia to 19% after dementia, while antidementia medication use increased from < 1 to 28%. There was a modest increase in benzodiazepines and antidepressants. Post-dementia, four distinct groups were identified using LCA (names based on probabilities of medications use) as: "High Psychotropic-Low Cardiovascular" (16% of the sample); "Moderate Psychotropic-High Cardiovascular" (12%); "Low Psychotropic-High Cardiovascular" (27%); and "Low Psychotropic-Low Cardiovascular" (45%). Living in Residential Aged Care (RAC) and frailty were associated with increased odds of being in the higher psychotropic use groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Substantial utilization of psychotropic medications by older people with dementia indicates a need for a careful review of the use of these medications. Appropriate alternative approaches to the management of dementia should be practiced with a special focus on RAC residents with frailty.

Quality of Care and Outcomes Among a Diverse Group of Long-Term Care Residents With Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias

ObjectivesThis article assessed whether disparities among ADRD Medicare beneficiaries existed in five different long-stay quality measures. Methods: We linked individual-level data and facility-level characteristics. The main quality outcomes included whether residents: 1) were assessed/appropriately given the seasonal influenza vaccine; 2) received an antipsychotic medication; 3) experienced one/more falls with major injury; 4) were physically restrained; and 5) lost too much weight. Results: In 2016, there were 1,005,781 Medicare Advantage and fee-for-service long-term residents. About 78% were White, 13% Black, 2% Asian/Pacific Islander (Asian/PI), 6% Hispanic, and 0.4% American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN). Whites reported higher use of antipsychotic medications along with Hispanics and AI/AN (28%, 28%, and 27%, respectively). Similarly, Whites and AIs/ANs reported having one/more falls compared to the other groups (9% and 8%, respectively). Discussion: Efforts to understand disparities in access and quality of care among American Indians/Alaska Natives are needed, especially post-pandemic.

Potentially Inappropriate Prescriptions of Antipsychotics for Patients With Dementia

Dementias are neurodegenerative and progressive diseases of the central nervous system. The objective of this study was to determine the frequency of potentially inappropriate prescriptions of antipsychotics in a group of patients diagnosed with dementia in Colombia. This was a cross-sectional study based on a population database for drug dispensing that identified prescriptions of antidementia drugs, antipsychotics, and other drugs for patients with a diagnosis of dementia. Descriptive statistics and bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed. A total of 11,372 patients with dementia were identified; 66.6% were women, and the mean age was 80.5 ± 9.6 years. Alzheimer's disease was the most frequent diagnosis (76.6%). A total of 69.0% of patients received antidementia drugs. A total of 37.1% of patients received some antipsychotic, especially atypical antipsychotics (31.0%). Increased age, being treated with memantine, simultaneously presenting with anxiety, depression, and psychotic disorders, and concomitantly receiving anticonvulsants, bronchodilators and benzodiazepines were associated with a greater probability of being prescribed antipsychotics. More than one-third of patients with dementia received antipsychotic prescriptions, which are considered potentially inappropriate because they can worsen cognitive decline and favor the occurrence of adverse events.

Antimuscarinic Cascade Across Individual Cholinesterase Inhibitors in Older Adults with Dementia

BACKGROUND

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs) have been associated with an increased risk of starting antimuscarinic treatment to treat overactive bladder (OAB)-an example of a prescribing cascade. Limited comparative data exist regarding the prescribing cascade of antimuscarinics across individual AChEIs in older adults with dementia.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the association between individual AChEI use and antimuscarinic cascade in older adults with dementia.

METHODS

We conducted a new user retrospective cohort study from January 2005 to December 2018 using data from the TriNetX electronic medical record database, a federated electronic medical records network in the US. The cohort included patients 65 years or older with a diagnosis of dementia using AChEIs (donepezil, galantamine, or rivastigmine). Individual AChEIs were identified with index dates from 1 January 2006 to 31 June 2018, with a 1-year washout period. The study excluded patients with any antimuscarinic use and OAB diagnosis 1 year before the AChEI index date. The primary outcome of interest was the prescription of antimuscarinics within 6 months of the AChEI index date. A Cox proportional hazard model was used to assess the association between individual incident AChEI use and antimuscarinic prescribing cascade after controlling for several covariates.

RESULTS

The study included 47,059 older adults with dementia who were incident users of AChEIs. Most of these patients were initiated with donepezil (83.1%), followed by rivastigmine (12.3%) and galantamine (4.6%). Overall, 8.16% of the study cohort had incident OAB diagnosis or antimuscarinic prescription. Antimuscarinics were initiated by 1725 (3.7%) older adults with dementia within 6 months of AChEI prescription, and cascade varied widely across individual agents-donepezil (3.9%), rivastigmine (2.6%), and galantamine (2.9%). Cox proportional hazard analyses revealed that donepezil users had an increased risk of receiving antimuscarinics (adjusted hazard ratio 1.55, 95% confidence interval 1.31-1.83) compared with rivastigmine. The findings were consistent in sensitivity analyses.

CONCLUSION

This study found that donepezil use is more likely to lead to antimuscarinic cascade than rivastigmine. Future studies are needed to determine the potential consequences of this cascade in dementia.

Potentially inappropriate medicines for older adults with intellectual disability: Clinical implications from a medication audit

OBJECTIVE

To investigate medications that have the potential to be inappropriately prescribed for people with intellectual disability (ID) and to explore possible issues surrounding the potential harm that can result from the use of groups of medicines for people with ID who are ageing and living longer.

METHODS

An audit of medical case records of 350 patients under the care of an organisation in New Zealand was undertaken to examine existing medication profiles.

RESULTS

Of the 350 patients, 95% were prescribed at least five or more medicines, with 7% of patients have 10 or more medicines. Increasing prescriptions are evident for those 56 years old and above.

CONCLUSIONS

Medicines that may have been appropriate for people with intellectual disability when they were younger may have the potential to cause harm when they age. It is therefore important that monitoring and evaluation of medications for ageing individuals with intellectual disability are regularly undertaken.

Sex Differences in Antipsychotic and Benzodiazepine Prescribing Patterns: A Cohort Study of Newly Admitted Nursing Home Residents with Dementia in Ontario, Canada

BACKGROUND

In nursing homes, residents with dementia frequently receive potentially inappropriate medications that are associated with an increased risk of adverse events. Despite known sex differences in clinical presentation and sociodemographic characteristics among persons with dementia, few studies have examined sex differences in patterns and predictors of potentially inappropriate medication use.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study were to examine sex differences in the patterns of antipsychotic and benzodiazepine use in the 180 days following admission to a nursing home, estimate clinical and sociodemographic predictors of antipsychotic and benzodiazepine use in male and female residents, and explore the effects of modification by sex on the predictors of using these drug therapies.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of 35,169 adults aged 66 years and older with dementia who were newly admitted to nursing homes in Ontario, Canada between 2011 and 2014. Health administrative databases were linked to detailed clinical assessment data collected using the Resident Assessment Instrument (RAI-MDS 2.0). Cox proportional hazards models were adjusted for clinical and sociodemographic covariates to estimate the rate of antipsychotic and benzodiazepine initiation and discontinuation in the 180 days following nursing home admission in the total sample and stratified by sex. Sex-covariate interaction terms were used to assess whether sex modified the association between covariates and the rate of drug therapy initiation or discontinuation following nursing home entry.

RESULTS

Across 638 nursing homes, our analytical sample included 22,847 females and 12,322 males. At admission, male residents were more likely to be prevalent antipsychotic users than female residents (33.8% vs 28.3%; p < 0.001), and female residents were more likely to be prevalent benzodiazepine users than male residents (17.2% vs 15.3%, p < 0.001). In adjusted models, female residents were less likely to initiate an antipsychotic after admission (hazard ratio [HR] 0.79, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.73-0.86); however, no sex difference was observed in the rate of benzodiazepine initiation (HR 1.04, 95% CI 0.96-1.12). Female residents were less likely than males to discontinue antipsychotics (HR 0.89, 95% CI 0.81-0.98) and benzodiazepines (HR 0.82, 95% CI 0.75-0.89). Sex modified the association between some covariates and the rate of changes in drug use (e.g., widowed males exhibited an increased rate of antipsychotic discontinuation (p-interaction = 0.03) compared with married males), but these associations were not statistically significant among females. Sex did not modify the effect of frailty on the rates of initiation and discontinuation.

CONCLUSIONS

Males and females with dementia differed in their exposure to antipsychotics and benzodiazepines at nursing home admission and their patterns of use following admission. A greater understanding of factors driving sex differences in potentially inappropriate medication use may help tailor interventions to reduce exposure in this vulnerable population.

Antipsychotic use and risk of life-threatening medical events: umbrella review of observational studies

OBJECTIVE

To quantify the risk of hip fracture, thromboembolism, stroke, myocardial infarction, pneumonia and sudden cardiac death associated with exposure to antipsychotics.

METHODS

Systematic searches were conducted in Medline, Embase and PsycINFO from inception until 30/07/2018 for systematic reviews of observational studies. AMSTAR-2 was used for the quality assessment of systematic reviews, while the strength of associations was measured using GRADE and quantitative umbrella review criteria (URC).

RESULTS

Sixty-eight observational studies from six systematic reviews were included. The association between antipsychotic exposure and pneumonia was the strongest [URC = class I; GRADE = low quality; odds ratio (OR) = 1.84, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.62-2.09; participants = 28 726; age = 76.2 ± 12.3 years], followed by the association with hip fracture (URC = class II; GRADE = low quality; OR = 1.57, 95% CI = 1.42-1.74; participants = 5 288 118; age = 55.4 ± 12.5 years), and thromboembolism (URC = class II; GRADE = very low quality; OR = 1.55, 95% CI = 1.31-1.83; participants = 31 417 175; age = 55.5 ± 3.2 years). The association was weak for stroke (URC = class III; GRADE = very low quality; OR = 1.45, 95% CI = 1.24-1.70; participants = 65 700; age = 68.7 ± 13.8 years), sudden cardiac death (URC = class III; GRADE = very low quality; OR = 2.24, 95% CI = 1.45-3.46; participants = 77 488; age = 52.2 ± 6.2 years) and myocardial infarction (URC = class III; GRADE = very low quality; OR = 2.21, 95% CI = 1.41-3.46; participants = 399 868; age = 74.1 ± 9.3 years).

CONCLUSION

The most robust results were found for the risk of pneumonia, followed by the risk of hip fracture and thromboembolism. For stroke, sudden cardiac death and myocardial infarction, the strength of association was weak. The observational nature of the primary studies may represent a source of bias.

Trends in the prescribing of antipsychotic medicines in Pakistan: implications for the future

Introduction and objectives: There is a paucity of antipsychotic prescribing and utilization data in Pakistan that needs addressing, especially with issues of availability, affordability, gender differences, and domestic violence, to develop pertinent strategies. The objective of this study was to address these issues by describing current antipsychotic utilization patterns in Pakistan among adult patients attending tertiary care hospitals and private practitioners.Methods: A three staged approach was used including (1) assessment of total antipsychotic utilization, expenditure, and costs per unit between 2010 and 2015, (2) an in-depth retrospective study of prescribing patterns, including co-morbidities among representative hospital patients in Pakistan, and (3) assessment of the quality of prescribing against WHO targets.Results: Total use of antipsychotics increased 4.3-fold and the cost/unit increased by 13.2% during the study period. Risperidone and olanzapine were the most prescribed antipsychotics with more limited use of other typical and atypical antipsychotics. The number of medicines per encounter was 4.56. Prescription using generic instead of brand names was 21.4%. Seven per cent were prescribed more than one antipsychotic concurrently.Conclusion: There has been an appreciable increase in antipsychotic utilization in recent years in Pakistan, especially atypical antipsychotics, with little polypharmacy. Ongoing utilization of typical antipsychotics may be due to comorbidities such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Issues of international non-proprietary name prescribing need investigating along with the high number of medicines per encounter and gender inequality.

What Factors Predict Falls in Older Adults Living in Nursing Homes: A Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

In community-dwelling older adults, slow gait speed is linked to falls; however, little is known about the use of gait speed to predict falls in nursing home residents. The prevalence of risk factors for falls in nursing home residents is multifactorial.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between falls and multiple factors such as age, sex, gait speed, mobility device, fear of falling, cognitive function, medication, and environmental causes in a nursing home setting.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Participants were recruited from a nursing home. Independent variables such as age, sex, gait speed for 40 feet, use of a mobility device, fear of falls, cognitive function, medication, and environmental causes of falls were measured and recorded. The dependent variable was falls. Participants were followed-up for a period of six months for falls. Falls were documented from the computerized medical records at the facility.

RESULTS

Five of the 16 participants had falls in the follow-up period. Exact logistic regression, bivariate analysis, showed no significant relationship between falls and the independent variables of age, sex, gait speed, mobility device, fear of falls, cognitive function, and medication. More than 30% of recorded falls had an environmental cause, which was significant at p = 0.0005.

CONCLUSION

Environmental causes had a significant relationship with falls in nursing home participants. Environment hazard monitoring is therefore important to ensure the safety of nursing home residents.

An observational study of antipsychotic medication use among long-stay nursing home residents without qualifying diagnoses

WHAT IS KNOWN ON THE SUBJECT?: In the United States, 15.5% of nursing home residents without qualifying diagnoses of schizophrenia, Huntington's' Disease, and/or Tourette Syndrome receive antipsychotic medications. Antipsychotic medications are used off-label (i.e., used in a manner the United States Food and Drug Administration's packaging insert does not specify) to treat neuropsychiatric symptoms, often before attempting nonpharmacologic interventions, despite evidence that this drug class is associated with significant adverse events including death. Less than optimal staffing resources and lack of access to geropsychiatric specialists are barriers to reducing antipsychotic use. WHAT THE PAPER ADDS TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE?: Antipsychotic use occurred in 11.6% of nursing home residents without qualifying or potentially qualifying diagnoses (bipolar disorder and psychotic disorder); antipsychotic use was more prevalent in residents with a dementia diagnosis than those without. One additional registered nurse hour per resident day could reduce the odds of antipsychotic use by 52% and 56% for residents with and without a dementia diagnosis respectively. WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE?: Given the influence of total staffing and professional staff mix on risk of antipsychotic use, nursing home administrators may want to consider aspects of facility operation that impact antipsychotic use. More stringent Unites States' survey and certification standards for dementia care implemented in 2017 demand proactive person-centered care that promotes maximal well-being and functioning without risk of harm from inappropriate psychoactive medications. Mental health nurses have requisite training to provide expert person-centered care to nursing home residents with mental illness and geropsychiatric disorders.

ABSTRACT

Introduction Antipsychotic use in nursing homes varies widely across the United States; inadequate staffing, skill mix, and geropsychiatric training impede sustained improvement. Aim This study identified risk factors of antipsychotic use in long-stay residents lacking qualifying or potentially qualifying diagnoses. Method This secondary analysis used 2015 Minimum Data Set and cost report data from 458 Missouri nursing homes. The full sample (N = 29,679) was split into two subsamples: residents with (N = 15,114) and without (N = 14,565) a dementia diagnosis. Separate logistic regression models were run. Results Almost 15% of the dementia subsample and 8.4% of the nondementia subsample received an antipsychotic medication in the past week. Post-traumatic stress disorder, psychosis indicators, behavioral symptoms, anxiety medication with and without anxiety diagnosis, depression medication with and without depression diagnosis, and nurse staffing were among the strongest predictors of antipsychotic use in both subsamples. Simulation analyses showed decreased odds of receiving an antipsychotic in both subsamples when registered nurse hours matched the national average. Discussion Matching nurse staffing mix to the national average may improve antipsychotic use in nursing homes. Implications Knowledge of antipsychotic use risk factors use can inform care planning and staff education to minimize use of these medications in all but severe cases.

Age-dependent determinants of antipsychotic use among newly admitted residents of skilled nursing facilities: A population-based study

OBJECTIVES

To assess factors related to antipsychotic (AP) use in skilled nursing facilities for newly admitted residents aged 18 to 49, 50 to 64, 65 to 84, and 85 years or older.

METHODS

Retrospective, population-level, Minimum Data Set (MDS) 2.0 data from the United States during the year of 2009 were used. Over 1 million residents were included. Fourteen clinically relevant variables were identified through a literature search. Antipsychotic use was defined as APs dispensed daily for the prior 7 days. Logistic regression was used to identify clinically relevant variables, which were then ranked based on magnitude of their association with APs.

RESULTS

Bipolar disorder and schizophrenia were consistently related to AP use across age groups. For older age groups, off-label indications such as cognitive impairment, dementia, behavioral symptoms, and physical restraint use were more closely related to AP use, while delusions and hallucinations decreased in strength. Higher proportions of APs were found in all diseases and symptoms in nonelderly adults, with the exception of physical restraint use. Concurrent physical restraint and AP use was highest for older adults aged 65 to 84 at 36%.

CONCLUSIONS

Correlates of AP use varied by age, with stronger associations between on-label conditions and AP use among younger adults and off-label conditions among older adults. Several less conventional determinants, namely, Parkinson disease, traumatic brain injury, and the use of physical restraints were identified to increase the likelihood of AP use. This study highlights the importance of monitoring for adverse effects for residents of all ages.

Psychotropic drug prescription for nursing home residents with dementia: prevalence and associations with non-resident-related factors

OBJECTIVES

To determine psychotropic drug prescription rates in nursing home residents with dementia and to identify associations with the so far understudied psychosocial non-resident-related factors.

METHOD

A cross-sectional, observational, exploratory design as part of PROPER I (PRescription Optimization of Psychotropic drugs in Elderly nuRsing home patients with dementia). Participants were 559 nursing home residents with dementia, 25 physicians, and 112 nurses in the Netherlands. Psychotropic drug prescription, non-resident-related and known resident-related variables were measured to operationalize the themes of our previous qualitative analysis.

RESULTS

Fifty-six percent of residents were prescribed any psychotropic drug, 25% antipsychotics, 29% antidepressants, 15% anxiolytics, and 13% hypnotics, with large differences between the units. Multivariate multilevel regression analyses revealed that antipsychotic prescription was less likely with higher physicians' availability (odds ratio 0.96, 95% confidence interval 0.93-1.00) and that antidepressant prescription was more likely with higher satisfaction of nurses on resident contact (odds ratio 1.50, 95% confidence interval 1.00-2.25). Resident-related factors explained 6%-15% of the variance, resident- and non-resident-related factors together 8%-17%.

CONCLUSION

Prescription rates for antipsychotics are similar compared to other countries, and relatively low for antidepressants, anxiolytics, and hypnotics. Our findings indicate that improvement of prescribing could provisionally best be targeted at resident-related factors.

Antipsychotic treatment of community-dwelling and institutionalised patients with dementia in Germany

OBJECTIVE

A restrictive use of antipsychotic drugs in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) is recommended due to an increased risk of cerebrovascular events and mortality. We hypothesise that the prescription of antipsychotics is associated with the patients' socio-demographic and clinical status (e.g., dementia severity).

METHODS

The prescription of antipsychotics was cross-sectionally evaluated in 272 community-dwelling and 123 institutionalised patients with AD across all severity stages of dementia. The patients' clinical characteristics covered the cognitive status, neuropsychiatric symptoms, daily activities, and quality of life (HrQoL). To determine associations with the use of antipsychotics bivariate and logistic regression analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

Totally, 25% of the patients were treated with antipsychotics. significantly less frequently than nursing home inhabitants (15.1% vs. 45.5%). Severely demented patients (MMSE 0-9) received antipsychotics most often (51.5%). Additionally, multiple regression analyses revealed a higher chance of prescription for participants with depressive symptoms (OR 2.3, 95% CI: 1.019-5.160) and those treated by neuropsychiatric specialists (OR 3.4, 95% CI: 1.408-8.328).

CONCLUSIONS

Further longitudinal studies are required to assess the appropriateness of indications for antipsychotics and the reasons for a higher use in nursing home inhabitants and patients with severe dementia and depression.

Polimedication: applicability of a computer tool to reduce polypharmacy in nursing homes

ABSTRACTBackground:The risks of polypharmacy can be far greater than the benefits, especially in the elderly. Comorbidity makes polypharmacy very prevalent in this population; thus, increasing the occurrence of adverse effects. To solve this problem, the most common strategy is to use lists of potentially inappropriate medications. However, this strategy is time consuming.

METHODS

In order to minimize the expenditure of time, our group devised a pilot computer tool (Polimedication) that automatically processes lists of medication providing the corresponding Screening Tool of Older Persons' potentially inappropriate Prescriptions alerts and facilitating standardized reports. The drug lists for 115 residents in Santa Marta Nursing Home (Fundación San Rosendo, Ourense, Spain) were processed.

RESULTS

The program detected 10.04 alerts/patient, of which 74.29% were not repeated. After reviewing these alerts, 12.12% of the total (1.30 alerts/patient) were considered relevant. The largest number of alerts (41.48%) involved neuroleptic drugs. Finally, the patient's family physician or psychiatrist accepted the alert and made medication changes in 62.86% of the relevant alerts. The largest number of changes (38.64%) also involved neuroleptic drugs. The mean time spent in the generation and review of the warnings was 6.26 minute/patient. Total changes represented a saving of 32.77 € per resident/year in medication.

CONCLUSIONS

The application of Polimedication tool detected a high proportion of potentially inappropriate prescriptions in institutionalized elderly patients. The use of the computerized tool achieved significant savings in pharmaceutical expenditure, as well as a reduction in the time taken for medication review.

Findings From a Prospective Randomized Controlled Trial of an Individualized Music Listening Program for Persons With Dementia

Music & Memory (M&M) is a passive music intervention that uses personalized music playlists delivered on digital music players. This program has been increasingly adopted in nursing homes across the United States to facilitate communication, engagement, and socialization among persons with dementia (PWDs); however, few studies have evaluated the program's effect on PWDs' outcomes. In the present study, a randomized controlled crossover design was used to examine the impact of the M&M program on 59 PWDs in 10 nursing homes over a 14-week period. Residents' evaluated outcomes included agitation, behavioral symptoms, and use of psychotropic medications. Although trends supported the positive effects of M&M, no statistically significant differences were found in any of the outcomes measured over time. Methodological limitations withstanding, these findings call into question the effectiveness of the M&M program and the ability of facility staff to implement this intervention with fidelity.

Investigation of the synergistic effects of haloperidol combined with Calculus Bovis Sativus in treating MK-801-induced schizophrenia in rats

Clinical studies that focused on treating schizophrenia showed that Calculus Bovis Sativus (CBS), a substitute of Calculus Bovis, when used in combination with haloperidol could significantly lower the dosage of haloperidol compared with treatment with haloperidol alone, whereas efficacy was maintained. The aim of this study was to investigate the synergetic anti-schizophrenia effects in rats using CBS in combination with haloperidol. An open field test was conducted to verify the pharmacodynamic effects of a combination treatment of CBS and haloperidol on MK-801-induced schizophrenic rats. Rat plasma concentrations of intragastric haloperidol and intravenous haloperidol were determined after oral administration of a single dose or 1-week of pretreatment with CBS (50 mg/kg). The pharmacodynamic data showed a significant decrease in locomotor activity and an increase in the percentage of the central distance when haloperidol was concomitantly administered with CBS compared with haloperidol administration alone. The AUC0-∞ and Cmax of haloperidol in the orally coadministered groups were significantly higher compared with the oral treatment with haloperidol alone. In conclusion, oral coadministration of CBS with haloperidol resulted in a synergistic effect in rats. The enhanced oral bioavailability of haloperidol when combined with CBS might be attributed to the interaction between them.

Factors associated with appropriate psychotropic drug prescription in nursing home patients with severe dementia

ABSTRACTBackground:We studied the patient and non-patients factors of inappropriate psychotropic drug (PD) prescription for neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) in nursing home patients with severe dementia.

METHODS

In a cross-sectional study, the appropriateness of prescriptions was explored using the Appropriate Psychotropic drug use In Dementia (APID) index sum score. This index assesses information from medical records on indication, evaluation, dosage, drug-drug interactions, drug-disease interactions, duplications, and therapy duration. Various measurements were carried out to identify the possible patient and non-patient factors. Linear multilevel regression analysis was used to identify factors that are associated with APID index sum scores. Analyses were performed for groups of PDs separately, i.e. antipsychotics, antidepressants, anxiolytics, and hypnotics.

RESULTS

The sample consisted of 338 patients with a PD prescription that used 147 antipsychotics, 167 antidepressants, 85 anxiolytics, and 76 hypnotics. It was found that older patients and more severe aggression, agitation, apathy, and depression were associated with more appropriate prescriptions. Additionally, less appropriate prescriptions were found to be associated with more severe anxiety, dementia diagnoses other than Alzheimer dementia, more physician time available per patient, more patients per physician, more years of experience of the physician, and higher nurse's workload.

CONCLUSIONS

The association of more pronounced NPS with more appropriate PD prescriptions implies that physicians should pay more attention to the appropriateness of PD prescriptions when NPS are less manifest. Non-patient-related factors are also associated with the appropriateness of PD prescriptions. However, especially considering that some of these findings are counter-intuitive, more research on the topic is recommended.

Does antipsychotic drug use increase the risk of long term mortality? A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

Antipsychotics (AP) are widely used to treat schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders. However, the association between the AP use and mortality risk is controversial. We searched PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, the Cochrane Library and four Chinese databases from inception to June 2016. All observational cohort or case–control studies reporting data on mortality outcomes in individuals exposed to AP drugs were included. This systematic review included 68 studies involving 4,812,370 participants. Sixty-seven studies reported confounding factors, the most common being age, sex, race, concomitant medications, and comorbidities. For all-cause mortality, current users of AP and conventional antipsychotics (CAP) had higher mortality risk than did non-AP users [AP users: RR, 1.50; 95% CI, 1.12 to 1.99; CAP users: RR, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.16 to 2.04]. However, the association between the current use of atypical antipsychotics (AAP) and the mortality was of borderline significance, and there was no significant difference for past users of AP. Mortality was higher in current CAP users than in current AAP users. For cardiac death and sudden death, current AP and CAP users also had higher mortality risk than non-AP users. A subgroup analysis showed a possible increased risk in patients with Parkinson’s, but not in those with dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, schizophrenia, delirium or stroke. An increased risk of all-cause mortality for patients ≧65 years may also exist. AP exposure is associated with an approximately 1.5-fold increased mortality risk. This increased risk may be particularly prominent in patients with Parkinson’s and those over 65 years old. Further studies are required to evaluate the mortality risk for individual AP drugs and diseases.

Antipsychotic Polypharmacy among Children and Young Adults in Office-Based or Hospital Outpatient Department Settings

The purpose of the study was three-fold: (1) to estimate the national trends in antipsychotic (AP) polypharmacy among 6- to 24-year-old patients in the U.S.; (2) to identify frequently used AP agents and mental disorder diagnoses related to AP polypharmacy; and (3) to assess the strength of association between AP polypharmacy and patient/provider characteristics. We used publicly available ambulatory health care datasets to evaluate AP polypharmacy in office-based or hospital outpatient department settings to conduct a cross-sectional study. First, national visit rates between 2007 and 2011 were estimated using sampling weights. Second, common diagnoses and drugs used in AP polypharmacy were identified. Third, a multivariate logistic regression model was developed to assess the strength of association between AP polypharmacy and patient and provider characteristics. Between 2007 and 2011, approximately 2% of office-based or hospital outpatient department visits made by 6- to 24-year-old patients included one or more AP prescriptions. Of these visits, 5% were classified as AP polypharmacy. The most common combination of AP polypharmacy was to use two or more second-generation APs. Also, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia were the two most frequent primary mental disorder diagnoses among AP polypharmacy visits. The factors associated with AP polypharmacy were: older age (young adults), black, having one or more non-AP prescriptions, and having schizophrenia or ADHD.

Clinical Update on Nursing Home Medicine: 2016

This is the tenth clinical update. It covers chronic kidney disease, dementia, hypotension, polypharmacy, rapid geriatric assessment, and transitional care.

Prevalence and Variability in Medications Contributing to Polypharmacy in Long-Term Care Facilities

Background

Research into which medications contribute to polypharmacy and the variability in these medications across long-term care facilities (LTCFs) has been minimal.

Objective

Our objective was to investigate which medications were more prevalent among residents with polypharmacy and to determine the variability in prescribing of these medications across LTCFs.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study of 27 LTCFs in regional and rural Victoria, Australia. An audit of the medication charts and medical records of 754 residents was performed in May 2015. Polypharmacy was defined as nine or more regular medications. Logistic regression was performed to determine the association between medications and resident characteristics with polypharmacy. Analyses were adjusted for age, sex and Charlson’s comorbidity index. Variability in the use of the ten most prevalent medication classes was explored using funnel plots. Characteristics of LTCFs with low (< 30%), moderate (30–49%) and high (≥ 50%) polypharmacy prevalence were compared.

Results

Polypharmacy was observed in 272 (36%) residents. In adjusted analyses, each of the top ten most prevalent medication classes, with the exception of antipsychotics, were associated with polypharmacy. Between 7 and 23% of LTCFs fell outside the 95% control limits for each of the ten most prevalent medications. LTCFs with ≥ 50% polypharmacy prevalence were predominately smaller.

Conclusion

Polypharmacy was associated with nine of the ten most prevalent medication classes. There was greater than fourfold variability in nine of the ten most prevalent medications across LTCFs. Further studies are needed to investigate the clinical appropriateness of the variability in polypharmacy.

Effects of age and gender on the serum levels of clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone, and quetiapine

OBJECTIVE

To investigate serum concentrations of second-generation antipsychotics in relation to age and gender in a population ranging from 18 to 100 years.

METHOD

Results from a routine therapeutic drug monitoring database were retrieved, and 43 079 samples from 11 968 patients were included (17 249 samples for clozapine, 16 171 samples for olanzapine, 5343 samples for risperidone, and 4316 samples for quetiapine). The dose-adjusted concentration was used as the primary target variable. A linear mixed model was used to allow the inclusion of multiple samples from each patient.

RESULTS

Age had a significant impact on the concentrations of all four drugs. At the age of 80, the dose-adjusted concentrations were up to twice those of the age of 40. At the age of 90, dose-adjusted concentrations were two- to three-fold higher. Age-related increases were largest for clozapine (+108% at 80 years; +197% at 90 years) and smallest for olanzapine (+28% at 80 years; +106% at 90 years). Females generally had dose-adjusted concentrations 20-30% higher than males.

CONCLUSION

The effect of age on the serum concentrations of the antipsychotics studied becomes pronounced with advanced age. The patient population aged above 70 should be subdivided according to exact age, and considerable dose reductions are recommended.

Antipsychotic Use in Dementia

Antipsychotics are necessary for many older adults to treat major mental illnesses or reduce distressing psychiatric symptoms. Current controversy exists over the role of antipsychotics in the management of neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) in persons with dementia. Although some NPS may be appropriately and safely treated with antipsychotics, a fine balance must be achieved between the benefits of these medications, which are often modest, and adverse events, which may have significant consequences. Approximately one-third of all persons with dementia are currently prescribed antipsychotic medications, and there is significant variation in the use of antipsychotics across care settings and providers. Reducing the inappropriate or unnecessary use of antipsychotics among persons with dementia has been the focus of increasing attention owing to better awareness of the potential problems associated with these medications. Several approaches can be used to curb the use of antipsychotics among persons with dementia, including policy or regulatory changes, public reporting, and educational outreach. Recently, there has been encouraging evidence of a downward trend in the use of antipsychotics in many long-term care settings, although prescribing rates are still higher than what is likely optimal. Although reducing the inappropriate use of antipsychotics is a complex task, psychiatrists can play an important role via the provision of clinical care and research evidence, contributing to improved care of persons with dementia in Canada and elsewhere.

Determinants of the nurses' and nursing assistants' request for antipsychotics for people with dementia

BACKGROUND

Although physicians are responsible for writing the antipsychotic prescriptions for patients with dementia, the initiative is often taken by nurses or nursing assistants. To reduce antipsychotics uses, one needs to understand the reasons for nurses and nursing assistants to request them. This study gives an overview of the influencing factors for this request based on the Theory of Planned Behavior in which attitude, beliefs, and behavioral control is thought to influence the intention to request, which in turn affects the behavior to request for a prescription.

METHODS

Eighty-one nurses and nursing assistants of one Dutch nursing home organization completed an online survey.

RESULTS

Nurses and nursing assistants frequently agreed on items related to the positive effects of antipsychotics for the resident and for the staff. Nurses and nursing assistants with a lower job satisfaction were more likely to call for antipsychotics. Having more positive beliefs about treatment effects and feel of being more in control toward asking for antipsychotics were positively associated with intention to call. All variables explained 59% of the variance of intention. The current position (nurse/nursing assistant) was associated with actual behavior to call. The explained variance was 25%.

CONCLUSIONS

Policy-makers should focus on the nurses' and nursing assistants' belief in positive effects of antipsychotics for the resident, which is not in line with available evidence. Nurses and nursing assistants should be educated about the limited effectiveness of antipsychotics.

The correlates of anxiety among older adults in nursing homes and other residential aged care facilities: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To synthesize and summarize the studies examining the correlates and predictors of anxiety in older adults living in residential aged care.

METHODS

Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, five electronic databases were searched using key terms and subject headings, as well as reference lists of relevant papers. The search was limited to peer-reviewed literature published in English. Eligible studies examined the association between at least one correlate/factor and anxiety disorders or symptoms in aged care residents aged 50+ years.

RESULTS

A total of 3741 articles were identified, of which 34 studies (with a total of 1 543 554 participants) were included in this review. Correlates associated with anxiety included pain, use of anti-depressants/lithium, depression, and lower perceived quality of life. Less consistent and/or less studied variables included younger age, female gender, higher educational level, functional dependence, subjective health status, more prescribed medications, impaired vision, insomnia, external locus of control, fear of falling, attachment, hope, meaning in life, and the influence of social, environmental, and staff/policy correlates.

CONCLUSIONS

While several variables were found to have strong associations with anxiety in aged care residents, a number of factors have been examined by only one or two studies. Further research (preferably prospective studies) is therefore needed to reliably confirm findings and to help plan and develop preventative and intervention strategies. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Who Hires Social Workers? Structural and Contextual Determinants of Social Service Staffing in Nursing Homes

Although nurse staffing has been extensively studied within nursing homes (NHs), social services has received less attention. The study describes how social service departments are organized in NHs and examines the structural characteristics of NHs and other macro-focused contextual factors that explain differences in social service staffing patterns using longitudinal national data (Certification and Survey Provider Enhanced Reports, 2009-2012). NHs have three patterns of staffing for social services, using qualified social workers (QSWs); paraprofessional social service staff; and interprofessional teams, consisting of both QSWs and paraprofessionals. Although most NHs employ a QSW (89 percent), nearly half provide social services through interprofessional teams, and 11 percent rely exclusively on paraprofessionals. Along with state and federal regulations that depend on facility size, other contextual and structural factors within NHs also influence staffing. NHs most likely to hire QSWs are large facilities in urban areas within a health care complex, owned by nonprofit organizations, with more payer mixes associated with more profitable reimbursement. QSWs are least likely to be hired in small facilities in rural areas. The influence of policy in supporting the professionalization of social service staff and the need for QSWs with expertise in gerontology, especially in rural NHs, are discussed.

Variation in use of antipsychotic medications in nursing homes in the United States: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The use of antipsychotic medications (APMs) in nursing home residents in the U.S. is an increasingly prominent issue and has been associated with increased risk of hospitalization, cardiovascular events, hip fractures, and mortality, among other adverse health events. The Food and Drug Administration has placed a black box warning on these drugs, specifying that they are not meant for residents with dementia, and has asked providers to review their treatment plans. The purpose of this systematic PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses)-based review was to summarize original research studies on facility level characteristics contributing to the use of antipsychotics in nursing homes across the United States, in order to investigate the variation of use.

METHODS

We searched Ovid Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, CINAHL, PsycInfo, and Sociological Abstracts. Articles were selected according to the following criteria: (1) Population of interest: older adults (≥60 years of age) residing in nursing homes (not home-based or inpatient hospital settings) in the U.S. (2) Receiving APMs, typical and/or atypical. Specifically excluded were studies of psychotropic medications such as antidepressants, benzodiazepines, anxiolytics, hypnotics, mood stabilizers, and stimulants. All study designs were considered, though reviews, editorials, letters to the editor and opinion pieces were excluded. An expert consultant panel was consulted to categorize facility characteristics into domains and determine possible etiologies of APM use based upon each characteristic.

RESULTS

Nineteen observational studies, both quantitative and qualitative, published from 2000 to 2015, met full inclusion criteria and were included in this review. APM use varied based on multiple facility characteristics across several domains: 1) physical, 2) staffing, 3) occupancy, 4) market, and 5) quality.

CONCLUSIONS

Variation in use of APMs in U.S. nursing homes based upon facility characteristics exemplifies the need for a more systematic protocol guiding the use of these medications, along with heightened regulatory policies and enforcement.

Polypharmacy and inappropriate medication use in patients with dementia: an underresearched problem

Multimorbidity and polypharmacy are increasingly prevalent across healthcare systems and settings as global demographic trends shift towards increased proportions of older people in populations. Numerous studies have demonstrated an association between polypharmacy and potentially inappropriate prescribing (PIP), and have reported high prevalence of PIP across settings of care in Europe and North America and, as a consequence, increased risk of adverse drug reactions, healthcare utilization, morbidity and mortality. These studies have not focused specifically on people with dementia, despite the high risk of adverse drug reactions and PIP in this patient cohort. This narrative review considers the evidence currently available in the area, including studies examining prevalence of PIP in older people with dementia, how appropriateness of prescribing is assessed, the medications most commonly implicated, the clinical consequences, and research priorities to optimize prescribing for this vulnerable patient group. Although there has been a considerable research effort to develop criteria to assess medication appropriateness in older people in recent years, the majority of tools do not focus on people with dementia. Of the limited number of tools available, most focus on the advanced stages of dementia in which life expectancy is limited. The development of tools to assess medication appropriateness in people with mild to moderate dementia or across the full spectrum of disease severity represents an important gap in the research literature and is beginning to attract research interest, with recent studies considering the medication regimen as a whole, or misprescribing, overprescribing or underprescribing of certain medications/medication classes, including anticholinergics, psychotropics, antibiotics and analgesics. Further work is required in development and validation of criteria to assess prescribing appropriateness in this vulnerable patient population, to determine prevalence of PIP in large cohorts of people with the full spectrum of dementia variants and severities, and to examine the impact of PIP on health outcomes.

Antipsychotic drug use and associations with neuropsychiatric symptoms in persons with impaired cognition: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) in cognitive disorders impair quality of life, increase caregiver stress, and may lead to earlier institutionalization and death. The objective of this study was to investigate the use of antipsychotics among persons with cognitive impairment in home care and residential care, and its associations with NPS and personal characteristics.

METHODS

Data were collected in the South Savo Hospital District area with 105 000 inhabitants, where 66 of 68 institutions providing long-term residential care and 20 of 21 municipal home care producers joined the study. Nurses recorded the current use of drugs, the activities of daily living (ADL), prevalence of diagnosed dementia, and assessed the cognitive status and the prevalence of recent NPS based on the item list of the Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI).

RESULTS

The study population was 1909 persons with cognitive impairment, and 1188 of them lived in residential care. Antipsychotics were used by 563 (29.5%) persons in the whole study population. In residential care 448 (37.7%) used antipsychotics and the corresponding figure in home care was 115 (15.9%). In the multivariate analysis, the antipsychotic use was associated with living in residential care, benzodiazepine use, and with NPS symptoms agitation/aggression (OR =1.70, 95% CI =1.16-2.48), disinhibition (OR =2.33, 95% CI =1.31-4.15), hallucinations (OR =2.77, 95% CI =1.69-4.55), and delusions (OR =1.71, 95% CI =1.01-2.91).

CONCLUSIONS

Antipsychotic use was common among persons with cognitive impairment. The results suggest that antipsychotics are commonly used to treat hyperactivity and psychotic symptoms, especially in residential care.

Predicting Off-Label Antipsychotic Medication Use in a Randomly Selected Nursing Home Sample Based on Resident and Facility Characteristics

Reducing off-label antipsychotic medication use for behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) in nursing home residents has been a centerpiece of government regulation, but without insight into utilization differences based on resident and facility characteristics. To examine whether resident and facility characteristics can predict off-label antipsychotic medication treatment for BPSD, residents prescribed antipsychotic medication (N = 216) from 17 Maryland nursing facilities were randomly selected. Based on physician diagnoses, 59.7% of participants were taking off-label antipsychotic medications for BPSD. Hierarchical logistic regression results suggest that dementia level (indicated by Brief Cognitive Assessment Tool scores) and age, but not facility characteristics, significantly predict greater likelihood of using off-label antipsychotic medications for BPSD. Having moderate-severe dementia was associated with more than a four-fold increase in off-label antipsychotic medication use for BPSD. Off-label use of antipsychotic medications for BPSD remains high, especially for older nursing home residents with more severe dementia, indicating that more targeted reduction approaches are needed. [Res Gerontol Nurs. 2016; 9(6):257-266.].

The impact of facility characteristics on the use of antipsychotic medications in nursing homes: a cross-sectional study

Background

Antipsychotic medications (APMs) are commonly prescribed in nursing homes (NHs) and their excessive use raises concerns about the quality of care. They are often seen as “chemical restraints”, and were shown to increase morbidity and mortality risks in NH residents. The objective of this study was to investigate the variability in prevalence in APM use in a sample of Israeli NHs and to examine the effect of facility characteristics on the use of APMs.

Methods

A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted in 2011 using data which were collected in a sample of NHs in the Tel Aviv district during the annual certification process. Prevalence of APMs was determined on the basis of all residents using antipsychotics on a regular basis. The association between facility characteristics and APM use was assessed by multivariate analysis.

Results

Forty-four NHs providing care for 2372 residents were investigated. The prevalence of APM use varied between facilities from 14.8 to 70.6 %, with an overall prevalence of 37.3 %. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that greater use of APMs was associated with for-profit facilities, facilities in which most of the residents were self-pay, the presence of a “mentally frail” unit, a medical director non-specialized in geriatrics, shortage of social workers and occupational therapists, presence of unsafe/non-fitting equipment or self-aids (e.g., unsafe bath/toilet seats, unsuitable height of tables) and shortage of recreational activities.

Conclusions

A wide variation in APM use was recorded in NHs in the Tel Aviv district. This variation was associated with facility characteristics that undermine quality of care. Application of APM use as a measure of quality in NHs and publicizing their utilization may decrease their overall use.

Antipsychotic Drug Use Is Not Associated With Long-Term Mortality Risk in Norwegian Nursing Home Patients

OBJECTIVES

To assess the long-term mortality risk associated with antipsychotic drug (AP) use in nursing homes.

DESIGN

A longitudinal study with 5 assessments over a 75-month follow-up period.

SETTING

A representative sample of nursing home patients in 4 Norwegian counties.

PARTICIPANTS

At baseline, 1163 patients were included. At the last follow-up, 98 patients were still alive.

MEASUREMENTS

Prevalent drug use at each assessment was registered. Level of dementia, neuropsychiatric symptoms, level of functioning, medical health, and use of restraints were recorded at each assessment. A Cox regression model with time-dependent psychotropic drug use as the main predictor was estimated and adjusted for confounders.

RESULTS

In unadjusted Cox regression, a lower mortality risk was associated with the use of other psychotropic drugs, but not APs, compared with nonusers. In the adjusted analysis, neither use of APs nor other psychiatric drugs was associated with increased mortality risk. Higher age, male gender, not being married, medical disease burden, lower level of functioning, more severe degree of dementia, and a higher number of drugs were all associated with increased mortality risk.

CONCLUSION

In this long-term study of nursing home patients, AP drug use was not associated with increased risk of mortality. This is in line with results from earlier studies of clinical samples, but contrasts with results from randomized controlled trials and registry-based studies. The findings should be interpreted with caution. Taking into account the modest benefit and high risk of adverse effects of AP drug use, nonpharmacological treatment remains the first-line treatment approach.

Assessing approaches and barriers to reduce antipsychotic drug use in Florida nursing homes

OBJECTIVES

Antipsychotic medications have been federally regulated since 1987, yet research suggests they continue to be used inappropriately to alleviate behavioral symptoms associated with dementia. In 2012, the Centers of Medicare and Medicaid launched a new initiative to reduce antipsychotic medication in nursing homes by 15% nationally. The aim of this study was to examine qualitative data to explore strategies that have been implemented, to assess which strategies are evidence-based, and to make recommendations to improve upon practices to reduce antipsychotic medication use.

METHOD

A convenience sample of 276 nursing home professional staff members were surveyed about these topics using open-ended questions.

RESULTS

Theme-based content analysis yielded three main themes. The themes related to changes in practice included the following: (1) increased review of resident behavior and antipsychotic medication regimens; (2) reduction in antipsychotic medications or dosage; and (3) increased use of nonpharmacological interventions. The main themes relevant to needed assistance included the following: (1) education; (2) clinical support; and (3) increased financial resources and reimbursement.

DISCUSSION

Overall findings indicate that the majority of facilities are actively responding to the initiative, but challenges remain in education, finding mental health support, and in reimbursement.

Dealing with behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia: a general overview

Dealing with the behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) is often complex. Given the controversy with regard to antipsychotics for behavioral problems in people with dementia, there has been a renewed emphasis on nonpharmacological interventions, with progress in the design of the relevant studies. Potential nonpharmacological interventions for BPSD are: cognitive training/stimulation, rehabilitative care, activities of daily living, music therapy, massage/touch, physical activity, education/training of professionals, and education and psychosocial support of informal caregivers. Use of antipsychotics in the management of BPSD is controversial due to limited efficacy and the risk of serious adverse effects, but credible alternatives remain scarce. The problem of chronic use of antipsychotics in nursing homes should be tackled. Discontinuation of antipsychotic medication in older individuals with BPSD appears to be feasible. Discontinuation efforts are needed to differentiate between patients for whom antipsychotics have no added value and patients for whom the benefits outweigh the risks.

Predictors of concomitant use of antipsychotics and stimulants and its impact on stimulant persistence in pediatric attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

BACKGROUND

Concomitant use of stimulants and atypical antipsychotics is common in pediatric attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, little is known about the determinants of concomitant use and its utility in the management of pediatric ADHD.

OBJECTIVES

To (a) examine predictors of concomitant stimulant and atypical antipsychotic use and (b) evaluate the impact of concomitant atypical antipsychotic use on the persistence of stimulants in children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD.

METHODS

The retrospective cohort study was conducted using 4 years (January 2004-December 2007) of IMS LifeLink claims data. The study population included children and adolescents aged 6-16 years with a diagnosis of ADHD and those who initiated long-acting stimulants (LAS) from July 2004 to December 2006. Patients were followed for 1 year after index stimulant use. Concomitant use was defined as the concurrent prescription for LAS and atypical antipsychotic agents with at least 14 days overlap after the index LAS claim. Persistence was measured by summing the total number of days a patient remained on the index LAS from the index prescription date with an allowable gap of no more than 30 days. Multiple logistic regression within the conceptual framework of the Andersen Behavioral Model was performed to determine the predictors of concomitant stimulant and atypical antipsychotic use. Multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression within the conceptual framework of the Andersen Behavioral Model was used to examine the impact of concomitant atypical antipsychotic use on persistence of stimulants.

RESULTS

The study cohort consisted of 39,981 children who initiated LAS treatment. Most (96.10%) received LAS monotherapy, and 3.90% received LAS and atypical antipsychotic concomitantly. The multiple logistic regression analysis found that gender, health insurance, region, year of cohort entry, season, physician specialty, coexisting mental health conditions, and general mental health status influenced the concomitant use of LAS and atypical antipsychotic agents. Bivariate analyses revealed that concomitant users had longer persistence (by 71 days) than the stimulant-alone users. Cox proportional hazards regression revealed that concomitant atypical antipsychotic was associated with improvement in LAS persistence by 15% (HR = 0.85, 95% CI = 0.76-0.94) in comparison with the LAS recipients who did not use atypical antipsychotic concomitantly. Other factors such as age, region, season, coexisting mental health conditions, use of comedications, and general mental health status influenced the LAS treatment persistence among children and adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

Various predisposing, enabling, and need factors were associated with the concomitant stimulant and atypical antipsychotic use. Concomitant use of atypical antipsychotics was associated with improved LAS treatment persistence in children and adolescents with ADHD.

Opportunities in pharmacogenomics for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

ABSTRACT 

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), approximately 10–20% of direct costs are associated with pharmacological treatment. Pharmacogenomics account for 30–90% variability in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Genes potentially involved in the pharmacogenomics outcome include pathogenic, mechanistic, metabolic, transporter and pleiotropic genes. Over 75% of the Caucasian population is defective for the CYP2D6+2C9+2C19 cluster. Polymorphic variants in the APOE-TOMM40 region influence AD pharmacogenomics. APOE-4 carriers are the worst responders and APOE-3 carriers are the best responders to conventional treatments. TOMM40 poly T-S/S carriers are the best responders, VL/VL and S/VL carriers are intermediate responders and L/L carriers are the worst responders. The haplotype 4/4-L/L is probably responsible for early onset of the disease, a faster cognitive decline and a poor response to different treatments.

A literature review of clinical outcomes associated with antipsychotic medication use in North American nursing home residents

The benefits and harms of antipsychotic medication (APM) use in nursing home residents need to be examined because, although commonly used, APMs are considered an off-label use by the Food and Drug Administration for residents with dementia and behavioral problems. The objective of this study was to provide a realist literature review, summarizing original research studies on the clinical effects of conventional and atypical APM use in nursing home residents. Searches of multiple databases identified 424 potentially relevant research articles, of which 25 met the inclusion criteria. Antipsychotic medication use in nursing home residents was found to have variable efficacy when used off-label with an increased risk of many adverse events, including mortality, hip fractures, thrombotic events, cardiovascular events and hospitalizations. Findings suggested certain APM dosing regimens (e.g. fixed-dose) and shorter duration of use might have fewer adverse events. Non-pharmacological interventions should still be considered the first-line treatment option for nursing home residents with dementia related behavioral disturbances, as more studies are needed to establish safer criteria for APM use in nursing homes residents.

Molecular imaging of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease

Neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) are very common in neurodegenerative diseases and are a major contributor to disability and caregiver burden. There is accumulating evidence that NPS may be a prodrome and/or a "risk factor" of neurodegenerative diseases. The medications used to treat these symptoms in younger patients are not very effective in patients with neurodegenerative disease and may have serious side effects. An understanding of the neurobiology of NPS is critical for the development of more effective intervention strategies. Targeting these symptoms may also have implications for prevention of cognitive or motor decline. Molecular brain imaging represents a bridge between basic and clinical observations and provides many opportunities for translation from animal models and human post-mortem studies to in vivo human studies. Molecular brain imaging studies in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are reviewed with a primary focus on positron emission tomography studies of NPS. Future directions for the field of molecular imaging in AD and PD to understand the neurobiology of NPS will be discussed.

Rationales that providers and family members cited for the use of antipsychotic medications in nursing home residents with dementia

OBJECTIVES

To describe the rationales that providers and family members cite for the use of antipsychotic medications in people with dementia living in nursing homes (NHs).

DESIGN

Qualitative, descriptive study.

SETTING

Twenty-six medium-sized and large facilities in five Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services regions.

PARTICIPANTS

Individuals diagnosed with dementia who received an antipsychotic medication.

MEASUREMENTS

Data were collected from medical record abstraction and interviews with prescribers, administrators, direct care providers, and family members. Textual data from medical record abstraction and responses to open-ended interview questions were analyzed using directed content analysis techniques. A coding scheme was developed, and coded reasons for antipsychotic prescribing were summarized across all sources.

RESULTS

Major categories of reasons for use of antipsychotic medications in the 204 NH residents in the study sample were behavioral (n = 171), psychiatric (n = 159), emotional states (n = 105), and cognitive diagnoses or symptoms (n = 114). The most common behavioral reasons identified were verbal (n = 91) and physical (n = 85) aggression. For the psychiatric category, psychosis (n = 95) was most frequently described. Anger (n = 93) and sadness (n = 20) were the most common emotional states cited.

CONCLUSION

The rationale for use of antipsychotic drug therapy frequently relates to a wide variety of indications for which these drugs are not approved and for which evidence of efficacy is lacking. These findings have implications for clinical practice and policy.