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Dodlek Šarkanj I, Vahčić N, Markov K, Haramija J, Uršulin-Trstenjak N, Hajdek K, Sulyok M, Krska R, Šarkanj B. First Report on Mycotoxin Contamination of Hops ( Humulus lupulus L.). Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:293. [PMID: 39057933 PMCID: PMC11281705 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16070293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The presence of mycotoxins and other toxic metabolites in hops (Humulus lupulus L.) was assessed for the first time. In total, 62 hop samples were sampled in craft breweries, and analyzed by a multi-toxin LS-MS/MS method. The study collected samples from craft breweries in all of the Croatian counties and statistically compared the results. Based on previous reports on Alternaria spp. and Fusarium spp. contamination of hops, the study confirmed the contamination of hops with these toxins. Alternaria toxins, particularly tenuazonic acid, were found in all tested samples, while Fusarium toxins, including deoxynivalenol, were present in 98% of samples. However, no Aspergillus or Penicillium metabolites were detected, indicating proper storage conditions. In addition to the Alternaria and Fusarium toxins, abscisic acid, a drought stress indicator in hops, was also detected, as well as several unspecific metabolites. The findings suggest the need for monitoring, risk assessment, and potential regulation of Alternaria and Fusarium toxins in hops to ensure the safety of hop usage in the brewing and pharmaceutical industries. Also, four local wild varieties were tested, with similar results to the commercial varieties for toxin contamination, but the statistically significant regional differences in toxin occurrence highlight the importance and need for targeted monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Dodlek Šarkanj
- Department of Food Technology, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000 Koprivnica, Croatia; (I.D.Š.); (N.U.-T.)
| | - Nada Vahčić
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (N.V.); (K.M.)
| | - Ksenija Markov
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (N.V.); (K.M.)
| | - Josip Haramija
- Koprivnica Branch, State Inspectorate, Florijanski trg 18, HR-48000, Koprivnica, Croatia;
| | - Natalija Uršulin-Trstenjak
- Department of Food Technology, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000 Koprivnica, Croatia; (I.D.Š.); (N.U.-T.)
| | - Krunoslav Hajdek
- Department of Packaging, Recycling and Environmental Protection, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000 Koprivnica, Croatia;
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, AT-3430 Tulln, Austria; (M.S.); (R.K.)
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, AT-3430 Tulln, Austria; (M.S.); (R.K.)
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK
| | - Bojan Šarkanj
- Department of Food Technology, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000 Koprivnica, Croatia; (I.D.Š.); (N.U.-T.)
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Lemmink IB, Straub LV, Bovee TFH, Mulder PPJ, Zuilhof H, Salentijn GI, Righetti L. Recent advances and challenges in the analysis of natural toxins. ADVANCES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH 2024; 110:67-144. [PMID: 38906592 DOI: 10.1016/bs.afnr.2024.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
Natural toxins (NTs) are poisonous secondary metabolites produced by living organisms developed to ward off predators. Especially low molecular weight NTs (MW<∼1 kDa), such as mycotoxins, phycotoxins, and plant toxins, are considered an important and growing food safety concern. Therefore, accurate risk assessment of food and feed for the presence of NTs is crucial. Currently, the analysis of NTs is predominantly performed with targeted high pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) methods. Although these methods are highly sensitive and accurate, they are relatively expensive and time-consuming, while unknown or unexpected NTs will be missed. To overcome this, novel on-site screening methods and non-targeted HPLC high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) methods have been developed. On-site screening methods can give non-specialists the possibility for broad "scanning" of potential geographical regions of interest, while also providing sensitive and specific analysis at the point-of-need. Non-targeted chromatography-HRMS methods can detect unexpected as well as unknown NTs and their metabolites in a lab-based approach. The aim of this chapter is to provide an insight in the recent advances, challenges, and perspectives in the field of NTs analysis both from the on-site and the laboratory perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ids B Lemmink
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Leonie V Straub
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Toine F H Bovee
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Patrick P J Mulder
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Han Zuilhof
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, P.R. China
| | - Gert Ij Salentijn
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Laura Righetti
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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España Amórtegui JC, Ekroth S, Pekar H, Guerrero Dallos JA. A green-footprint approach for parallel multiclass analysis of contaminants in roasted coffee via LC-HRMS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2024; 416:1541-1560. [PMID: 38349534 PMCID: PMC10899293 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-024-05157-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
The development and validation of a simple, comprehensive, and environment-friendly procedure to determine pesticide residues, naturally occurring and processing contaminants in roasted coffee is presented. A solid-liquid extraction of pesticides and mycotoxins with ethyl acetate and the concurrent partition of acrylamide to an aqueous phase follows a parallel analytical strategy that requires a single analytical portion to determine contaminants that are typically analyzed by dedicated single residue methods. The partition rules the lipids out of the aqueous extract before an "in-tube" dispersive solid phase microextraction (dSPME) for acrylamide retention. This is followed by the elution with buffer prior to injection. This extract is independently introduced into the system front end followed by the injection of the compounds from the organic phase, yet all spotted in the same run. A novel liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) method setup enables the quantification of 186 compounds at 10 µg/kg, 226 at 5 µg/kg, and the acrylamide at 200 µg/kg for a total of 414 molecules, with acceptable recoveries (70-120%) and precision (RSD < 20%) making this strategy significantly faster and cost-effective than the dedicated single residue methods. Even though the presence of chlorpyrifos, acrylamide, and ochratoxin A was confirmed on samples of different origins, the findings were below the limit of quantification. During the storage of raw coffee, no proof of masking of OTA was found; however, condensation with glucose was evidenced during thermal processing experiments with sucrose by using stable isotope labeling (SIL). No detected conjugates were found in roasted nor in commercial sugar-added torrefacto samples, an industrial processing usually carried out above the decomposition temperature of the disaccharide.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Susanne Ekroth
- Science Department, Swedish Food Agency, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Heidi Pekar
- Science Department, Swedish Food Agency, Uppsala, Sweden
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Martins D, Lemos A, Silva J, Rodrigues M, Simões J. Mycotoxins evaluation of total mixed ration (TMR) in bovine dairy farms: An update. Heliyon 2024; 10:e25693. [PMID: 38370215 PMCID: PMC10867658 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024] Open
Abstract
The total mixed ration (TMR) is currently a widespread method to feed dairy cows. It is a mixture of raw fodder and concentrate feed that can be contaminated by several mycotoxins. The main aim of this paper was to provide a critical review on TMR mycotoxin occurrence and its usefulness to monitor and control them on-farm. Aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin and fumonisins (regulated mycotoxins) are the most prevalent mycotoxins evaluated in TMR. Nonetheless, several emerging mycotoxins represent a health risk at the animal level regarding their prevalence and level in TMR. Even when measured at low levels, the co-occurrence of mycotoxins is frequent and synergistic effects on animal health are still underevaluated. Similar to the animal feed industry, on-farm plans monitoring mycotoxin feed contamination can be developed as a herd health management program. The estimated daily intake of mycotoxins should be implemented, but thresholds for each mycotoxin are not currently defined in dairy farms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Martins
- Department of Veterinary Science, Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Ana Lemos
- Animal Nutrition, DSM-Firmenich, the Netherlands
| | - João Silva
- CapêloVet, Lda, 4755-252, Barcelos, Portugal
| | | | - João Simões
- Department of Veterinary Science, Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), School of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801, Vila Real, Portugal
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Dib AA, Assaf JC, Debs E, Khatib SE, Louka N, Khoury AE. A comparative review on methods of detection and quantification of mycotoxins in solid food and feed: a focus on cereals and nuts. Mycotoxin Res 2023; 39:319-345. [PMID: 37523055 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-023-00501-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Many emerging factors and circumstances urge the need to develop and optimize the detection and quantification techniques of mycotoxins in solid food and feed. The diversity of mycotoxins, which have different properties and affinities, makes the standardization of the analytical procedures and the adoption of a single protocol that covers the attributes of all mycotoxins a tedious or even an impossible mission. Several modifications and improvements have been undergone in order to optimize the performance of these methods including the extraction solvents, the extraction methods, the clean-up procedures, and the analytical techniques. The techniques range from the rapid screening methods, which lack sensitivity and specificity such as TLC, to a spectrum of more advanced protocols, namely, ELISA, HPLC, and GC-MS and LC-MS/MS. This review aims at assessing the current studies related to these analytical techniques of mycotoxins in solid food and feed. It discusses and evaluates, through a critical approach, various sample treatment techniques, and provides an in-depth examination of different mycotoxin detection methods. Furthermore, it includes a comparison of their actual accuracy and a thorough analysis of the observed benefits and drawbacks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alaa Abou Dib
- Centre d'Analyses Et de Recherche (CAR), Faculté Des Sciences, Unité de Recherche Technologies Et Valorisation Agro-Alimentaire (UR-TVA), Université Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth, Campus Des Sciences Et TechnologiesMar Roukos, Matn, 1104-2020, Lebanon
- Department of Food Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Bekaa Campus, Lebanese International University, Khiyara, 1108, Bekaa, Lebanon
| | - Jean Claude Assaf
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Balamand, P.O. Box 100, Tripoli, Lebanon
| | - Espérance Debs
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, University of Balamand, P.O. Box 100, Tripoli, 1300, Lebanon
| | - Sami El Khatib
- Department of Food Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Bekaa Campus, Lebanese International University, Khiyara, 1108, Bekaa, Lebanon
- Center for Applied Mathematics and Bioinformatics, Gulf University for Science and Technology, Hawally, Kuwait
| | - Nicolas Louka
- Centre d'Analyses Et de Recherche (CAR), Faculté Des Sciences, Unité de Recherche Technologies Et Valorisation Agro-Alimentaire (UR-TVA), Université Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth, Campus Des Sciences Et TechnologiesMar Roukos, Matn, 1104-2020, Lebanon
| | - André El Khoury
- Centre d'Analyses Et de Recherche (CAR), Faculté Des Sciences, Unité de Recherche Technologies Et Valorisation Agro-Alimentaire (UR-TVA), Université Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth, Campus Des Sciences Et TechnologiesMar Roukos, Matn, 1104-2020, Lebanon.
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Pfleger F, Schwake-Anduschus C. Relevance of Zearalenone and its modified forms in bakery products. Mycotoxin Res 2023:10.1007/s12550-023-00493-3. [PMID: 37322296 PMCID: PMC10393900 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-023-00493-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Zearalenone is a frequently occurring and well-known mycotoxin developed in cereals before and during the harvest period by Fusarium spp. mainly in maize and wheat. In addition to the main form, various modified forms (phase I and II metabolites) were detected, in some cases in high amounts. These modified forms can be harmful for human health due to their different toxicity, which can be much higher compared to the parent toxin. In addition, the parent toxin can be cleaved from the phase I and II metabolites during digestion. A risk of correlated and additive adverse effects of the metabolites of ZEN phase I and II in humans and animals is evident. ZEN is considered in many studies on its occurrence in grain-based foods and some studies are dedicated to the behavior of ZEN during food processing. This is not the case for the ZEN phase I and II metabolites, which are only included in a few occurrence reports. Their effects during food processing is also only sporadically addressed in studies to date. In addition to the massive lack of data on the occurrence and behavior of ZEN modified forms, there is also a lack of comprehensive clarification of the toxicity of the numerous different ZEN metabolites detected to date. Finally, studies on the fate during digestion of the relevant ZEN metabolites will be important in the future to further clarify their relevance in processed foods such as bakery products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Pfleger
- Association for Cereal Research e.V., Detmold, Germany
| | - Christine Schwake-Anduschus
- Department of Safety and Quality of Cereals, Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Detmold, Germany.
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Ntasiou P, Samaras A, Papadakis EN, Menkissoglu-Spiroudi U, Karaoglanidis GS. Aggressiveness and Patulin Production in Penicillium expansum Multidrug Resistant Strains with Different Expression Levels of MFS and ABC Transporters, in the Presence or Absence of Fludioxonil. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:1398. [PMID: 36987088 PMCID: PMC10056477 DOI: 10.3390/plants12061398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Penicillium expansum is the most common postharvest pathogen of apple fruit, causing blue mold disease. Due to the extensive use of fungicides, strains resistant to multiple chemical classes have been selected. A previous study by our group proposed that the overexpression of MFS (major facilitator superfamily) and ABC (ATP binding cassette) transporters constitute an alternative resistance mechanism in Multi Drug resistant (MDR) strains of this pathogen. This study was initiated to determine two main biological fitness parameters of MDR strains: aggressiveness against apple fruit and patulin production. In addition, the expression pattern of efflux transporters and hydroxylase-encoding genes that belong to the patulin biosynthesis pathway, in the presence or absence of fludioxonil and under in vitro and in vivo conditions were investigated. Results showed that the MDR strains produced higher concentrations of patulin but showed a lower pathogenicity compared to the wild-type isolates. Moreover, expression analysis of patC, patM and patH genes indicated that the higher expression levels do not correlate with the detected patulin concentration. The selection of MDR strains in P. expansum populations and the fact that they produce more patulin, constitutes a serious concern not only for successful disease control but also for human health. The above-mentioned data represent the first report of MDR in P. expansum associated with its patulin-production ability and the expression level of patulin biosynthesis pathway genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiota Ntasiou
- Laboratory of Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (P.N.); (A.S.)
| | - Anastasios Samaras
- Laboratory of Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (P.N.); (A.S.)
| | - Emmanouil-Nikolaos Papadakis
- Pesticide Science Laboratory, School of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.-N.P.); (U.M.-S.)
| | - Urania Menkissoglu-Spiroudi
- Pesticide Science Laboratory, School of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.-N.P.); (U.M.-S.)
| | - George S. Karaoglanidis
- Laboratory of Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (P.N.); (A.S.)
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Modified Mycotoxins, a Still Unresolved Issue. CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/chemistry4040099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous microfungi on almost every agricultural commodity worldwide. After the infection of crop plants, mycotoxins are modified by plant enzymes or other fungi and often conjugated to more polar substances, like sugars. The formed—often less toxic—metabolites are stored in the vacuole in soluble form or bound to macromolecules. As these substances are usually not detected during routine analysis and no maximum limits are in force, they are called modified mycotoxins. While, in most cases, modified mycotoxins have lower intrinsic toxicity, they might be reactivated during mammalian metabolism. In particular, the polar group might be cleaved off (e.g., by intestinal bacteria), releasing the native mycotoxin. This review aims to provide an overview of the critical issues related to modified mycotoxins. The main conclusion is that analytical aspects, toxicological evaluation, and exposure assessment merit more investigation.
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Yu H, Zhang J, Chen Y, Zhu J. Zearalenone and Its Masked Forms in Cereals and Cereal-Derived Products: A Review of the Characteristics, Incidence, and Fate in Food Processing. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:976. [PMID: 36135701 PMCID: PMC9501528 DOI: 10.3390/jof8090976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA) is known as a Fusarium-produced mycotoxin, representing a risk to cereal food safety with repercussions for economies and worldwide trade. Recent studies have reported the co-occurrence of ZEA and masked ZEA in a variety of cereals and cereal-based products, which may exert adverse effects on public health due to additive/synergistic interactions. However, the co-contamination of ZEA and masked ZEA has received little attention. In order to minimize the threats of co-contamination by ZEA and masked ZEA, it is necessary to recognize the occurrence and formation of ZEA and masked ZEA. This review focuses on the characteristics, incidence, and detection of ZEA and its masked forms. Additionally, the fate of ZEA and masked ZEA during the processing of bread, cake, biscuits, pasta, and beer, as well as the ZEA limit, are discussed. The incidence of masked ZEA is lower than that of ZEA, and the mean level of masked ZEA varies greatly between cereal samples. Published data showed a considerable degree of heterogeneity in the destiny of ZEA during cereal-based food processing, mostly as a result of the varying contamination levels and complicated food processing methods. Knowledge of the fate of ZEA and masked ZEA throughout cereal-based food processing may reduce the likelihood of severe detrimental market and trade ramifications. The revision of legislative limits of masked ZEA may become a challenge in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jiajin Zhu
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, China
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Development and Validation of an UHPLC-MS/MS Method for the Simultaneous Determination of 11 EU-Regulated Mycotoxins in Selected Cereals. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8070665. [PMID: 35887422 PMCID: PMC9315952 DOI: 10.3390/jof8070665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The availability of reliable sensitive multi-analyte methods for unambiguous determination of mycotoxins is crucial for ensuring food and feed safety, considering their adverse health effects and (co-)occurrence in various foods. Accordingly, a multi-mycotoxin confirmatory method for simultaneous determination of 11 mycotoxins regulated in cereals within the European Union (EU) using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was developed and in-house validated to fit the EU legislation requirements for analytical methods. A simple sample preparation was based on a solid−liquid extraction using a solvent mixture acetonitrile/water/formic acid (79/20/1, v/v/v) and a dilution of raw extract using water/acetonitrile/formic acid (79/20/1, v/v/v) before instrumental analysis. Average recoveries in all three validated cereal crop types (maize, wheat, and barley), spiked at multiple levels, were found acceptable for all analytes when matrix-matched calibration was used, ranging from 63.2% to 111.2% and also showing very good repeatability, with relative standard deviations below 20%. Matrix effect (SSE) evaluation revealed maize as the most complex of the three analyzed cereal matrices, with strong SSE (<50% and >150%) recorded for all 11 analyzed mycotoxins. An additional method verification was performed through successful participation in proficiency testing schemes, with the achieved z-scores generally in the acceptable range of −2 ≤ z ≤ 2. The obtained validation results demonstrated the suitability of the developed confirmatory multi-mycotoxin UHPLC-MS/MS method based on a dilute-and-shoot principle for the simultaneous determination of low concentrations of 11 EU-regulated mycotoxins in cereals, including aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins B1 and B2, zearalenone, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, and ochratoxin A.
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11
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Benešová K, Boško R, Běláková S, Pluháčková H, Křápek M, Pernica M, Svoboda Z. Natural contamination of Czech malting barley with mycotoxins in connection with climate variability. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Regulated Mycotoxin Occurrence and Co-Occurrence in Croatian Cereals. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14020112. [PMID: 35202139 PMCID: PMC8875886 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A total of 209 samples of various cereal crops (maize, wheat, barley, rye and oats) grown in Croatian fields during 2016 and 2017 were collected to analyze and determine the occurrence and co-occurrence of EU regulated mycotoxins in cereals (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, DON, FB1, FB2, ZEA, T-2, HT-2 and OTA). The analysis, performed by a validated confirmatory LC-MS/MS method based on a dilute and shoot principle, highlighted Fusarium mycotoxins as the main contaminants, often co-occurring in samples from both years (50.0% in 2016 and 33.7% in 2017). DON was found to be the most frequent mycotoxin, present in 72.5% of the 2016 samples and 32.6% of the 2017 samples, while maize proved to be the most contaminated cereal type of both years with FUM as the most abundant mycotoxins, with an average concentration of 1180 µg/kg. Moderate temperatures with periods of high humidity favored the accumulation of DON in wheat samples instead of other Fusarium mycotoxins, while similar conditions favored maize contamination with FUM. A total of 8.3% of all the 2016 harvest samples and 7.9% of the 2017 harvest samples were assessed as non-compliant, containing mycotoxins in concentrations higher than the levels set by the EU legislation for food.
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Kępińska-Pacelik J, Biel W. Alimentary Risk of Mycotoxins for Humans and Animals. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:822. [PMID: 34822606 PMCID: PMC8622594 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins can be found in many foods consumed by humans and animals. These substances are secondary metabolites of some fungi species and are resistant to technological processes (cooking, frying, baking, distillation, fermentation). They most often contaminate products of animal (beef, pork, poultry, lamb, fish, game meat, milk) and plant origin (cereals, processed cereals, vegetables, nuts). It is estimated that about 25% of the world's harvest may be contaminated with mycotoxins. These substances damage crops and may cause mycotoxicosis. Many mycotoxins can be present in food, together with mold fungi, increasing the exposure of humans and animals to them. In this review we characterized the health risks caused by mycotoxins found in food, pet food and feed. The most important groups of mycotoxins are presented in terms of their toxicity and occurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wioletta Biel
- Department of Monogastric Animal Sciences, Division of Animal Nutrition and Food, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Klemensa Janickiego 29, 71-270 Szczecin, Poland;
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Uršulin-Trstenjak N, Dodlek Šarkanj I, Sajko M, Vitez D, Živoder I. Determination of the Personal Nutritional Status of Elderly Populations Based on Basic Foodomics Elements. Foods 2021; 10:2391. [PMID: 34681440 PMCID: PMC8535163 DOI: 10.3390/foods10102391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Nutritional status is a series of related parameters collected using different available methods. In order to determine the nutritional status of elderly populations and ensure nutritional support based on an individual approach, the implementation of the increasingly used foodomics approach is available; this approach plays a key role in personalized diets and in the optimization of diets for a population group, such as an elderly population. The Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA) method and the Nottingham Screening Tool (NST) form were used on 50 users in a home for the elderly in northwest Croatia. A loss of body mass (BM) was statistically significantly higher for those who had the following: decreased food intake in the last week and users who had complete and partial feeding autonomy. Additionally, the obtained data on drug intake, fluid, individual nutrients, and physical activity are based on an individual approach. The available documentation provides insight into nutritional values and food preparation in an attempt to satisfy a holistic approach in the evaluation of exposure while trying to achieve as many elements of foodomics as possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalija Uršulin-Trstenjak
- Department of Food Technology, University Center Koprivnica, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, 48000 Koprivnica, Croatia;
- Department of Nursing, University Center Varaždin, University North, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia; (M.S.); (I.Ž.)
| | - Ivana Dodlek Šarkanj
- Department of Food Technology, University Center Koprivnica, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, 48000 Koprivnica, Croatia;
| | - Melita Sajko
- Department of Nursing, University Center Varaždin, University North, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia; (M.S.); (I.Ž.)
| | - David Vitez
- County Hospital Čakovec, I.G.Kovačića 1e, 40000 Čakovec, Croatia;
| | - Ivana Živoder
- Department of Nursing, University Center Varaždin, University North, Jurja Križanića 31b, 42000 Varaždin, Croatia; (M.S.); (I.Ž.)
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15
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Penicillium expansum Impact and Patulin Accumulation on Conventional and Traditional Apple Cultivars. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13100703. [PMID: 34678996 PMCID: PMC8541162 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13100703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Revised: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Penicillium expansum is a necrotrophic plant pathogen among the most ubiquitous fungi disseminated worldwide. It causes blue mould rot in apples during storage, transport and sale, threatening human health by secreting patulin, a toxic secondary metabolite that contaminates apples and apple-derived products. Nevertheless, there is still a lack of sufficient data regarding the resistance of different apple cultivars to P. expansum, especially ancient ones, which showed to possess certain resistance to plant diseases. In this work, we investigated the polyphenol profile of 12 traditional and 8 conventional apple cultivar and their resistance to P. expansum CBS 325.48. Eight polyphenolic compounds were detected; the most prominent were catechin, epicatechin and gallic acid. The highest content of catechin was detected in ‘Apistar’—91.26 mg/100 g of fresh weight (FW), epicatechin in ‘Bobovac’—67.00 mg/100 g of FW, and gallic acid in ‘Bobovac’ and ‘Kraljevčica’—8.35 and 7.40 mg/100 g of FW, respectively. The highest content of patulin was detected in ‘Kraljevčica’ followed by ‘Apistar’—1687 and 1435 µg/kg, respectively. In apple cultivars ‘Brčko’, ‘Adamčica’ and ‘Idared’, patulin was not detected. Furthermore, the patulin content was positively correlated with gallic acid (r = 0.4226; p = 0.002), catechin (r = 0.3717; p = 0.008) and epicatechin (r = 0.3305; p = 0.019). This fact indicates that higher contents of gallic acid, catechin and epicatechin negatively affected and boost patulin concentration in examined apple cultivars. This can be related to the prooxidant activity of polyphenolic compounds and sensitivity of P. expansum to the disturbance of oxidative status.
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16
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Fumagalli F, Ottoboni M, Pinotti L, Cheli F. Integrated Mycotoxin Management System in the Feed Supply Chain: Innovative Approaches. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:572. [PMID: 34437443 PMCID: PMC8402322 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to mycotoxins is a worldwide concern as their occurrence is unavoidable and varies among geographical regions. Mycotoxins can affect the performance and quality of livestock production and act as carriers putting human health at risk. Feed can be contaminated by various fungal species, and mycotoxins co-occurrence, and modified and emerging mycotoxins are at the centre of modern mycotoxin research. Preventing mould and mycotoxin contamination is almost impossible; it is necessary for producers to implement a comprehensive mycotoxin management program to moderate these risks along the animal feed supply chain in an HACCP perspective. The objective of this paper is to suggest an innovative integrated system for handling mycotoxins in the feed chain, with an emphasis on novel strategies for mycotoxin control. Specific and selected technologies, such as nanotechnologies, and management protocols are reported as promising and sustainable options for implementing mycotoxins control, prevention, and management. Further research should be concentrated on methods to determine multi-contaminated samples, and emerging and modified mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Fumagalli
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, “Carlo Cantoni” University of Milan, 20134 Milan, Italy; (M.O.); (L.P.); (F.C.)
| | - Matteo Ottoboni
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, “Carlo Cantoni” University of Milan, 20134 Milan, Italy; (M.O.); (L.P.); (F.C.)
| | - Luciano Pinotti
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, “Carlo Cantoni” University of Milan, 20134 Milan, Italy; (M.O.); (L.P.); (F.C.)
- CRC I-WE (Coordinating Research Centre: Innovation for Well-Being and Environment), University of Milan, 20134 Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Cheli
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, “Carlo Cantoni” University of Milan, 20134 Milan, Italy; (M.O.); (L.P.); (F.C.)
- CRC I-WE (Coordinating Research Centre: Innovation for Well-Being and Environment), University of Milan, 20134 Milan, Italy
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17
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Fullerol C 60(OH) 24 Nanoparticles and Drought Impact on Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) during Growth and Infection with Aspergillus flavus. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7030236. [PMID: 33809896 PMCID: PMC8004204 DOI: 10.3390/jof7030236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Fullerol C60(OH)24 nanoparticles (FNP)-wheat-A. flavus interaction outcome is more complicated in the presence of drought. This study sheds light on how the presence of FNP affects food and feed safety from the perspective of mycotoxin contamination. The study aims to determine the influence of FNP at environmentally plausible concentrations on wheat growth under drought stress and on the aggressiveness of A. flavus during wheat germination, as well as the influence of FNP on the secondary metabolite profile during the inappropriate wheat storage. The co-occurrence of drought and FNP inhibited germination and shoot growth, while an application of FNP alone had no negative effect on plant growth. Wheat pre-treated with FNP showed a concentration dependent resistance pattern to A. flavus aggressiveness. Nevertheless, using a LC-MS/MS based multi-mycotoxin method, six secondary fungal metabolites: 3-nitropropionic acid (<LOD −775.7336 ± 10.7752 ng mL−1), aflatoxin B1 (<LOD −6.78 ± 0.43 ng mL−1) and B2 (<LOD −0.07 ± 0.00 ng mL−1), aflatoxicol (<LOD −0.37 ± 0.16 ng mL−1), kojic acid (<LOD −1337.87 ± 189.04 ng mL−1), and O-methylsterigmatocystin (<LOD −0.17 ± 0.00 ng mL−1), were detected. FNP affected secondary metabolism of A. flavus during inappropriate wheat storage and increased the concentration of secondary metabolites in a concentration-dependent pattern (3-nitropropionic acid and kojic acid). In addition, aflatoxicol production was provoked in FNP treated samples.
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18
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Massarolo KC, Mendoza JR, Verma T, Kupski L, Badiale-Furlong E, Bianchini A. Fate of aflatoxins in cornmeal during single-screw extrusion: A bioaccessibility approach. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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19
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Mycotoxins, Pesticide Residues, and Heavy Metals Analysis of Croatian Cereals. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9020216. [PMID: 33494292 PMCID: PMC7909767 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9020216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cereals are still one of the most important food and feed sources, thus determining cereal’s safety, i.e., compliance with legislation, is extremely important. As systematic investigations of nowadays unavoidable secondary fungal metabolites and other common legally regulated contaminants occurrence in Croatian cereals are still lacking, this research aims to monitor the contamination levels of nation-wide crops by mycotoxins, pesticide residues, and heavy metals by employing UHPLC-MS/MS, GC-MS/MS, and atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS) validated analytical methods. The most common secondary fungal metabolites were found to be Fusarium mycotoxins, with DON being the most occurring present in 73.7% of the samples. At least one pesticide residue was found in 331.8% of the samples, and Hg and Cd were the most occurring heavy metals. A total of 8.5% of the samples was non-compliant to the European Union (EU) legislation for food regarding the found mycotoxins concentrations, 4.5% regarding pesticide residues and none regarding heavy metals. The unusual presence of certain pesticide residue and heavy metal indicates the importance of systematic control of the contaminant presence, in order to gather enough occurrence data for proper risk assessment that these contaminants represent for the consumer’s health.
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20
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Li J, Zhi QQ, Zhang J, Yuan XY, Jia LH, Wan YL, Liu QY, Shi JR, He ZM. Synthetic antimicrobial agents inhibit aflatoxin production. Braz J Microbiol 2021; 52:821-835. [PMID: 33447936 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-021-00423-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are biologically active molecules that can eradicate bacteria by destroying the bacterial membrane structure, causing the bacteria to rupture. However, little is known about the extent and effect of AMPs on filamentous fungi. In this study, we synthesized small molecular polypeptides by an inexpensive heat conjugation approach and examined their effects on the growth of Aspergillus flavus and its secondary metabolism. The antimicrobial agents significantly inhibited aflatoxin production, conidiation, and sclerotia formation in A. flavus. Furthermore, we found that the expression of aflatoxin structural genes was significantly inhibited, and the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level was reduced. Additionally, the antimicrobial agents can change membrane permeability. Overall, our results demonstrated that antimicrobial agents, safe to mammalian cells, have an obvious impact on aflatoxin production, which indicated that antimicrobial agents may be adopted as a new generation of potential agents for controlling aflatoxin contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Li
- The Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Qing-Qing Zhi
- The Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- The Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Xiao-Yu Yuan
- The Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Li-Hong Jia
- The Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for Biotechnology Drug Candidates, School of Bioscience and Biopharmaceutics, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yu-Lin Wan
- The Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Qiu-Yun Liu
- The Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
| | - Jian-Rong Shi
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base, Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210000, China.
| | - Zhu-Mei He
- The Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
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21
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Gonçalves C, Mischke C, Stroka J. Determination of deoxynivalenol and its major conjugates in cereals using an organic solvent-free extraction and IAC clean-up coupled in-line with HPLC-PCD-FLD. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2020; 37:1765-1776. [PMID: 32870740 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2020.1800829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A method for the determination of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its major conjugates in cereals was developed including an immunoaffinity column (IAC) clean-up coupled in-line with high-performance liquid chromatography, post-column derivatisation and fluorescence detection. An IAC for DON with cross-reactivity to 15-AcDON, 3-AcDON and DON-3-G enabled this approach. The isolated analytes were introduced into the chromatographic system without aliquotation employing the hot water elution technique, resulting in the desired low LOQ values for monitoring these analytes in cereals. The absence of any organic solvent during sample preparation in combination with an in-line IAC clean-up renders the method simple, fast, and environmentally friendly. Special attention was paid to inherent IACs properties such as cross-reactivity, analytes' competition and capacity. The method was applied to determine DON and its major conjugates in barley, wheat and maize in the range of 10-1000 µg kg-1 of DON, 10-300 µg kg-1 of DON-3-G and 15-AcDON and 10-100 µg kg-1 of 3-AcDON. The apparent recoveries varied from 87% to 110% (average of 98%) and the intermediate precision was below 13.5% RSD (except for DON-3-G in wheat). Fifteen maize, wheat and barley samples were analysed revealing levels of DON conjugates that accounted from 9% to 60% of the "total DON" content (m/m). In general, the frequency and the measured mass fractions decreased in the following order: DON>DON-3-G>15-AcDON>3-AcDON.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Gonçalves
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC) , Geel, Belgium
| | - Carsten Mischke
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC) , Geel, Belgium
| | - Joerg Stroka
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC) , Geel, Belgium
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22
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Xiang F, Zhao Q, Zhao K, Pei H, Tao F. The Efficacy of Composite Essential Oils against Aflatoxigenic Fungus Aspergillus flavus in Maize. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E562. [PMID: 32882838 PMCID: PMC7551089 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12090562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The efficacy of eleven essential oils (EOs) against Aspergillus flavus NRRL 3357 was investigated. The highest antifungal activity against this aflatoxigenic fungus was exhibited by cinnamon, oregano and lemongrass, which showed low minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values under vapor conditions. Interactions of the three EOs were evaluated by the fractional inhibition concentration index (FICI), and the composite essential oils (CEO) showed synergistic inhibitory activities. Chemical analysis of the composite essential oils of cinnamon, oregano, and lemongrass (COL-CEO) revealed that (Z)-citral (33.44%), (E)-citral (32.88%) and carvacrol (19.84%) were the dominant components, followed by limonene (4.29%) and cinnamaldehyde (3.76%). COL-CEO not only inhibited fungal growth but also decreased aflatoxin B1 production by A. flavus. Downregulation of the relative expression of aflatoxin genes in the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway by COL-CEO revealed its anti-aflatoxigenic mechanism. COL-CEO could also affect the colonization of A. flavus on maize grains. Therefore, COL-CEO may be considered as a potential natural antifungal agent, which could be used for the storage of maize and other grains.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Fang Tao
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China; (F.X.); (Q.Z.); (K.Z.); (H.P.)
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23
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Cüce M. Incidence of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol in food commodities from Turkey. J Food Saf 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa Cüce
- Department of Food Technology, Şebinkarahisar School of Applied Sciences Giresun University Giresun Turkey
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24
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25
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Holanda DM, Kim SW. Efficacy of Mycotoxin Detoxifiers on Health and Growth of Newly-Weaned Pigs under Chronic Dietary Challenge of Deoxynivalenol. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E311. [PMID: 32397551 PMCID: PMC7290511 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2020] [Revised: 05/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The efficacy of yeast-based mycotoxin detoxifiers on health and growth performance of newly-weaned pigs (27-d-old) fed diets naturally contaminated with deoxynivalenol was investigated. Sixty pigs were individually assigned to five treatments for 34 d: NC (negative control, 1.2 mg/kg of deoxynivalenol); PC (positive control, 3.2 mg/kg of deoxynivalenol); CYC (PC + clay/yeast culture-based product, 0.2%); CYE (PC + clay/yeast cell wall/plant extracts/antioxidants-based product, 0.2%); and CYB (PC + clay/inactivated yeast/botanicals/antioxidants-based product, 0.2%). Blood and jejunal mucosa were sampled, and data were analyzed using Proc Mixed of SAS with pre-planned contrasts. Deoxynivalenol reduced the average daily gain (ADG) in phase 3. Pigs fed CYC had greater overall ADG, average daily feed intake during phase 3, and gain to feed ratio during phase 2 than PC. At d 14, deoxynivalenol reduced blood urea nitrogen/creatinine and tended to reduce blood urea nitrogen. Pigs fed CYB tended to have greater aspartate aminotransferase than PC. At d 34, pigs fed CYC and CYB tended to have lower serum creatine phosphokinase than PC. Pigs fed CYE had lower blood urea nitrogen/creatinine than PC. In jejunal mucosa, deoxynivalenol tended to increase malondialdehydes and decrease glutathione. Pigs fed CYE and CYB had lower malondialdehydes, pigs fed CYB had greater glutathione and tended to have lower immunoglobulin A than PC. Pigs fed CYC and CYE tended to have lower interleukin 8 than PC. In summary, deoxynivalenol challenge (1.2 vs. 3.2 mg/kg) mildly compromised growth performance and increased the oxidative stress of pigs. Mycotoxin detoxifiers could partially overcome deoxynivalenol toxicity enhancing liver health, whereas CYE and CYB reduced oxidative stress, and CYC and CYB reduced immune activation. In conclusion, yeast-based detoxifiers with functional components as clay/inactivated yeast/botanicals/antioxidants had increased detoxifying properties in newly-weaned pigs challenged with deoxynivalenol, potentially by enhancing adsorbability, immune function, gut health, and reducing oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sung Woo Kim
- Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA;
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26
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Spanic V, Katanic Z, Sulyok M, Krska R, Puskas K, Vida G, Drezner G, Šarkanj B. Multiple Fungal Metabolites Including Mycotoxins in Naturally Infected and Fusarium-Inoculated Wheat Samples. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E578. [PMID: 32316403 PMCID: PMC7232504 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8040578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, the occurrence of multiple fungal metabolites including mycotoxins was determined in four different winter wheat varieties in a field experiment in Croatia. One group was naturally infected, while the second group was inoculated with a Fusarium graminearum and F. culmorum mixture to simulate a worst-case infection scenario. Data on the multiple fungal metabolites including mycotoxins were acquired with liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) multi-(myco)toxin method. In total, 36 different fungal metabolites were quantified in this study: the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON), DON-3-glucoside (D3G), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON), culmorin (CULM), 15-hydroxyculmorin, 5-hydroxyculmorin, aurofusarin, rubrofusarin, enniatin (Enn) A, Enn A1, Enn B, Enn B1, Enn B2, Enn B3, fumonisin B1, fumonisin B2, chrysogin, zearalenone (ZEN), moniliformin (MON), nivalenol (NIV), siccanol, equisetin, beauvericin (BEA), and antibiotic Y; the Alternaria mycotoxins alternariol, alternariolmethylether, altersetin, infectopyron, tentoxin, tenuazonic acid; the Aspergillus mycotoxin kojic acid; unspecific metabolites butenolid, brevianamid F, cyclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr), cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val), and tryptophol. The most abundant mycotoxins in the inoculated and naturally contaminated samples, respectively, were found to occur at the following average concentrations: DON (19,122/1504 µg/kg), CULM (6109/1010 µg/kg), 15-hydroxyculmorin (56,022/1301 µg/kg), 5-hydroxyculmorin (21,219/863 µg/kg), aurofusarin (43,496/1266 µg/kg). Compared to naturally-infected samples, Fusarium inoculations at the flowering stage increased the concentrations of all Fusarium mycotoxins, except enniatins and siccanol in Ficko, the Aspergillus metabolite kojic acid, the Alternaria mycotoxin altersetin, and unspecific metabolites brevianamid F, butenolid, cyclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr), and cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val). In contrast to these findings, because of possible antagonistic actions, Fusarium inoculation decreased the concentrations of the Alternaria toxins alternariol, alternariolmethylether, infectopyron, tentoxin, tenuazonic acid, as well as the concentration of the nonspecific metabolite tryptophol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Spanic
- Agricultural Institute Osijek, Juzno predgradje 17, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
| | - Zorana Katanic
- Department of Biology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Cara Hadrijana 8a, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (M.S.); (R.K.)
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (M.S.); (R.K.)
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Katalin Puskas
- Agricultural Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Brunszvik u. 2, 2462 Martonvásár, Hungary; (K.P.); (G.V.)
| | - Gyula Vida
- Agricultural Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Brunszvik u. 2, 2462 Martonvásár, Hungary; (K.P.); (G.V.)
| | - Georg Drezner
- Agricultural Institute Osijek, Juzno predgradje 17, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
| | - Bojan Šarkanj
- Department of Food Technology, University Centre Koprivnica, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, 48000 Koprivnica, Croatia;
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27
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Kovač T, Šarkanj B, Borišev I, Djordjevic A, Jović D, Lončarić A, Babić J, Jozinović A, Krska T, Gangl J, Ezekiel CN, Sulyok M, Krska R. Fullerol C 60(OH) 24 Nanoparticles Affect Secondary Metabolite Profile of Important Foodborne Mycotoxigenic Fungi In Vitro. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12040213. [PMID: 32230978 PMCID: PMC7232364 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12040213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the efforts to control mycotoxin contamination worldwide, extensive contamination has been reported to occur in food and feed. The contamination is even more intense due to climate changes and different stressors. This study examined the impact of fullerol C60(OH)24 nanoparticles (FNP) (at 0, 1, 10, 100, and 1000 ng mL-1) on the secondary metabolite profile of the most relevant foodborne mycotoxigenic fungi from genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, Alternaria and Penicillium, during growth in vitro. Fungi were grown in liquid RPMI 1640 media for 72 h at 29 °C, and metabolites were investigated by the LC-MS/MS dilute and shoot multimycotoxin method. Exposure to FNP showed great potential in decreasing the concentrations of 35 secondary metabolites; the decreases were dependent on FNP concentration and fungal genus. These results are a relevant guide for future examination of fungi-FNP interactions in environmental conditions. The aim is to establish the exact mechanism of FNP action and determine the impact such interactions have on food and feed safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tihomir Kovač
- Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (B.Š.); (A.L.); (J.B.); (A.J.)
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (T.K.); (C.N.E.); (M.S.); (R.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +385-31-224-341; Fax: +385-31-207-115
| | - Bojan Šarkanj
- Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (B.Š.); (A.L.); (J.B.); (A.J.)
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (T.K.); (C.N.E.); (M.S.); (R.K.)
- Department of Food Technology, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, 48000 Koprivnica, Croatia
| | - Ivana Borišev
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (I.B.); (A.D.); (D.J.)
| | - Aleksandar Djordjevic
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (I.B.); (A.D.); (D.J.)
| | - Danica Jović
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (I.B.); (A.D.); (D.J.)
| | - Ante Lončarić
- Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (B.Š.); (A.L.); (J.B.); (A.J.)
| | - Jurislav Babić
- Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (B.Š.); (A.L.); (J.B.); (A.J.)
| | - Antun Jozinović
- Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (B.Š.); (A.L.); (J.B.); (A.J.)
| | - Tamara Krska
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (T.K.); (C.N.E.); (M.S.); (R.K.)
| | - Johann Gangl
- Institute of Biotechnology in Plant Production, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria;
| | - Chibundu N. Ezekiel
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (T.K.); (C.N.E.); (M.S.); (R.K.)
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo 121103, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (T.K.); (C.N.E.); (M.S.); (R.K.)
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (T.K.); (C.N.E.); (M.S.); (R.K.)
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland, UK
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Assessing the Effect of Mycotoxin Combinations: Which Mathematical Model Is (the Most) Appropriate? Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12030153. [PMID: 32121330 PMCID: PMC7150917 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past decades, many studies have examined the nature of the interaction between mycotoxins in biological models classifying interaction effects as antagonisms, additive effects, or synergisms based on a comparison of the observed effect with the expected effect of combination. Among several described mathematical models, the arithmetic definition of additivity and factorial analysis of variance were the most commonly used in mycotoxicology. These models are incorrectly based on the assumption that mycotoxin dose-effect curves are linear. More appropriate mathematical models for assessing mycotoxin interactions include Bliss independence, Loewe’s additivity law, combination index, and isobologram analysis, Chou-Talalays median-effect approach, response surface, code for the identification of synergism numerically efficient (CISNE) and MixLow method. However, it seems that neither model is ideal. This review discusses the advantages and disadvantages of these mathematical models.
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Al-Jaal B, Latiff A, Salama S, Barcaru A, Horvatovich P, Jaganjac M. Determination of multiple mycotoxins in Qatari population serum samples by LC-MS/MS. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2020. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2019.2479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Human exposure to mycotoxins is almost inevitable as mycotoxins are naturally occurring contaminants of large portion of food and feed. Depending on the type of mycotoxins, inter-individual mycotoxin adsorption, bioaccumulation, distribution, metabolism and excretion, can cause serious adverse health effects. Therefore, continuous biomonitoring studies of population exposure to mycotoxins are needed. Here we describe a multi-analyte approach for the detection and quantification of 20 mycotoxins in human serum using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray/tandem mass spectrometry operated in targeted multiple reaction monitoring mode. The validated method was used to assess occurrence of mycotoxins in serum samples of 46 residents of Qatar. Mycotoxins that were detected with high incidence were HT-2 toxin (13.0%), sterigmatocystin (10.9%) and 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (6.5%). Also, co-exposure to several mycotoxins was noticed in the analysed samples. Our results show that strict food quality control is needed to remove mycotoxin contaminated food from the market in order to minimise human exposure to mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- B.A. Al-Jaal
- Anti-Doping Lab Qatar, Sport city street, P.O. Box 27775, Doha, Qatar
| | - A. Latiff
- Anti-Doping Lab Qatar, Sport city street, P.O. Box 27775, Doha, Qatar
| | - S. Salama
- Anti-Doping Lab Qatar, Sport city street, P.O. Box 27775, Doha, Qatar
| | - A. Barcaru
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, the Netherlands
- Departments of Laboratory Medicine, University Medical Center Groningen, P.O. Box 30001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - P. Horvatovich
- Department of Analytical Biochemistry, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - M. Jaganjac
- Anti-Doping Lab Qatar, Sport city street, P.O. Box 27775, Doha, Qatar
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Gratz SW, Currie V, Duncan G, Jackson D. Multimycotoxin Exposure Assessment in UK Children Using Urinary Biomarkers-A Pilot Survey. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:351-357. [PMID: 31826612 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b03964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cereal foods are commonly contaminated with multiple mycotoxins resulting in frequent human mycotoxin exposure. Children are at risk of high-level exposure because of their high cereal intake relative to body weight. Hence, this study aims to assess multimycotoxin exposure in UK children using urinary biomarkers. Spot urines (n = 21) were analyzed for multimycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, DON; nivalenol, NIV; ochratoxin A, OTA; zearalenone, ZEN; α-zearalenol, α-ZEL; β-zearalenol, β-ZEL; T-2 toxin, T-2; HT-2 toxin, HT-2; and aflatoxin B1 and M1, AFB1, AFM1) using liquid chromatography-coupled tandem mass spectrometry. Urine samples frequently contained DON (13.10 ± 12.69 ng/mL), NIV (0.36 ± 0.16 ng/mL), OTA (0.05 ± 0.02 ng/mL), and ZEN (0.09 ± 0.07 ng/mL). Some samples (1-3) contained T-2, HT-2, α-ZEL, and β-ZEL but not aflatoxins. Dietary mycotoxin estimation showed that children were frequently exposed to levels exceeding the tolerable daily intake (52 and 95% of cases for DON and OTA). This demonstrates that UK children are exposed to multiple mycotoxins through their habitual diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia W Gratz
- Rowett Institute , University of Aberdeen , Foresterhill , AB25 2ZD , Aberdeen , U.K
| | - Valerie Currie
- Rowett Institute , University of Aberdeen , Foresterhill , AB25 2ZD , Aberdeen , U.K
| | - Gary Duncan
- Rowett Institute , University of Aberdeen , Foresterhill , AB25 2ZD , Aberdeen , U.K
| | - Diane Jackson
- Rowett Institute , University of Aberdeen , Foresterhill , AB25 2ZD , Aberdeen , U.K
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Houissa H, Lasram S, Sulyok M, Šarkanj B, Fontana A, Strub C, Krska R, Schorr-Galindo S, Ghorbel A. Multimycotoxin LC-MS/MS analysis in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) from Tunisia. Food Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.106738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Comparative In Vitro Assessment of a Range of Commercial Feed Additives with Multiple Mycotoxin Binding Claims. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11110659. [PMID: 31726774 PMCID: PMC6891808 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2019] [Revised: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Contamination of animal feed with multiple mycotoxins is an ongoing and growing issue, as over 60% of cereal crops worldwide have been shown to be contaminated with mycotoxins. The present study was carried out to assess the efficacy of commercial feed additives sold with multi-mycotoxin binding claims. Ten feed additives were obtained and categorised into three groups based on their main composition. Their capacity to simultaneously adsorb deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisin B1 (FB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and T-2 toxin was assessed and compared using an in vitro model designed to simulate the gastrointestinal tract of a monogastric animal. Results showed that only one product (a modified yeast cell wall) effectively adsorbed more than 50% of DON, ZEN, FB1, OTA, T-2 and AFB1, in the following order: AFB1 > ZEN > T-2 > DON > OTA > FB1. The remaining products were able to moderately bind AFB1 (44–58%) but had less, or in some cases, no effect on ZEN, FB1, OTA and T-2 binding (<35%). It is important for companies producing mycotoxin binders that their products undergo rigorous trials under the conditions which best mimic the environment that they must be active in. Claims on the binding efficiency should only be made when such data has been generated.
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Borzekowski A, Anggriawan R, Auliyati M, Kunte HJ, Koch M, Rohn S, Karlovsky P, Maul R. Formation of Zearalenone Metabolites in Tempeh Fermentation. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24152697. [PMID: 31344953 PMCID: PMC6696204 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24152697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Tempeh is a common food in Indonesia, produced by fungal fermentation of soybeans using Rhizopus sp., as well as Aspergillus oryzae, for inoculation. Analogously, for economic reasons, mixtures of maize and soybeans are used for the production of so-called tempeh-like products. For maize, a contamination with the mycoestrogen zearalenone (ZEN) has been frequently reported. ZEN is a mycotoxin which is known to be metabolized by Rhizopus and Aspergillus species. Consequently, this study focused on the ZEN transformation during tempeh fermentation. Five fungal strains of the genera Rhizopus and Aspergillus, isolated from fresh Indonesian tempeh and authentic Indonesian inocula, were utilized for tempeh manufacturing from a maize/soybean mixture (30:70) at laboratory-scale. Furthermore, comparable tempeh-like products obtained from Indonesian markets were analyzed. Results from the HPLC-MS/MS analyses show that ZEN is intensely transformed into its metabolites α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), ZEN-14-sulfate, α-ZEL-sulfate, ZEN-14-glucoside, and ZEN-16-glucoside in tempeh production. α-ZEL, being significantly more toxic than ZEN, was the main metabolite in most of the Rhizopus incubations, while in Aspergillus oryzae fermentations ZEN-14-sulfate was predominantly formed. Additionally, two of the 14 authentic samples were contaminated with ZEN, α-ZEL and ZEN-14-sulfate, and in two further samples, ZEN and α-ZEL, were determined. Consequently, tempeh fermentation of ZEN-contaminated maize/soybean mixture may lead to toxification of the food item by formation of the reductive ZEN metabolite, α-ZEL, under model as well as authentic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antje Borzekowski
- Department Analytical Chemistry, Reference Materials, Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM), Richard-Willstätter-Str. 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Riyan Anggriawan
- Molecular Phytopathology and Mycotoxin Research Section, University of Goettingen, Grisebachstrasse 6, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Maryeni Auliyati
- Molecular Phytopathology and Mycotoxin Research Section, University of Goettingen, Grisebachstrasse 6, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Hans-Jörg Kunte
- Department Materials and the Environment, Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und-prüfung (BAM), Unter den Eichen 87, 12205 Berlin, Germany
| | - Matthias Koch
- Department Analytical Chemistry, Reference Materials, Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM), Richard-Willstätter-Str. 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sascha Rohn
- Hamburg School of Food Science, Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Petr Karlovsky
- Molecular Phytopathology and Mycotoxin Research Section, University of Goettingen, Grisebachstrasse 6, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Ronald Maul
- BfR - German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany.
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Abdallah MF, Girgin G, Baydar T. Mycotoxin Detection in Maize, Commercial Feed, and Raw Dairy Milk Samples from Assiut City, Egypt. Vet Sci 2019; 6:vetsci6020057. [PMID: 31216766 PMCID: PMC6632116 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci6020057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
This survey was conducted to investigate the contamination by multiple mycotoxins, aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEA) in 61 samples of maize and 17 commercial animal feed samples, and of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in raw dairy milk samples (n = 20) collected from Assiut City in Upper Egypt. Multi-mycotoxin immunoaffinity columns were used for samples cleanup and mycotoxin purification. An HPLC–FLD system with an on-line post-column photochemical derivatization was used for the detection of the target toxins. AFB1 was detected in both maize (n = 15) and feed (n = 8), with only one maize sample presenting a concentration above the maximum permissible level set by the Egyptian authorities. AFB2 was observed in six maize samples and in one feed sample, with a maximum value of 0.5 μg/kg. ZEA was detected only in feed samples (n = 4), with a maximum value of 3.5 μg/kg, while OTA, AFG1, and AFG2 were under the limits of detection. For milk, all the analyzed samples (100%) were contaminated with AFM1, and 14 samples (70%) presented concentrations above the maximum permissible level in the European Union (EU) (0.05 μg/kg). The concentrations ranged from 0.02 μg/kg to 0.19 μg/kg, except that of one sample, which was under the limit of quantification. The contamination rates in maize and animal feeds are not alarming. In contrast, the consumption of dairy milk samples in Assiut City may pose public health hazards, as AFM1 levels were found to exceed the international permissible limits. Further surveys are highly recommended in order to establish a database for mycotoxin occurrence in Egypt to minimize the possible health risks in animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed F Abdallah
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt.
- Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Sihhiye, Ankara 90-06100, Turkey.
| | - Gözde Girgin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Sihhiye, Ankara 90-06100, Turkey.
| | - Terken Baydar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Sihhiye, Ankara 90-06100, Turkey.
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Schaarschmidt S, Fauhl-Hassek C. Mycotoxins during the Processes of Nixtamalization and Tortilla Production. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E227. [PMID: 30995755 PMCID: PMC6520960 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11040227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 04/06/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tortillas are a traditional staple food in Mesoamerican cuisine, which have also become popular on a global level, e.g., for wraps or as snacks (tortilla chips). Traditional tortilla production includes alkaline cooking (nixtamalization) of maize kernels. This article summarizes the current knowledge on mycotoxin changes during the nixtamalization of maize and tortilla production. Upon nixtamalization, mycotoxins can be affected in different ways. On the one hand, the toxins can be physically removed during steeping and washing. On the other hand, mycotoxins might be degraded, modified, or released/bound in the matrix by high pH and/or high temperature. This also applies to the subsequent baking of tortillas. Many studies have shown reduced mycotoxin levels in alkali-cooked maize and in tortillas. Most of the available data relate to aflatoxins and fumonisins. The reduction (and detoxification) of aflatoxins during nixtamalization might, however, be partially reversed in acidic conditions. The loss of fumonisin concentrations is to some extent accompanied by hydrolyzation and by lower toxicity. However, some studies have indicated the potential formation of toxicologically relevant modified forms and matrix-associated fumonisins. More data are required to assess the influence of alkaline cooking regarding such modified forms, as well as mycotoxins other than aflatoxins/fumonisins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Schaarschmidt
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Department Safety in the Food Chain, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, D-10589 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Carsten Fauhl-Hassek
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Department Safety in the Food Chain, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, D-10589 Berlin, Germany.
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Jerković I, Kranjac M, Marijanović Z, Šarkanj B, Cikoš AM, Aladić K, Pedisić S, Jokić S. Chemical Diversity of Codium bursa (Olivi) C. Agardh Headspace Compounds, Volatiles, Fatty Acids and Insight into Its Antifungal Activity. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24050842. [PMID: 30818836 PMCID: PMC6429293 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24050842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The focus of present study is on Codium bursa collected from the Adriatic Sea. C. bursa volatiles were identified by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-FID; GC-MS) after headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME), hydrodistillation (HD), and supercritical CO₂ extraction (SC-CO₂). The headspace composition of dried (HS-D) and fresh (HS-F) C. bursa was remarkably different. Dimethyl sulfide, the major HS-F compound was present in HS-D only as a minor constituent and heptadecane percentage was raised in HS-D. The distillate of fresh C. bursa contained heptadecane and docosane among the major compounds. After air-drying, a significantly different composition of the volatile oil was obtained with (E)-phytol as the predominant compound. It was also found in SC-CO₂ extract of freeze-dried C. bursa (FD-CB) as the major constituent. Loliolide (3.51%) was only identified in SC-CO₂ extract. Fatty acids were determined from FD-CB after derivatisation as methyl esters by GC-FID. The most dominant acids were palmitic (25.4%), oleic (36.5%), linoleic (11.6%), and stearic (9.0%). FD-CB H₂O extract exhibited better antifungal effects against Fusarium spp., while dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) extract was better for the inhibition of Penicillium expansum, Aspergillus flavus, and Rhizophus spp. The extracts showed relatively good antifungal activity, especially against P. expansum (for DMSO extract MIC50 was at 50 µg/mL).
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Jerković
- Faculty of Chemistry and Technology, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia.
| | - Marina Kranjac
- Faculty of Chemistry and Technology, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia.
| | | | - Bojan Šarkanj
- Department of Food Technology, University Center Koprivnica, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, 48000 Koprivnica, Croatia.
| | - Ana-Marija Cikoš
- Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia.
| | - Krunoslav Aladić
- Croatian Veterinary Institute, Branch-Veterinary Institute Vinkovci, Josipa Kozarca 24, 32100 Vinkovci, Croatia.
| | - Sandra Pedisić
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
| | - Stela Jokić
- Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia.
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Abstract
This review is mainly centered on beverages obtained from tropical crops, including tea, nut milk, coffee, cocoa, and those prepared from fruits. After considering the epidemiological data found on the matrices above, the focus was given to recent methodological approaches to assess the most relevant mycotoxins. Aspects such as singularities among the mycotoxin and the beverage in which their were found, and the economic effects and repercussions that the mycotoxin-tainted ingredients have on the beverage industry were pointed out. Finally, the burden of their consumption through beverages, including risk and health effects on humans, was addressed as well.
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