Prevalence of Diabetes and Diabetic Nephropathy in a Large U.S. Commercially Insured Pediatric Population, 2002-2013

Kidney Considerations in Pediatric Obesity

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a common condition and a major cause of morbidity and mortality in adults, but children and adolescents are also at risk for early kidney injury and development of CKD. Obesity contributes both directly and indirectly to the development of CKD. The purpose of this review is to describe obesity-related kidney disease (ORKD) and diabetic kidney disease (DKD) and their impact in the pediatric population.

RECENT FINDINGS

Although obesity-related CKD in childhood and adolescence is uncommon, nascent kidney damage may magnify the lifetime risk of CKD. Glomerular hyperfiltration is an early phenotype of both ORKD and DKD and typically manifests prior to albuminuria and progressive decline in GFR. Novel treatments for obesity and type 2 diabetes exerting protective effects on the kidneys are being investigated for use in the pediatric population. It is important to understand the impact of obesity on the kidneys more fully in the pediatric population to help detect injury earlier and intervene prior to the onset of irreversible progression of disease and to guide future research in this area.

Pediatric Type 1 Diabetes: Mechanisms and Impact of Technologies on Comorbidities and Life Expectancy

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is one of the most common chronic diseases in childhood, with a progressively increasing incidence. T1D management requires lifelong insulin treatment and ongoing health care support. The main goal of treatment is to maintain blood glucose levels as close to the physiological range as possible, particularly to avoid blood glucose fluctuations, which have been linked to morbidity and mortality in patients with T1D. Indeed, the guidelines of the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes (ISPAD) recommend a glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) level < 53 mmol/mol (<7.0%) for young people with T1D to avoid comorbidities. Moreover, diabetic disease strongly influences the quality of life of young patients who must undergo continuous monitoring of glycemic values and the administration of subcutaneous insulin. In recent decades, the development of automated insulin delivery (AID) systems improved the metabolic control and the quality of life of T1D patients. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) combined with continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) devices connected to smartphones represent a good therapeutic option, especially in young children. In this literature review, we revised the mechanisms of the currently available technologies for T1D in pediatric age and explored their effect on short- and long-term diabetes-related comorbidities, quality of life, and life expectation.

Do sex differences in paediatric type 1 diabetes care exist? A systematic review

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Sex differences are present in cardiovascular care and in outcomes among adults with type 1 diabetes mellitus, which typically commences in childhood. Whether sex influences care and outcomes in childhood is not known. This systematic review provides an overview of sex differences in children with type 1 diabetes, focusing on patient and disease characteristics, treatment, comorbidities and complications.

METHODS

Literature in MEDLINE up to 15 June 2021 was searched, using the terms diabetes mellitus, sex characteristics, sex distribution, children and/or adolescents. All primary outcome studies on children with type 1 diabetes that mentioned a sex difference in outcome were included, with the exception of qualitative studies, case reports or case series. Studies not pertaining to the regular clinical care process and on incidence or prevalence only were excluded. Articles reporting sex differences were identified and assessed on quality and risk of bias using Joanna Briggs Institute critical appraisal tools. Narrative synthesis and an adapted Harvest plot were used to summarise evidence by category.

RESULTS

A total of 8640 articles were identified, rendering 90 studies for review (n=643,217 individuals). Studies were of observational design and comprised cohort, cross-sectional and case-control studies. Most of the included studies showed a higher HbA_1c in young female children both at diagnosis (seven studies, n=22,089) and during treatment (20 out of 21 studies, n=144,613), as well as a steeper HbA_1c increase over time. Many studies observed a higher BMI (all ages, ten studies, n=89,700; adolescence, seven studies, n=33,153), a higher prevalence of being overweight or obese, and a higher prevalence of dyslipidaemia among the female sex. Hypoglycaemia and partial remission occurred more often in male participants, and ketoacidosis (at diagnosis, eight studies, n=3561) and hospitalisation was more often seen in female participants. Most of the findings showed that female participants used pump therapy more frequently (six studies, n=211,324) and needed higher insulin doses than male participants. Several comorbidities, such as thyroid disease and coeliac disease, appeared to be more common in female participants. All studies reported lower quality of life in female participants (15 studies, n=8722). Because the aim of this study was to identify sex differences, studies with neutral outcomes or minor differences may have been under-targeted. The observational designs of the included studies also limit conclusions on the causality between sex and clinical outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

Sex disparities were observed throughout diabetes care in children with type 1 diabetes. Several outcomes appear worse in young female children, especially during adolescence. Focus on the cause and treatment of these differences may provide opportunities for better outcomes.

REGISTRATION

This systematic review is registered in PROSPERO (CRD42020213640).

Diabetic kidney disease in pediatric patients: A current review

In the last decades, a significant increase in the incidence of diabetic kidney disease (DKD) was observed concomitant with rising diabetes mellitus (DM) incidence. Kidney disease associated with DM in children and adolescents is represented by persistent albuminuria, arterial hypertension, progressive decline in estimated glomerular filtration rate to end-stage renal disease and increased cardiovascular and all-cause morbidity and mortality of these conditions. In medical practice, the common and still the “gold standard” marker for prediction and detection of diabetic kidney involvement in pediatric diabetes is represented by microalbuminuria screening even if it has low specificity to detect early stages of DKD. There are some known limitations in albuminuria value as a predictor biomarker for DKD, as not all diabetic children with microalbuminuria or macroalbuminuria will develop end-stage renal disease. As tubular damage occurs before the glomerular injury, tubular biomarkers are superior to the glomerular ones. Therefore, they may serve for early detection of DKD in both type 1 DM and type 2 DM. Conventional and new biomarkers to identify diabetic children and adolescents at risk of renal complications at an early stage as well as renoprotective strategies are necessary to delay the progression of kidney disease to end-stage kidney disease. New biomarkers and therapeutic strategies are discussed as timely diagnosis and therapy are critical in the pediatric diabetic population.

Aspartate aminotransferase to alanine aminotransferase ratio and the risk of diabetic nephropathy progression in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A biopsy-based study

PURPOSE

To study the relationship between baseline serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) to alanine aminotransferase (ALT) ratio (AAR) in both clinicopathological features and renal outcome among type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients with biopsy-confirmed diabetic nephropathy (DN).

METHODS

As a retrospective cohort study, we included 253 patients with T2DM and biopsy-confirmed DN. For receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve showed that the optimal cut-off for AAR to predict end stage renal disease (ESRD) was 1.22. So, patients were divided into two groups according to their AAR at the time of renal biopsy: high AAR Group (those with AAR > 1.22); low AAR Group (those with AAR ≤1.22). Association between AAR and clinicopathological features as well as renal outcome were analyzed.

RESULTS

Patients with higher AAR presented elder, more hypertensive, more insulin use, higher serum cholesterol, more proteinuria and lower estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Compared with low AAR group, patients with high AAR had more severe glomerular pathological lesions and interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy. For prognostic analysis, high AAR Group was associated with a higher risk of progression to ESRD in univariate analysis. No matter treated with continuous or categorical variate, higher AAR remained an independent predictor for ESRD after adjusted for various confounding factors: gender, age, the duration of diabetes, serum glucose level, hypertension, serum lipid level, smoking, insulin use, eGFR and proteinuria.

CONCLUSION

High AAR was associated with more severe renal pathologic lesions and worse renal function in patients with T2DM and DN, which might be a novel noninvasive predictor for ESRD.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

To our knowledge, there was no biopsy-based cohort study. In our study, high AAR was associated with more severe renal pathologic lesions and worse renal function in patients with T2DM and DN, which might be a novel noninvasive predictor of ESRD for patients with DN.

Prevalence of nephropathy in Indian children and youth with type 1 diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVES

Children with type 1 diabetes (T1D) having diabetic nephropathy (DN) are at increased risk of developing end stage renal disease. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of DN and its predictors in Indian children and youth with T1D.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 319 children and youth (2.6-21 years) with T1D having disease duration of at least 2 years. Demographic data and laboratory findings were obtained using standard questionnaires and protocols. Diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy was based on albuminuria on two occasions within a period of 3 months.

RESULTS

The prevalence of DN in our study subjects was 13.4%. 7.5% subjects were known cases of diabetic nephropathy on treatment with enalapril. Hypertension was found in 14.3% subjects with DN in contrast to 4.1% without DN (p<0.05). Duration of diabetes and estimated glucose disposal rate were the important predictors of DN. Interestingly, of the 43 children with DN, 11.3% (n=8) were under 10 years age.

CONCLUSIONS

We found a high prevalence of DN in children and youth with T1D including in children under the age of 10 years. Early screening and timely intervention are required to retard the disease progression and avoid end stage renal disease.

Albuminuria screening in children with type 1 diabetes prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

Albuminuria is an important risk factor for adverse renal and cardiovascular outcomes in type 1 diabetes (T1D). We sought to describe: (1) adherence to albuminuria screening prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic and (2) occurrence of abnormal urine albumin-creatinine ratio (ACR) tests in children with T1D.

METHODS

This cohort study involved children aged 18 years or younger with T1D followed in the diabetes clinic at a pediatric tertiary center. Data was collected from 2016 to 2020. Adherence was defined by Diabetes Canada (DC) Guidelines for T1D in Children and Adolescents (2018).

RESULTS

Of the 165 children who met DC criteria for screening; 88 (32%) were male and the median age at diagnosis was 5.8 years. Twenty-eight (17%) children had not completed a single ACR test, and 30 (18%) completed all eligible ACR tests. Test completion decreased from 66% in 2019 to 45% in 2020. Of the 345 ACR tests completed, 40 (11%) were abnormal (>2.5 mg/mmol) and 29 abnormal ACR tests (72%) were not repeated.

CONCLUSION

Adherence to albuminuria screening in this pediatric diabetes clinic is suboptimal with deterioration during the COVID-19 pandemic. Patient/physician and program-level strategies to improve adherence will play an important role in quality improvement.

IMPACT

Albuminuria screening is an important part of pediatric diabetes care. In our study, pediatric albuminuria screening adherence was suboptimal at 66% in 2019 and deteriorated during the pandemic to 45% in 2020. Program and patient-level adherence to clinical guidelines and barriers to accessing diabetes care during the pandemic merit further study.

Serum α-KL, a potential early marker of diabetes complications in youth with T1D, is regulated by miRNA 192

Despite the wealth of information on biomarkers of diabetes complications in adults with type 1 diabetes, data in the pediatric population is limited. Diabetic nephropathy (DN), the leading cause of mortality in type 1 diabetes T1D), could be potentially missed in youth, as albuminuria, the current "gold" standard, may be transient and may not reflect permanent renal impairment. Soluble alpha KL has emerged as a potential marker of early diabetic nephropathy. Seventy-nine pediatric patients with type 1 diabetes meeting ISPAD criteria for nephropathy screening were consecutively recruited (90% Caucasian, 51% male, mean age 16.1 ± 3.1 years, duration of T1D 7.2 ± 3.9 years, 2-year average HbA1c 8.0 ± 1.3%, and serum and urine samples were collected for analysis. Serum Klotho (KL) and circulating miRNA levels of select miRNA involved in the pathogenesis of DN were estimated. KL had a strong inverse correlation with diabetes duration and HbA1c, two important risk factors in the development of diabetes complications. Serum miR-192 were negatively associated with KL among children with prolonged duration of diabetes (≥12 years) after adjustment for age and sex. In cell culture, overexpression of miR-192 significantly downregulated KL mRNA and protein levels, and reduced KL levels in the media. miR-192 mimic reduced luciferase activity in a reporter containing the KL 3' UTR (60% compared to controls, p<0.01), and the inhibitor rescued it. Deletion of a potential binding site for miR-192 in the KL 3'UTR completely abolished the effect of miR-192 in the reporter assay, suggesting that KL is a direct target gene of miR-192. Overexpression of miR-192 significantly increased oxidative stress (MDA) and expression of inflammatory and senescence markers IL-6 and p16. Inhibition of miR-192 significantly reduced levels of MDA, IL-6 and p16. In summary, we demonstrate an increase in miR-192 and a decrease in KL levels in children with prolonged duration of T1D. We demonstrate a novel role for miR-192 in directly regulating KL levels, and through that, senescence and oxidative stress, key pathological processes in the development of DN. miR-192 and/or KL levels are altered with severity and duration of diabetes and could serve as early biomarkers for DN.

Diabetic kidney disease in children and adolescents: an update

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD), previously encountered predominantly in adult patients, is rapidly gaining center stage as a childhood morbidity and one that pediatric nephrologists are likely to encounter with increasing frequency. This is in large part due to the obesity epidemic and the consequent rise in type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents, as well as the more aggressive diabetes phenotype in today's youth with more rapid β-cell decline and faster development and progression of diabetes-related complications along with lower responsiveness to the treatments used in adults. DKD, an end-organ complication of diabetes, is at the very least a marker of, and more likely a predisposing factor for, the development of adverse cardiovascular outcomes and premature mortality in children with diabetes. On an optimistic note, several new therapeutic approaches are now available for the management of diabetes in adults, such as GLP1 receptor agonists, SGLT2 inhibitors, and DPP4 inhibitors, that have also been shown to have a favorable impact on cardiorenal outcomes. Also promising is the success of very low-energy diets in inducing remission of diabetes in adults. However, the addition of these pharmacological and dietary approaches to the management toolbox of diabetes and DKD in children and adolescents awaits thorough assessment of their safety and efficacy in this population. This review outlines the scope of diabetes and DKD, and new developments that may favorably impact the management of children and young adults with diabetes and DKD.

Identifying Potential Diagnostic Genes for Diabetic Nephropathy Based on Hypoxia and Immune Status

Background

The prognosis of diabetic nephropathy is poor, and early diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy is challenging. Fortunately, searching for DN-specific markers based on machine algorithms can facilitate diagnosis.

Methods

xCell model and CIBERSORT algorithm were used to analyze the relationship between immune cells and DN, and WGCNA analysis was used to evaluate the regulatory relationship between hypoxia gene and DN-related immune cells. Lasso regression and ROC regression were used to detect the ability of core genes to diagnose DN, the PPI network of core genes with high diagnostic ability was constructed, and the interaction between core genes was discussed.

Results

There were 519 differentially expressed genes in renal tubules and 493 differentially expressed genes in glomeruli. Immune and hypoxia responses are involved in the regulation of renal glomerulus and renal tubules. We found that there are 16 hypoxia-related genes involved in the regulation of hypoxia response. Seventeen hypoxia-related genes in renal tubules are involved in regulating hypoxia response on the proteasome signal pathway. Lasso and ROC regression were used to screen anoxic core genes. Further, we found that TGFBR3, APOLD1, CPEB1, and KDR are important in diagnosing DN glomerulopathy, respectively, PSMB8, PSMB9, RHOA, VCAM1, and CDKN1B, which have high specificity for renal tubulopathy in DN.

Conclusion

Hypoxia and immune reactions are involved in the progression of DN. T cells are the central immune response cells. TGFBR3, APOLD1, CPEB1, and KDR have higher diagnostic accuracy in the diagnosis of DN. PSMB8, PSMB9, RHOA, VCAM1, and CDKN1B have higher diagnostic accuracy in DN diagnosis.

Emerging Roles of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells in Diabetes

Diabetes is a syndrome characterized by hyperglycemia with or without insulin resistance. Its etiology is attributed to the combined action of genes, environment and immune cells. Myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) is a heterogeneous population of immature cells with immunosuppressive ability. In recent years, different studies have debated the quantity, activity changes and roles of MDSC in the diabetic microenvironment. However, the emerging roles of MDSC have not been fully documented with regard to their interactions with diabetes. Here, the manifestations of MDSC and their subsets are reviewed with regard to the incidence of diabetes and diabetic complications. The possible drugs targeting MDSC are discussed with regard to their potential of treating diabetes. We believe that understanding MDSC will offer opportunities to explain pathological characteristics of different diabetes. MDSC also will be used for personalized immunotherapy of diabetes.

Concurrent Presentation of Diabetic Nephropathy and Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus in a Pediatric Patient

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the most consequential and longstanding microvascular complication of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and the most common cause for renal replacement therapy throughout the world. The most important risk factor for DN includes poor glycemic control. We present a rare case where biopsy-proven grade 3 DN had a concurrent presentation at the time of diagnosis of T1DM in a 12-year-old female child. This earlier than expected DN noted in this patient raises the question regarding the need for earlier surveillance for DN in children.

Trends in Prevalence of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents in the US, 2001-2017

IMPORTANCE

Changes in the prevalence of youth-onset diabetes have previously been observed.

OBJECTIVE

To estimate changes in prevalence of type 1 and type 2 diabetes in youths in the US from 2001 to 2017.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

In this cross-sectional observational study, individuals younger than 20 years with physician-diagnosed diabetes were enumerated from 6 areas in the US (4 geographic areas, 1 health plan, and select American Indian reservations) for 2001, 2009, and 2017.

EXPOSURES

Calendar year.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Estimated prevalence of physician-diagnosed type 1 and type 2 diabetes overall and by race and ethnicity, age, and sex.

RESULTS

Among youths 19 years or younger, 4958 of 3.35 million had type 1 diabetes in 2001, 6672 of 3.46 million had type 1 diabetes in 2009, and 7759 of 3.61 million had type 1 diabetes in 2017; among those aged 10 to 19 years, 588 of 1.73 million had type 2 diabetes in 2001, 814 of 1.85 million had type 2 diabetes in 2009, and 1230 of 1.85 million had type 2 diabetes in 2017. The estimated type 1 diabetes prevalence per 1000 youths for those 19 years or younger increased significantly from 1.48 (95% CI, 1.44-1.52) in 2001 to 1.93 (95% CI, 1.88-1.98) in 2009 to 2.15 (95% CI, 2.10-2.20) in 2017, an absolute increase of 0.67 per 1000 youths (95%, CI, 0.64-0.70) and a 45.1% (95% CI, 40.0%-50.4%) relative increase over 16 years. The greatest absolute increases were observed among non-Hispanic White (0.93 per 1000 youths [95% CI, 0.88-0.98]) and non-Hispanic Black (0.89 per 1000 youths [95% CI, 0.88-0.98]) youths. The estimated type 2 diabetes prevalence per 1000 youths aged 10 to 19 years increased significantly from 0.34 (95% CI, 0.31-0.37) in 2001 to 0.46 (95% CI, 0.43-0.49) in 2009 to 0.67 (95% CI, 0.63-0.70) in 2017, an absolute increase of 0.32 per 1000 youths (95% CI, 0.30-0.35) and a 95.3% (95% CI, 77.0%-115.4%) relative increase over 16 years. The greatest absolute increases were observed among non-Hispanic Black (0.85 per 1000 youths [95% CI, 0.74-0.97]) and Hispanic (0.57 per 1000 youths [95% CI, 0.51-0.64]) youths.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In 6 areas of the US from 2001 to 2017, the estimated prevalence of diabetes among children and adolescents increased for both type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

A Nomogram Model that Predicts the Risk of Diabetic Nephropathy in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients: A Retrospective Study

OBJECTIVE

To construct a novel nomogram model that predicts the risk of diabetic nephropathy (DN) incidence in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

METHODS

Questionnaire surveys, physical examinations, routine blood tests, and biochemical index evaluations were conducted on 1095 patients with T2DM from Guilin. A least absolute contraction selection operator (LASSO) regression and multivariable logistic regression analysis were used to screen out DN risk factors. A logistic regression analysis incorporating the screened risk factors was used to establish a predictive nomogram model. The performance of the nomogram model was evaluated using the C-index, an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), calibration plots, and a decision curve analysis. Bootstrapping was applied for internal validation.

RESULTS

Independent predictors for DN incidence risk included gender, age, hypertension, medicine use, duration of diabetes, body mass index, blood urea nitrogen level, serum creatinine level, neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio, and red blood cell distribution width. The nomogram model exhibited moderate prediction ability with a C-index of 0.819 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.783-0.853) and an AUC of 0.813 (95%CI: 0.778-0.848). The C-index from internal validation reached 0.796 (95%CI: 0.763-0.829). The decision curve analysis displayed that the DN risk nomogram was clinically applicable when the risk threshold was between 1 and 83%.

CONCLUSION

Our novel and simple nomogram containing 10 factors may be useful in predicting DN incidence risk in T2DM patients.

Quantifying the difference in risk of adverse events by induction treatment regimen in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia

The differences in overall morbidity by induction treatment regimen for pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) are unknown. We examined a cohort of children with ALL who received induction chemotherapy between January 2010 and May 2018. We evaluated 20 clinically relevant adverse events (AEs) and readmission and ICU admission rates. Outcomes were compared between standard 3- and 4-drug treatment regimens in multivariate analyses using Cox proportional hazard ratios. Among 486 eligible patients, the risks of sepsis (HR = 2.16, 95% CI = 1.11-4.19), hypoxia (HR = 2.08, 95% CI = 1.03-4.18), hyperbilirubinemia (HR = 2.48, 95% CI = 1.07-5.74), hyperglycemia (HR = 2.65, 95% CI = 1.29-5.42), thromboembolic event (HR = 4.50, 95% CI = 1.30-15.6), and hyponatremia (HR = 7.88, 95% CI = 1.26-49.4) were significantly higher during 4-drug induction. Despite no differences in readmission or ICU admission rates, 4-drug induction patients had greater total inpatient days (12 vs. 4 days; p<.0001). In conclusion, pediatric patients receiving 4-drug induction for ALL experience higher morbidity. These results inform care practices and patient guidance during induction therapy.

Impact of chronic kidney disease definition on assessment of its incidence and risk factors in patients with newly diagnosed type 1 and type 2 diabetes in the UK: A cohort study using primary care data from the United Kingdom

AIM

To estimate the incidence and risk factors of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in patients with newly-diagnosed diabetes using different CKD definitions.

METHODS

Using UK primary care data, patients with diabetes (type 1, 4691; type 2, 109,365) and no CKD were followed to identify newly-diagnosed CKD, classified by a broad and narrow CKD definition (to capture diabetes-induced CKD, termed diabetic kidney disease, DKD). Adjusted incidence rates of CKD/DKD were calculated, and risk factors identified using Cox regression.

RESULTS

There were 404 CKD cases and 147 DKD cases among patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D), and 29,104 CKD cases, 9284 DKD cases among patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Adjusted incidence rates of CKD per 100 years were 5.4 (T1D) and 5.5 (T2D); for DKD they were 1.9 and 1.5, respectively. Risk factors for CKD/DKD were older age, high social deprivation, obesity, cardiovascular disease, hypertension and smoking. Poor glycaemic control in the year after diabetes diagnosis was a strong predictor of CKD/DKD occurrence beyond this first year, and a risk factor for CKD/DKD in T2D.

CONCLUSIONS

CKD and DKD remain common in diabetics in the decade after diagnosis. Early prevention of T2D and aggressive treatment of risk factors is urgent.

Young-onset type 2 diabetes mellitus - implications for morbidity and mortality

Accumulating data suggest that type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in younger people (aged <40 years), referred to as young-onset T2DM, has a more rapid deterioration of β-cell function than is seen in later-onset T2DM. Furthermore, individuals with young-onset T2DM seem to have a higher risk of complications than those with type 1 diabetes mellitus. As the number of younger adults with T2DM increases, young-onset T2DM is predicted to become a more frequent feature of the broader diabetes mellitus population in both developing and developed nations, particularly in certain ethnicities. However, the magnitude of excess risk of premature death and incident complications remains incompletely understood; likewise, the potential reasons for this excess risk are unclear. Here, we review the evidence pertaining to young-onset T2DM and its current and future burden of disease in terms of incidence and prevalence in both developed and developing nations. In addition, we highlight the associations of young-onset T2DM with premature mortality and morbidity.

Prevalence of Vitamin D Deficiency in Children with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

Background

In the recent years, controversy has emerged regarding the relationship between vitamin D deficiency and the potential effects it could have on glycemic control in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D). This study investigates the prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency/deficiency in pediatric patients with T1D from a single, large volume practice.

Methods

This was a retrospective chart review that collected clinical/demographic data as well as serum 25(OH) D levels from medical records of 395 children between the ages of 3 and 18 years with T1D followed at Nemours Children’s Hospital. This data was compared to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) database. A Pearson’s Chi-square test was used between group associations. All statistical tests were two-sided and p < 0.05 was used for statistical significance.

Results

Of the 395 children included in these analyses, 4% were vitamin D deficient and 60% were vitamin D insufficient. There were no significant associations of vitamin D deficiency based on sex and age. Vitamin D deficiency was more common among White children when compared to Hispanic children and African American children (42% vs 29%; p < 0.001). Of those that were vitamin D insufficient (n = 235), most were Hispanic (51%), 36% White and 13% African American. There was a significant association between vitamin D deficiency and body mass index (BMI) (p = 0.035). In the summer, children were less likely to be vitamin D deficient (3% vs 6% in winter) and less likely to be vitamin D insufficient (55% vs 71% in winter) (p = 0.007).

Conclusions

Vitamin D insufficiency is highly prevalent among pediatric type 1 diabetics of Central Florida and statistically significant correlation was found between vitamin D status and ethnicity, BMI as well as seasonal variation.

Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rates Calculated by New and Old Equations in Children and Adolescents With Type 1 Diabetes-What to Do With the Results?

Background: To apply and evaluate various equations for estimated glomerular filtration rates (eGFR) in a large paediatric type 1 diabetes population and compare the eGFR values with urinary creatinine clearances (UCC) in a subset of patients. Methods: Six eGFR formulae applicable for children and adolescents were used for calculation of eGFR values in 36,782 children/adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Via regression models, factors influencing eGFR values were identified. eGFR values were compared with measured UCC in 549 patients. Spearman correlation coefficients were given to assess the relation of eGFR and UCC values. Bland-Altman-Plots with corresponding linear regression were drawn to evaluate the agreement between eGFR and UCC. Results: eGFR values differed widely depending on the formula used, resulting in a percentage of pathological values <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 up to 8%. Regression models showed age, sex, and duration of diabetes as influencing factors. Microalbuminuria was associated with significantly higher eGFR values for all formulae. In comparison of eGFR with UCC, the highest correlation coefficient was 0.33, the lowest 0.01. Bland-Altman-Plots demonstrated graphically a poor agreement between eGFR and UCC, regardless of the formula used. Conclusions: The broad range of eGFR values indicate that an ideal eGFR formula for children and adolescence with T1D is yet missing. The minimal agreement between measured UCC and eGFR values urges us to be careful in application and interpretation of eGFR values regardless of the formula used.

Standard Puerarin Prevents Diabetic Renal Damage by Inhibiting miRNA-140-5p Expression

AIM

This study was designed to use in vivo and in vitro approaches to evaluate puerarin in diabetes-induced renal injury.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SD rats were divided into NC (normal control), Model (diabetic induced renal injury model), SP-L (model rats treated with low-dose standard puerarin), SP-M (model rats treated with middle-dose standard puerarin), and SP-H (model rats treated with high-dose standard puerarin) groups. We evaluated fasting blood-glucose (FBG), urinary albumin/creatinine ratio (UACR), body weight, and kidney index (KI) in the different groups. TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 concentrations were measured using Elisa assays. HE staining and TUNEL assays were used to evaluate pathology and apoptosis in kidney tissues, respectively. Relative gene and protein expression was measured using RT-qPCR and Western blot assays. Apoptosis was measured using flow cytometry. The correlation between miRNA-145-5p and TLR4 was assessed using dual-luciferase reporter gene assays.

RESULTS

The pathology and apoptosis cell number were deteriorate in Model group; TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 concentrations, FGB, UACR and KI were increased and body weight was depressed; meanwhile, relative gene and proteins expressions (miRNA-145-5p, TLR4, MyD88 and NF-κB p65) were significantly different in Model group in vivo and vitro study compared with NC group. SP treatment significantly improved the pathology and apoptosis levels in the tissues, as well as TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 concentrations, FGB, UACR, body weight, and KI. In vitro cell studies revealed that SP could prevent renal injury induced by diabetes through the miRNA-145-5p/TLR4 axis.

CONCLUSION

SP prevents diabetes-induced renal damage via miRNA-145-5p overexpression and reduces TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB (p65) pathway activation in vitro and in vivo.

Circulating Expression Level of LncRNA Malat1 in Diabetic Kidney Disease Patients and Its Clinical Significance

BACKGROUND

Long noncoding RNA MALAT1 is closely related to diabetes and kidney diseases and is expected to be a new target for the diagnosis and treatment of diabetic nephropathy.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to explore the circulating expression level and significance of lncRNA Malat1 in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and diabetic kidney disease (DKD).

METHODS

Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) was conducted to assess the expression of lncRNA Malat1 in 20 T2DM patients, 27 DKD patients, and 14 healthy controls, and then, the clinical significance was analyzed.

RESULTS

LncRNA MALAT1 expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) was significantly upregulated in T2DM and DKD groups when compared to control. Pearson's correlation analysis showed correlation of lncRNA MALAT1 levels with ACR, urine β2-microglobulin (β2-MG), urine α1-microglobulin (α1-MG), creatinine (Cr), and glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), while negative with superoxide dismutase (SOD) (r = -0.388, P < 0.05). Binary regression analysis showed that ACR, creatinine, α1-MG, and LncRNA Malat1 were the risk factors for diabetic nephropathy with OR value of 1.166, 1.031, 1.031, and 2.019 (P < 0.05). The area under ROC curve (AUC) of DKD identified by the above indicators was 0.914, 0.643, 0.807, and 0.797, respectively. The AUC of Joint prediction probability of DKD recognition was 0.914, and the sensitivity and specificity of DKD diagnosis were 1.0 and 0.806, respectively. (Take ≥0.251 as the diagnostic cutoff point).

CONCLUSION

LncRNA Malat1 is highly expressed in DKD patients, and the combined detection of ACR, creatinine, α1-MG, and LncRNA Malat1 with diabetes mellitus may be the best way to diagnose diabetic nephropathy.

Exacerbation of Type 1 Diabetes in Perinatally Genistein Exposed Female Non-Obese Diabetic (NOD) Mouse Is Associated With Alterations of Gut Microbiota and Immune Homeostasis

Despite various hypothesized benefits of dietary isoflavone genistein (GEN) from soy-based products, many questions surrounding GEN's immunotoxic effects, especially during perinatal exposure, have yet to be answered. The objective of the study was to determine if there existed a sex-specific effect of GEN on type 1 diabetes (T1D) following perinatal exposure. We exposed offspring of non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice to GEN per oral at a physiological dose (20 mg/kg body weight) from embryonic day 7 to postnatal day (PND) 21. In female offspring, perinatal GEN dosing significantly increased the incidence of T1D at early time points, and the exacerbation was associated with decreased serum levels of interleukin (IL)-10, IgG2a, and IgM. In male offspring dosed with GEN, a decrease in serum IgG1 was also observed. Flow cytometric analysis in females suggested an increased pro-inflammatory splenic CD5+CD24- and CD4-CD8+ cell counts, while both %T cells and %CD4+ T cells were significantly decreased in males, suggesting an anti-inflammatory effect. Gut microbiota (GMB) analysis indicated that fecal microbiota from PND 90 female offspring exhibited an increased level of Enterobacteriales (suggesting a pro-inflammatory response), while the similar changes were not found in PND 30 females. Moreover, RNA sequencing showed that intestinal α-defensin expression was down-regulated in GEN-treated females, supporting a pro-inflammatory response. However, perinatal GEN administration perturbed GMB toward an anti-inflammatory response in PND 90 males. Taken together, a strong sex-specific effect was found in the perinatal GEN exposure window, and the T1D exacerbation in NOD females was associated with GMB-related immunomodulatory mechanisms.

Prevalence of type 1 and type 2 diabetes among US pediatric population in the MarketScan Multi-State Database, 2002 to 2016

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the prevalence of type 1 (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) among U.S. Medicaid pediatric population aged <18 years 2002 to 2016 by age, sex, and race/ethnicity.

METHODS

Participants aged <18 years old from 2002 to 2016 were identified from the MarketScan Multi-State Medicaid Database. Diabetes was defined as having (a) ≥1 claims for an outpatient or inpatient diabetes diagnosis and ≥2 prescriptions for any anti-diabetes medications or (b) records of ≥2 claims for an outpatient or inpatient diabetes diagnosis that were at least 30 days apart. Annual prevalence of diabetes and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. Age-, sex-, and race-stratified prevalence were also assessed.

RESULTS

The annual prevalence of T1DM increased from 1.29 to 2.34/1000 pediatric persons from 2002 to 2016. The prevalence of T2DM rose from 0.70 in 2002 to 2.76/1000 in 2011, but then dropped to 2.12/1000 pediatric persons in 2016 in the Medicaid population. Prevalence of both T1DM and T2DM increased with age. While the prevalence of T1DM was similar in both sexes, and was most prevalent in Whites, prevalence of T2DM was higher in girls and was most prevalent in Blacks.

CONCLUSIONS

While the annual prevalence of T1DM in pediatric persons enrolled in Medicaid increased continuously from 2002 to 2016, the annual prevalence of T2DM increased from 2002 to 2011, with a subsequent decrease in 2016, possibly because of the increase of relatively healthier participants with the expanded eligibility through the ACA between 2011 and 2016.

Relationship between fasting plasma glucose and incidence of diabetes in children and adolescents

AIM

To investigate the appropriate fasting plasma glucose threshold by which to define prediabetes in children and adolescents, based on its ability to predict incident paediatric diabetes.

METHODS

In a nationwide survey of diabetes and renal disease conducted between 1992 and 2000 in all school-aged children in Taiwan, those with abnormal results in repeated urine tests received further physical examination and blood tests. Students who had blood tests for at least two time points were selected for the present study (N = 12 119). The incidence of paediatric diabetes, adjusted hazard ratio and predictive power of fasting plasma glucose were analysed.

RESULTS

The incidence of paediatric diabetes increased with increasing fasting plasma glucose levels. Groups with fasting plasma glucose >5.6 mmol/l had a higher adjusted hazard ratio. The adjusted hazard ratio of incident diabetes for participants with higher fasting plasma glucose rose continuously when using a higher threshold for fasting plasma glucose. The area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve for fasting plasma glucose was 0.628 for predicting paediatric diabetes. The association between fasting plasma glucose and incident paediatric diabetes and the area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve were similar in boys and girls and were higher in the age group 12-18 years. According to receiver-operating characteristic curve analysis, the optimal thresholds, sensitivity and specificity were 4.75 mmol/l, 65% and 51%, respectively, for those aged 6-11 years and 5.19 mmol/l, 60% and 73%, respectively, for those aged 12-18 years.

CONCLUSION

Fasting plasma glucose is associated with the incidence of paediatric diabetes. The results of the present study can be used as reference data to suggest a cut-off value to define paediatric prediabetes.

Contact lens wear and the diabetic corneal epithelium: A happy or disastrous marriage?

Diabetes mellitus is an epidemic in the US and abroad. With the advent of new contact lens technology, the use of contact lenses as glucose sensors in lieu of the traditional finger stick is quickly becoming realized. This has the potential to rapidly expand the contact lens market into this growing patient population. The independent cellular and physiological effects of contact lens wear and diabetes on the corneal epithelium have been described. However, little evidence exists to date to support whether there is increased risk associated with contact lens wear in diabetes. The focus of this review is to discuss what is known about the cellular effects of contact lenses on the corneal epithelium, the pathophysiological changes in the corneal epithelium that occur in diabetes, and whether an increased risk for corneal epithelial damage and/or infection may negatively impact safety in diabetic contact lens wearers. Available data indicates that there are inherent risks associated with contact lens wear in diabetics. Importantly, eye care practitioners fitting contact lenses in the diabetic patient need to carefully consider the duration of disease, the level of glycemic control, the presence of retinopathy, and the patient's overall health.

A review of urinary angiotensin converting enzyme 2 in diabetes and diabetic nephropathy

Urinary angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is significantly increased in diabetes and diabetic nephropathy. While studies on its clinical significance are still underway, its urinary expression, association with metabolic and renal parameters has been in the recent past considerably studied. The recent studies have demystified urine ACE2 in many ways and suggested the roles it could play in the management of diabetic nephropathy. In all studies the expression of urinary ACE2 was determined by enzyme activity assay and/with the quantification of ACE2 protein and mRNA by methods whose reliability are yet to be evaluated. This review summarizes recent findings on expression of urinary ACE2, examines its relationship with clinical parameters and highlights possible applications in management of diabetic nephropathy.

Patchwork of contrasting medication cultures across the USA

Health in the United States is markedly heterogeneous, with large disparities in disease incidence, treatment choices and health spending. Drug prescription is one major component of health care-reflecting the accuracy of diagnosis, the adherence to evidence-based guidelines, susceptibility to drug marketing and regulatory factors. Using medical claims data covering nearly half of the USA population, we have developed and validated a framework to compare prescription rates of 600 popular drugs in 2334 counties. Our approach uncovers geographically separated sub-Americas, where patients receive treatment for different diseases, and where physicians choose different drugs for the same disease. The geographical variation suggests influences of racial composition, state-level health care laws and wealth. Some regions consistently prefer more expensive drugs, even when they have not been proven more efficacious than cheaper alternatives. Our study underlines the benefit of aggregating massive information on medical practice into a summarized and actionable form.

Urine markers of podocyte dysfunction: a review of podocalyxin and nephrin in selected glomerular diseases

Urinary podocalyxin and nephrin are urine markers of podocyte dysfunction that may reflect the integrity of kidney's filtration barrier. Studies on their respective roles in glomerular diseases are still underway. However, the isolated and unsystematic manner in which they are being studied does not permit proper identification of their roles in each glomerular disease. As such, there is little or no appreciation of what research has already achieved and what remains to be achieved as the research direction is not clearly defined. We explored the recent studies and outlined the major findings regarding the value of both biomarkers in each of the three glomerular disease entities. Our review covered diabetic nephropathy, membranous nephropathy and IgA nephropathy.

Working people with type 1 diabetes in the Finnish population

Background

The incidence of type 1 diabetes is increasing worldwide. Since so little is known about work life of individuals with type 1 diabetes, we examined incidence and prevalence trends of type 1 diabetes among working-aged Finns. We also investigated the employment rate and how workers with type 1 diabetes perceive their health and work ability, and their intended retirement age.

Methods

We analyzed changes in the incidence, prevalence, and employment rate using nationwide multi-register-based FinDM data, and estimated a Self-Rated Health, Work Ability Score, and inquired about retirement intentions of 767 working individuals with type 1 diabetes in a cross-sectional survey. All estimates were compared to the corresponding data of the Finnish general population.

Results

The average annual age-standardized incidence rate of type 1 diabetes among men aged 18–39 was 29 per 100,000/year; the incidence rate has increased by 33% from 1992 to 2007. Among women, the incidence remained at 16 per 100,000/year. Among working-aged (18–64) people, the age-standardized prevalence of type 1 diabetes increased by 39% among women and 33% among men. Two out of every three working aged individuals with type 1 diabetes were in the labor force; this is about 10% lower than in the Finnish population. The average age-standardized employment rate among those individuals with type 1 diabetes belonging to the labor force was 82%, compared to 84% in the general population. Working individuals with type 1 diabetes rated their health and work ability as being slightly lower than the general working population, but nonetheless, there were no significant differences in retirement intentions.

Conclusions

Between 1992 and 2007, the number of working-aged people and workers with type 1 diabetes increased by 35%. Most workers with type 1 diabetes manage as well at work as the general population. Special attention should be paid to workers with type 1 diabetes when they are diagnosed and/or report moderate or poor work ability.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-017-4723-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Serum 1,5-anhydroglucitol when used with fasting plasma glucose improves the efficiency of diabetes screening in a Chinese population

Serum 1,5-anhydroglucitol (1,5-AG) levels can not only accurately reflect the mean blood glucose over the previous 1–2 weeks in diabetic patients but also offers the advantage of representing postprandial glucose. To evaluate the clinical significance of 1,5-AG in diabetes detection, especially when used in combination with fasting plasma glucose (FPG), a total of 3098 participants at high risk for diabetes (1467 men, 1631 women) were enrolled. A total of 1471 (47.5%) participants were diagnosed with diabetes, and the mean 1,5-AG level in the diabetic group was significantly lower than that in non-diabetic group [12.5 (7.8–17.5) μg/mL vs. 20.5 (15.3–26.4) μg/mL, P < 0.001]. The optimal cut-off point was 15.9 μg/mL, for which the sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve (AUC) were 69.2%, 72.3%, and 0.781, respectively. For the combination of FPG and 1,5-AG, the sensitivity, specificity, and AUC improved to 82.5%, 83.5%, and 0.912, respectively. This method helped 75.8% of the participants avoid an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), reducing the need to carry out the OGTT by 43.9% compared to the use of the FPG criterion only. In conclusion, the addition of FPG to serum 1,5-AG improves the efficiency of diabetes screening in the Chinese population.

Zebrafish as a Model for the Study of Microvascular Complications of Diabetes and Their Mechanisms

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a crucial metabolic disease that leads to severe disorders. These include macrovascular complications such as myocardial infarction, stroke, and peripheral artery disease and microvascular complications including diabetic nephropathy, neuropathy, and retinopathy. Diabetes mellitus, along with its associated organ pathologies, is one of the key problems in today's medicine. Zebrafish is an upcoming disease model organism in diabetes research. Its glucose metabolism and the pathways of reactive metabolite formation are very similar to those of humans. Moreover, several physiological and pathophysiological pathways that also exist in humans and other mammals have been identified in this species or are currently under intense investigation. Zebrafish offer sophisticated imaging techniques and allow simple and fast genetic and pharmacological approaches with a high throughput. In this review, we highlight achievements and mechanisms concerning microvascular complications discovered in zebrafish, and we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of zebrafish as a model for studying diabetic complications.

Incidence of complications in young-onset diabetes: Comparing type 2 with type 1 (the young diab study)

BACKGROUND

There is little data on the incidence of diabetes complications in young onset type 1 diabetes (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes (T2DM) in non European populations.

METHODS

From a tertiary diabetes centre, Chennai, India, we recruited 108 T1DM (defined by abrupt onset of symptoms or diabetic ketoacidosis, absent insulin reserve requiring insulin treatment) and 90 T2DM participants (defined by absence of ketosis, good beta-cell reserve, and good response to oral agents) who were diagnosed between the ages of 10 and 25years, and without any evidence of diabetes complications at diagnosis. We estimated the incidence of various complications (median follow up of five years); retinopathy was defined by presence of at least one definite microaneurysm by retinal photography, nephropathy by urinary albumin excretion ⩾30μg/mg of creatinine, neuropathy by vibration perception threshold ⩾20V on biothesiometry, peripheral vascular disease by an ankle-brachial index <0.9, and ischemic heart disease (IHD) by history of myocardial infarction or coronary revascularization or Q waves on ECG or on drug treatment for IHD.

RESULTS

The mean ages at diagnosis of T1DM and T2DM participants were 17.1±4.2vs. 21.6±3.6years respectively. The incidence of various complications reported in numbers/1000 person years of follow up of T1DM and T2DM were: retinopathy 77.4vs. 78.0/1000 person years, nephropathy, 62.0vs. 58.8, neuropathy 7.8 vs. 13.9 and ischemic heart disease 1.2vs. 5.4. In Cox regression analysis, after adjustment for age, glycated hemoglobin, systolic blood pressure and serum cholesterol, T2DM participants had 2.11 times (95%CI: 1.27-3.51) higher risk of developing any diabetes complication, compared to T1DM.

CONCLUSIONS

Young-onset T2DM have a more aggressive disease course than T1DM.

ELMO1 protects renal structure and ultrafiltration in kidney development and under diabetic conditions

Engulfment and cell motility 1 (ELMO1) functions as a guanine exchange factor for Rac1 and was recently found to protect endothelial cells from apoptosis. Genome wide association studies suggest that polymorphisms within human elmo1 act as a potential contributing factor for the development of diabetic nephropathy. Yet, the function of ELMO1 with respect to the glomerulus and how this protein contributes to renal pathology was unknown. Thus, this study aimed to identify the role played by ELMO1 in renal development in zebrafish, under hyperglycaemic conditions, and in diabetic nephropathy patients. In zebrafish, hyperglycaemia did not alter renal ELMO1 expression. However, hyperglycaemia leads to pathophysiological and functional alterations within the pronephros, which could be rescued via ELMO1 overexpression. Zebrafish ELMO1 crispants exhibited a renal pathophysiology due to increased apoptosis which could be rescued by the inhibition of apoptosis. In human samples, immunohistochemical staining of ELMO1 in nondiabetic, diabetic and polycystic kidneys localized ELMO1 in glomerular podocytes and in the tubules. However, ELMO1 was not specifically or distinctly regulated under either one of the disease conditions. Collectively, these results highlight ELMO1 as an important factor for glomerular protection and renal cell survival via decreasing apoptosis, especially under diabetic conditions.