Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles Against Viral Infections

Co-delivery of oncolytic virus and chemotherapeutic modality: Vincristine against prostate cancer treatment: A potent viro-chemotherapeutic approach

Prostate cancer is a prevalent carcinoma among males, and conventional treatment options are often limited. Cytotoxic chemotherapy, despite its drawbacks, remains a mainstay. We propose a targeted co-delivery approach using nanoscale delivery units for Oncolytic measles virus (OMV) and vincristine (VC) to enhance treatment efficacy. The HA-coated OMV + VC-loaded TCs nanoformulation is designed for targeted oncolytic activity in prostate cancer. The CD44 expression analysis in prostate cancer cell lines indicates a significantly high expression in PC3 cells. The optimization of nanoformulations using Design of Expert (DOE) is performed, and the preparation and characterization of HA-coated OMV + VC-loaded TCs nanoformulations are detailed showing average particle size 397.2 ± 0.01 nm and polydispersity index 0.122 with zeta potential 19.7 + 0.01 mV. Results demonstrate successful encapsulation efficiency with 2.4 × 106 TCID50/Ml and sustained release of OMV and VC from the nanoformulation for up to 72 h. In vitro, assays reveal potent anticancer activity at 10 ± 0.71% cell viability in PC3 cells compared to 73 ± 0.66% in HPrEC and significant morphological changes at 90 µg/ml in dose and time-dependent manner. The co-formulation showed positive cell death 49.5 ± 0.02% at 50 µg PI/ml in PBS and 54.3% cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase, 8.1% G0/G1 and 5.7% at S phase, with significant mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) at 50 µg/ml, as assessed by flow cytometry (FACS). The surface-integrating ligand approach enhances the targeted delivery of the oncolytic virus and chemotherapeutic drug, presenting a potential alternative for prostate cancer treatment and suggested that co-administering VC and OMV in a nanoformulation could improve therapeutic outcomes while reducing chemotherapeutic drug doses.

A sustainable green-approach for biofabrication of chitosan nanoparticles, optimization, characterization, its antifungal activity against phytopathogenic Fusarium culmorum and antitumor activity

Chitosan is a natural non-toxic, biocompatible, biodegradable, and mucoadhesive polymer. It also has a broad spectrum of applications such as agriculture, medical fields, cosmetics and food industries. In this investigation, chitosan nanoparticles were produced by an aqueous extract of Cympopogon citratus leaves as a reducing agent. According to the SEM and TEM micrographs, CNPs had a spherical shape, and size ranging from 8.08 to 12.01 nm. CNPs have a positively charged surface with a Zeta potential of + 26 mV. The crystalline feature of CNPs is determined by X-ray diffraction. There are many functional groups, including C꞊C, CH2-OH, C-O, C-S, N-H, CN, CH and OH were detected by FTIR analysis. As shown by the thermogravimetric study, CNPs have a high thermal stability. For the optimization of the green synthesis of CNPs, a Face centered central composite design (FCCCD) with 30 trials was used. The maximum yield of CNPs (13.99 mg CNPs/mL) was produced with chitosan concentration 1.5%, pH 4.5 at 40 °C, and incubation period of 30 min. The antifungal activity of CNPs was evaluated against phytopathogenic fungus; Fusarium culmorum. A 100% rate of mycelial growth inhibition was gained by the application of 20 mg CNPs/mL. The antitumor activity of the green synthesized CNPs was examined using 6 different cell lines, the viability of the cells reduced when the concentration of green synthesized CNPs increased, the IC50 dose of the green synthesized CNPs on the examined cell lines HePG-2, MCF-7, HCT-116, PC-3, Hela and WI-38 was 36.25 ± 2.3, 31.21 ± 2.2, 67.45 ± 3.5, 56.30 ± 3.3, 44.62 ± 2.6 and 74.90 ± 3.8; respectively.

Characterization of chitosan/Persian gum nanoparticles for encapsulation of Nigella sativa extract as an antiviral agent against avian coronavirus

The aim of this study was to investigate the physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles formed by the ionic gelation method between chitosan and water-soluble fraction of Persian gum (WPG) for encapsulation of Nigella sativa extract (NSE) as an antiviral agent. Our findings revealed that the particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential of the particles were in the range of 316.7-476.6 nm, 0.259-0.466, and 37.0-58.1 mV, respectively. The amounts of chitosan and WPG as the wall material and the NSE as the core had a considerable impact on the nanoparticle properties. The proper samples were detected at 1:1 chitosan:WPG mixing ratio (MR) and NSE concentration of 6.25 mg/mL. Fourier-transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy proved the interactions between the two biopolymers. The effect of NSE on infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) known as avian coronavirus, was performed by the in-ovo method determining remarkable antiviral activity of NSE (25 mg/mL) and its enhancement through encapsulation in the nanoparticles. These nanoparticles containing NSE could have a promising capability for application in both poultry industry and human medicine as an antiviral product.

Chitosan nanocarriers for non-coding RNA therapeutics: A review

Non-coding RNA (ncRNA)-based therapies entail delivering ncRNAs to cells to regulate gene expression and produce proteins that combat infections, cancer, neurological diseases, and bone abnormalities. Nevertheless, the therapeutic potential of these ncRNAs has been limited due to the difficulties in delivering them to specific cellular targets within the body. Chitosan (CS), a biocompatible cationic polymer, interacts with negatively charged RNA molecules to form stable complexes. It is a promising biomaterial to develop nanocarriers for ncRNA delivery, overcoming several disadvantages of traditional delivery systems. CS-based nanocarriers can protect ncRNAs from degradation and target-specific delivery by surface modifications and intracellular release profiles over an extended period. This review briefly summarizes the recent developments in CS nanocarriers' synthesis and design considerations and their applications in ncRNA therapeutics for treating various diseases. We also discuss the challenges and limitations of CS-based nanocarriers for ncRNA therapeutics and potential strategies for overcoming these challenges.

Nanotechnology of inhalable vaccines for enhancing mucosal immunity

Vaccines are the cornerstone of world health. The majority of vaccines are formulated as injectable products, facing the drawbacks of cold chain transportation, needle-stick injuries, and primary systemic immunity. Inhalable vaccines exhibited unique advantages due to their small dose, easy to use, quick effect, and simultaneous induction of mucosal and systemic responses. Facing global pandemics, especially the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a majority of inhalable vaccines are in preclinical or clinical trials. A better understanding of advanced delivery technologies of inhalable vaccines may provide new scientific insights for developing inhalable vaccines. In this review article, detailed immune mechanisms involving mucosal, cellular, and humoral immunity were described. The preparation methods of inhalable vaccines were then introduced. Advanced nanotechnologies of inhalable vaccines containing inhalable nucleic acid vaccines, inhalable adenovirus vector vaccines, novel adjuvant-assisted inhalable vaccines, and biomaterials for inhalable vaccine delivery were emphatically discussed. Meanwhile, the latest clinical progress in inhalable vaccines for COVID-19 and tuberculosis was discussed.

Comparative study on Antibacterial efficacy of a series of chromone sulfonamide derivatives against drug-resistant and MDR-isolates

Sulfonamide derivatives have numerous pharmaceutical applications having antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, antimalarial, anticancer, and antidepressant activities. The structural flexibility of sulfonamide derivatives makes them an excellent candidate for the development of new multi-target agents, although long-time exposure to sulfonamide drugs results in many toxic impacts on human health. However, sulfonamides may be functionalized for developing less toxic and more competent drugs. In this work, sulfonamides including Sulfapyridine (a), Sulfathiazole (b), Sulfamethoxazole (c), and Sulfamerazine (d) are used to synthesize Schiff bases of 7-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-oxo-2H-chromene-8-carbalde-hyde (1a-1d). The synthesized compounds were spectroscopically characterized and tested against hospital isolates of three Gram-positive (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus PH217, Ampicillin-resistant Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus aureus, multidrug-resistant (MDR) Enterococcus faecalis PH007R) and two Gram-negative bacteria (multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli, and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi), compared to the quality control strains from ATCC (S. aureus 29213, E. faecalis 25922, E. coli 29212) and MTCC (S. Typhi 734). Two of the four Schiff bases 1a and 1b are found to be more active than their counterpart 1c and 1d; while 1a have showed significant activity by inhibiting MRSA PH217 and MDR isolates of E. coli at the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 150 μg/mL and 128 μg/mL with MBC of 1024 µg/mL, respectively. On the other hand, the MIC of 1b was 150 μg/mL against both S. aureus ATCC 29213 and Salmonella Typhi MTCC 734, compared to the control antibiotics Ampicillin and Gentamycin. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated the altered surface structure of bacterial cells as a possible mechanism of action, supported by the in-silico molecular docking analysis.

Prophylactic and Therapeutic Efficacy of Ultrasonicated Rosmarinus officinalis Ethanolic Extract and its Chitosan-Loaded Nanoparticles Against Eimeria tenella Infected Broiler Chickens

PURPOSE

The in vivo efficacy of ultrasonicated Rosmarinus officinalis ethanolic extract (UROEE) and its chitosan-loaded nanoparticles (UROEE-CsNPs) was investigated as a dietary prophylactic agent and as a therapeutic treatment against Eimeria tenella infected broiler chickens.

METHODS

Chickens were infected with 4 × 104 E. tenella oocysts at 21 days old for primary infection and with 8 × 104 oocysts at 35 days old for secondary infection. Eleven experimental groups were conducted. Dietary addition of 100 mg/kg UROEE and 20 mg/kg for CsNPs as well as UROEE-CsNPs were included for prophylactic groups from day 1 to 42. The same doses were used for therapeutic treatment groups for 5 constitutive days. Oocyst output in feces was counted. Histopathological and immunohistochemical studies were conducted. Gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines as IFN-γ, IL-1β and IL-6 as well as anti-inflammatory cytokines as IL-10 and TGF-β4 was analyzed using semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR.

RESULTS

The results showed an efficacy of UROEE, CsNPs and UROEE-CsNPs in reduction of oocyst excretion and improving the cecal tissue architecture. CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes protein expression were reduced. E. tenella infection lead to upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines as IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6 and anti-inflammatory cytokines as TGF-β4 following primary infection, while their expression was downregulated following secondary infection.

CONCLUSION

The dietary prophylactic additives and therapeutic treatments with UROEE, CsNPs and UROEE-CsNPs could decrease the inflammatory response to E. tenella as indicated by oocyst output reduction, histopathological improvements, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells protein expression reduction as well as reducing mRNA expression levels of the tested cytokines following primary and secondary infections. Consequently, these results will help to develop better-combating strategies for the control and prevention of coccidiosis on poultry farms as a dietary prophylactic agent or as a therapeutic treatment.

Green synthesis of collagen nanoparticles by Streptomyces xinghaiensis NEAA-1, statistical optimization, characterization, and evaluation of their anticancer potential

Collagen nanoparticles (collagen-NPs) are promising biopolymeric nanoparticles due to their superior biodegradability and biocompatibility. The low immunogenicity and non-toxicity of collagen-NPs makes it preferable for a wide range of applications. A total of eight morphologically distinct actinomycetes strains were newly isolated from various soil samples in Egypt. The cell-free supernatants of these strains were tested for their ability. These strains' cell-free supernatants were tested for their ability to synthesize collagen-NPs. Five isolates had the ability to biosynthesize collagen-NPs. Among these, a potential culture, Streptomyces sp. NEAA-1, was chosen and identified as Streptomyces xinghaiensis NEAA-1 based on 16S rRNA sequence analysis as well as morphological, cultural and physiological properties. The sequence data has been deposited at the GenBank database under the accession No. OQ652077.1. Face-centered central composite design (FCCD) has been conducted to maximize collagen-NPs biosynthesis. Maximum collagen-NPs was 8.92 mg/mL under the condition of 10 mg/mL of collagen concentration, initial pH 7, incubation time of 48 h and temperature of 35 °C. The yield of collagen-NPs obtained via FCCD optimization (8.92 mg/mL) was 3.32-fold compared to the yield obtained under non-optimized conditions (2.5 mg/mL). TEM analysis of collagen-NPs showed hollow sphere nanoscale particles with mean of 32.63 ± 14.59 nm in diameter. FTIR spectra showed major peaks of amide I, amide II and amide III of collagen and also the cell-free supernatant involved in effective capping of collagen-NPs. The biosynthesized collagen-NPs exhibited anti-hemolytic, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities. The inhibitory concentrations (IC50) against MCF-7, HeP-G2 and HCT116 cell lines were 11.62 ± 0.8, 19.60 ± 1.2 and 41.67 ± 2.2 µg/mL; respectively. The in-vivo investigation showed that collagen-NPs can suppress Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) growth in mice. The collagen-NPs/DOX combination treatment showed considerable tumor growth suppression (95.58%). Collagen-NPs evaluated as nanocarrier with a chemotherapeutic agent, methotrexate (MTX). The average size of MTX loaded collagen-NPs was 42.73 ± 3.5 nm. Encapsulation efficiency percentage (EE %) was 48.91% and drug loading percentage (DL %) was 24.45%.

Nanoemulsions: summary of a decade of research and recent advances

Nanoemulsions consist of a combination of several components such as oil, water, emulsifiers, surfactants and cosurfactants. Various techniques for producing nanoemulsions include high-energy and low-energy approaches such as high-pressure homogenization, microfluidization, jet disperser and phase inversion methods. The properties of a formulation can be influenced by elements such as the composition, concentration, size and charge of droplets, which in turn can affect the technique of manufacture. Characterization is conducted by the assessment of several factors such as physical properties, pH analysis, viscosity measurement and refractive index determination. This article offers a thorough examination of the latest developments in nanoemulsion technology, with a focus on their wide-ranging applications and promising future possibilities. It also discusses the administration of nanoemulsions through several methods.

Bioinspired silver nanoparticle-based nanocomposites for effective control of plant pathogens: A review

Plant pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, pose significant challenges to the farming community due to their extensive diversity, the rapidly evolving phenomenon of multi-drug resistance (MDR), and the limited availability of effective control measures. Amid mounting global pressure, particularly from the World Health Organization, to limit the use of antibiotics in agriculture and livestock management, there is increasing consideration of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) as promising alternatives for antimicrobial applications. Studies focusing on the application of ENMs in the fight against MDR pathogens are receiving increasing attention, driven by significant losses in agriculture and critical knowledge gaps in this crucial field. In this review, we explore the potential contributions of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and their nanocomposites in combating plant diseases, within the emerging interdisciplinary arena of nano-phytopathology. AgNPs and their nanocomposites are increasingly acknowledged as promising countermeasures against plant pathogens, owing to their unique physicochemical characteristics and inherent antimicrobial properties. This review explores recent advancements in engineered nanocomposites, highlights their diverse mechanisms for pathogen control, and draws attention to their potential in antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral applications. In the discussion, we briefly address three crucial dimensions of combating plant pathogens: green synthesis approaches, toxicity-environmental concerns, and factors influencing antimicrobial efficacy. Finally, we outline recent advancements, existing challenges, and prospects in scholarly research to facilitate the integration of nanotechnology across interdisciplinary fields for more effective treatment and prevention of plant diseases.

Effectiveness In Vivo and In Vitro of Polymeric Nanoparticles as a Drug Release System in the Treatment of Leishmaniasis

Leishmaniasis is a neglected disease caused by the parasite of the genus Leishmania. Current treatment regimens are obsolete and cause several side effects, promoting poor patient compliance, in addition to the vast majority already having the potential for resistance. Therefore, polymeric nanoparticles emerge as one of the viable alternatives to overcome existing limitations, through passive or active vectorization. This review aims to summarize the latest studies of polymeric nanoparticles as an alternative treatment for leishmaniasis. In the first section, the main pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic challenges of current drugs are reported. The second section details how nanoparticles with and without functionalization are efficient in the treatment of leishmaniasis, discussing the characteristics of the polymer in the formulation. In this way, polymeric nanoparticles can improve the physicochemical properties of leishmanicidal drugs, improving solubility and stability, as well as improve the release of these drugs, directly or indirectly reaching monocytes/macrophages. 64.28% drugs were focused on the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis, and 28.57% on cutaneous leishmaniasis. The most chosen polymers in the literature are chitosan (35.71%) and PLGA (35.71%), the others represented 14.30% drugs, with all able to manage the drug release and increase the in vitro and/or in vivo efficacy of the original molecule. However, there are several barriers for these nanoformulations to cross laboratory research and is necessary more in-depth studies about the metabolites and degradation pathways of the polymers used in the formulations and plasma proteomics studies.

Chitosan nanoparticles and based composites as a biocompatible vehicle for drug delivery: A review

The shellfish processing industry is one of the largest growing industries across the globe with a market size of around USD 62B. However, it also leads to a significant environmental issue as it produces >80,000 tons of waste shells globally. Unfortunately, the slow degradation of this waste causes it to accumulate over time, posing a serious threat to the marine environment. The key solution to this problem is to recycle this sea waste into a valuable product like chitin which is further used to produce chitosan. Chitosan is a natural biopolymeric substance obtained via N-deacetylation of the chitin. The chitosan-based nanoparticles are further useful for the fabrication of biopolymeric nanocomposites which are used in various biomedical applications specifically in drug delivery. Here, we review the recent advancements in the development of chitosan-based nanocomposites as a biocompatible carrier for drug delivery, specifically focusing on gene delivery, wound healing, microbial treatment, and anticancer drug delivery. By providing a valuable and up-to-date resource, this review illuminates the current state of research concerning chitosan's pivotal role in the biomedical domain as an efficacious drug delivery agent.

Chitosan Soft Matter Vesicles Loaded with Acetaminophen as Promising Systems for Modified Drug Release

Our study was designed to acquire, characterize and evaluate the biocompatibility of novel lipid vesicles loaded with acetaminophen (APAP) and coated with chitosan (CS). We investigated the in vitro and in vivo drug release kinetics from these systems, and we conducted assessments for both in vitro hemocompatibility and in vivo biocompatibility. For the in vivo biocompatibility evaluation, the mice were randomly divided into four groups of six animals and were treated orally as follows: control group: 0.1 mL/10 g body weight of double-distilled water; CS group: 0.1 mL/10 g body weight 1% CS solution; APAP group: 150 mg/kg body weight APAP; APAP-v group: 150 mg/kg body weight APAP-loaded lipid vesicles. The impact of APAP-v on various hematological, biochemical, and immune parameters in mice were assessed, and the harvested tissues were subjected to histopathological examination. The innovative formulations effectively encapsulating APAP within soft vesicles exhibited reasonable stability in solution and prolonged drug release in both in vitro and in vivo studies. The in vitro hemolysis test involving APAP-loaded vesicles revealed no signs of damage to red blood cells. The mice treated with APAP-v showed neither significant variances in hematological, biochemical, and immune parameters, nor structural changes in the examined organ samples, compared to the control group. APAP-v administration led to prolonged drug release. We can conclude that the APAP-v are innovative carrier systems for modifying drug release, making them promising candidates for biomedical applications.

Antiviral functionalization of cellulose using tannic acid and tannin-rich extracts

Due to seasonally appearing viruses and several outbreaks and present pandemic, we are surrounded by viruses in our everyday life. In order to reduce viral transmission, functionalized surfaces that inactivate viruses are in large demand. Here the endeavor was to functionalize cellulose-based materials with tannic acid (TA) and tannin-rich extracts by using different binding polymers to prevent viral infectivity of both non-enveloped coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) and enveloped human coronavirus OC43 (HCoV-OC43). Direct antiviral efficacy of TA and spruce bark extract in solution was measured: EC50 for CVB3 was 0.12 and 8.41 μg/ml and for HCoV-OC43, 78.16 and 95.49 μg/ml, respectively. TA also led to an excellent 5.8- to 7-log reduction of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus infectivity. TA functionalized materials reduced infectivity already after 5-min treatment at room temperature. All the tested methods to bind TA showed efficacy on paperboard with 0.1 to 1% (w/v) TA concentrations against CVB3 whereas material hydrophobicity decreased activities. Specific signatures for TA and HCoV-OC43 were discovered by Raman spectroscopy and showed clear co-localization on the material. qPCR study suggested efficient binding of CVB3 to the TA functionalized cellulose whereas HCoV-OC43 was flushed out from the surfaces more readily. In conclusion, the produced TA-materials showed efficient and broadly acting antiviral efficacy. Additionally, the co-localization of TA and HCoV-OC43 and strong binding of CVB3 to the functionalized cellulose demonstrates an interaction with the surfaces. The produced antiviral surfaces thus show promise for future use to increase biosafety and biosecurity by reducing pathogen persistence.

Research progress on chitin/chitosan-based emulsion delivery systems and their application in lipid digestion regulation

Excessive lipid intake is linked to an elevated risk of health problems. However, reducing lipid contents may influence food structure and flavor. Some alternatives are needed to control the lipid absorption. Emulsions are common carriers for lipids, which can control the hydrolysis and absorption of lipids. Chitin (Ch) and chitosan (CS) are natural polysaccharides with good biodegradability, biocompatibility, and unique cationic properties. They have been reported to be able to delay lipolysis, which can be regarded as one of the most promising agents that regulates lipid digestion (LiD). The application of Ch/CS and their derivatives in emulsions are summarized in this review with a focus on their performances and mechanisms for LiD regulation, aiming to provide theoretical guidance for the development of novel Ch/CS emulsions, and the regulation of LiD. A reasonable design of emulsion interface can provide its resistance to the external environment and then control LiD. The properties of emulsion interface are the key factors affecting LiD. Therefore, systematic study on the relationship between Ch/CS-based emulsion structure and LiD can not only instruct the reasonable design of emulsion interface to accurately regulate LiD, but also provide scientific guidelines for applying Ch/CS in functional food, medicine and other fields.

Enhanced Anti-Herpetic Activity of Valacyclovir Loaded in Sulfobutyl-ether-β-cyclodextrin-decorated Chitosan Nanodroplets

Valacyclovir (VACV) was developed as a prodrug of the most common anti-herpetic drug Acyclovir (ACV), aiming to enhance its bioavailability. Nevertheless, prolonged VACV oral treatment may lead to the development of important side effects. Nanotechnology-based formulations for vaginal administration represent a promising approach to increase the concentration of the drug at the site of infection, limiting systemic drug exposure and reducing systemic toxicity. In this study, VACV-loaded nanodroplet (ND) formulations, optimized for vaginal delivery, were designed. Cell-based assays were then carried out to evaluate the antiviral activity of VACV loaded in the ND system. The chitosan-shelled ND exhibited an average diameter of about 400 nm and a VACV encapsulation efficiency of approximately 91% and was characterized by a prolonged and sustained release of VACV. Moreover, a modification of chitosan shell with an anionic cyclodextrin, sulfobutyl ether β-cyclodextrin (SBEβCD), as a physical cross-linker, increased the stability and mucoadhesion capability of the nanosystem. Biological experiments showed that SBEβCD-chitosan NDs enhanced VACV antiviral activity against the herpes simplex viruses type 1 and 2, most likely due to the long-term controlled release of VACV loaded in the ND and an improved delivery of the drug in sub-cellular compartments.

Synthesis and characterization of chitosan/carbon quantum dots/Fe2O3 nanocomposite comprising curcumin for targeted drug delivery in breast cancer therapy

Curcumin, a natural compound with promising anti-cancerous features, suffers from a number of shortcomings such as low chemical stability, bioavailability, and solubility, which impedes its application as an alternative for conventional cancer therapy. In this study, curcumin comprising Fe2O3/Chitosan/CQDs was fabricated through double emulsion method (W/O/W) for the first time to exploit its anticancer features while alleviating its limitation, making this nanocomposite promising in targeted drug delivery. Chitosan, a hydrophilic biopolymer, has incorporated to constitute an adhesive pH-sensitive matrix that can trap the hydrophobic drug resulting in controlled drug release in cancerous environment. Carbon quantum dots render luminescence and water solubility properties, which is favorable for tracing drug release and bio imaging along with enhancement of biocompatibility. Fe2O3 can improve chemical stability and bioavailability in addition to anti-cancerous property. XRD and FTIR analysis confirmed the physical interaction between the drug and fabricated nano composite in addition to chemical bonding between the prepared nano composite. Matrix and spherical structure of the formed drug is corroborated by FESEM analysis. DLS analysis' results determine the mean size of the nano composite at about 227.2 nm and zeta potential result is indicative of perfect stability of the fabricated drug. Various kinetic models for drug release were fitted to experimental data in order to investigate the drug release in which Korsmeyer-Peppas' model was the predominant release system in cancerous environment. In vitro studies through flow cytometry and MTT assay exerted noticeable cytotoxicity effect on MCF-7 cell lines. It can be deduced from these results that curcumin encapsulated with CS/CQDs/Fe2O3 nanocomposites is an excellent alternative for targeted drug delivery.

A novel N95 respirator with chitosan nanoparticles: mechanical, antiviral, microbiological and cytotoxicity evaluations

BACKGROUND

It is known that some sectors of hospitals have high bacteria and virus loads that can remain as aerosols in the air and represent a significant health threat for patients and mainly professionals that work in the place daily. Therefore, the need for a respirator able to improve the filtration barrier of N95 masks and even inactivating airborne virus and bacteria becomes apparent. Such a fact motivated the creation of a new N95 respirator which employs chitosan nanoparticles on its intermediate layer (SN95 + CNP).

RESULTS

The average chitosan nanoparticle size obtained was 165.20 ± 35.00 nm, with a polydispersity index of 0.36 ± 0.03 and a zeta potential of 47.50 ± 1.70 mV. Mechanical tests demonstrate that the SN95 + CNP respirator is more resistant and meets the safety requisites of aerosol penetration, resistance to breath and flammability, presenting higher potential to filtrate microbial and viral particles when compared to conventional SN95 respirators. Furthermore, biological in vitro tests on bacteria, fungi and mammalian cell lines (HaCat, Vero E6 and CCL-81) corroborate the hypothesis that our SN95 + CNP respirator presents strong antimicrobial activity and is safe for human use. There was a reduction of 96.83% of the alphacoronavirus virus and 99% of H1N1 virus and MHV-3 betacoronavirus after 120 min of contact compared to the conventional respirator (SN95), demonstrating that SN95 + CNP have a relevant potential as personal protection equipment.

CONCLUSIONS

Due to chitosan nanotechnology, our novel N95 respirator presents improved mechanical, antimicrobial and antiviral characteristics.

Smart G-quadruplex hydrogels: From preparations to comprehensive applications

In recent years, the accelerated development of G-quadruplexes and hydrogels has driven the development of intelligent biomaterials. Based on the excellent biocompatibility and special biological functions of G-quadruplexes, and the hydrophilicity, high-water retention, high water content, flexibility and excellent biodegradability of hydrogels, G-quadruplex hydrogels are widely used in various fields by combining the dual advantages of G-quadruplexes and hydrogels. Here, we provide a systematic and comprehensive classification of G-quadruplex hydrogels in terms of preparation strategies and applications. This paper reveals how G-quadruplex hydrogels skillfully utilize the special biological functions of G-quadruplexes and the skeleton structure of hydrogels, and expounds its applications in the fields of biomedicine, biocatalysis, biosensing and biomaterials. In addition, we deeply analyze the challenges in preparation, applications, stability and safety of G-quadruplex hydrogels, as well as potential future development directions.

SARS-CoV-2-associated organs failure and inflammation: a focus on the role of cellular and viral microRNAs

SARS-CoV-2 has been responsible for the recent pandemic all over the world, which has caused many complications. One of the hallmarks of SARS-CoV-2 infection is an induced immune dysregulation, in some cases resulting in cytokine storm syndrome, acute respiratory distress syndrome and many organs such as lungs, brain, and heart that are affected during the SARS-CoV-2 infection. Several physiological parameters are altered as a result of infection and cytokine storm. Among them, microRNAs (miRNAs) might reflect this poor condition since they play a significant role in immune cellular performance including inflammatory responses. Both host and viral-encoded miRNAs are crucial for the successful infection of SARS-CoV-2. For instance, dysregulation of miRNAs that modulate multiple genes expressed in COVID-19 patients with comorbidities (e.g., type 2 diabetes, and cerebrovascular disorders) could affect the severity of the disease. Therefore, altered expression levels of circulating miRNAs might be helpful to diagnose this illness and forecast whether a COVID-19 patient could develop a severe state of the disease. Moreover, a number of miRNAs could inhibit the expression of proteins, such as ACE2, TMPRSS2, spike, and Nsp12, involved in the life cycle of SARS-CoV-2. Accordingly, miRNAs represent potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for this devastating viral disease. In the current study, we investigated modifications in miRNA expression and their influence on COVID-19 disease recovery, which may be employed as a therapy strategy to minimize COVID-19-related disorders.

Efficiency of Chitosan Nanocarriers in Vaccinology for Mucosal Immunization

The mucosal barrier constitutes a huge surface area, close to 40 m2 in humans, located mostly in the respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts and ocular cavities. It plays a crucial role in tissue interactions with the microbiome, dietary antigens and other environmental materials. Effective vaccinations to achieve highly protective mucosal immunity are evolving strategies to counteract several serious diseases including tuberculosis, diphtheria, influenzae B, severe acute respiratory syndrome, Human Papilloma Virus infection and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Interestingly, one of the reasons behind the rapid spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 variants has been the weakness of local immunization at the level of the respiratory mucosa. Mucosal vaccines can outperform parenteral vaccination as they specifically elicit protective mucosal immune responses blocking infection and transmission. In this scenario, chitosan-based nanovaccines are promising adjuvants-carrier systems that rely on the ability of chitosan to cross tight junctions and enhance particle uptake due to chitosan-specific mucoadhesive properties. Indeed, chitosan not only improves the adhesion of antigens to the mucosa promoting their absorption but also shows intrinsic immunostimulant abilities. Furthermore, by finely tuning the colloidal properties of chitosan, it can provide sustained antigen release to strongly activate the humoral defense. In the present review, we agnostically discuss the potential reasons why chitosan-based vaccine carriers, that efficiently elicit strong immune responses in experimental setups and in some pre-clinical/clinical studies, are still poorly considered for therapeutic formulations.

Polymeric Delivery Systems as a Potential Vaccine against Visceral Leishmaniasis: Formulation Development and Immunogenicity

Recent studies suggest that the association of antigens in microparticles increases the anti-Leishmania vaccine immunogenicity. This study aims to investigate the in situ effect of the adjuvant performance consisting of chitosan-coated poly(D,L-lactic) acid submicrometric particles (SMP) and analyze the inflammatory profile and toxicity. Two formulations were selected, SMP1, containing poly(D,L-lactide) (PLA) 1% wt/v and chitosan 1% wt/v; and SMP2, containing PLA 5% wt/v and chitosan 5% wt/v. After a single dose of the unloaded SMP1 or SMP2 in mice, the SMPs promoted cell recruitment without tissue damage. In addition, besides the myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity having demonstrated similar results among the analyzed groups, a progressive reduction in the levels of N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (NAG) until 72 h was observed for SMPs. While IL-6 levels were similar among all the analyzed groups along the kinetics, only the SMPs groups had detectable levels of TNF-α. Additionally, the Leishmania braziliensis antigen was encapsulated in SMPs (SMP1Ag and SMP2Ag), and mice were vaccinated with three doses. The immunogenicity analysis by flow cytometry demonstrated a reduction in NK (CD3-CD49+) cells in all the SMPs groups, in addition to impairment in the T cells subsets (CD3+CD4+) and CD3+CD8+) and B cells (CD19+) of the SMP2 group. The resulting data demonstrate that the chitosan-coated SMP formulations stimulate the early events of an innate immune response, suggesting their ability to increase the immunogenicity of co-administered Leishmania antigens.

Green fabrication of chitosan nanoparticles using Lavendula angustifolia, optimization, characterization and in‑vitro antibiofilm activity

Chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) are promising polymeric nanoparticles with exceptional physicochemical, antimicrobial and biological characteristics. The CNPs are preferred for a wide range of applications in the food industry, cosmetics, agriculture, medical, and pharmaceutical fields due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, eco-friendliness, and non-toxicity. In the current study, a biologically based approach was used to biofabricate CNPs using an aqueous extract of Lavendula angustifolia leaves as a reducing agent. The TEM images show that the CNPs were spherical in shape and ranged in size from 7.24 to 9.77 nm. FTIR analysis revealed the presence of several functional groups, including C-H, C-O, CONH₂, NH₂, C-OH and C-O-C. The crystalline nature of CNPs is demonstrated by X-ray diffraction. The thermogravimetric analysis revealed that CNPs are thermally stable. The CNPs' surface is positively charged and has a Zeta potential of 10 mV. For optimising CNPs biofabrication, a face-centered central composite design (FCCCD) with 50 experiments was used. The artificial intelligence-based approach was used to analyse, validate, and predict CNPs biofabrication. The optimal conditions for maximum CNPs biofabrication were theoretically determined using the desirability function and experimentally verified. The optimal conditions that maximize CNPs biofabrication (10.11 mg/mL) were determined to be chitosan concentration 0.5%, leaves extract 75%, and initial pH 4.24. The antibiofilm activity of CNPs was evaluated in‑vitro. The results show that 1500 μg/mL of CNPs suppressed P. aeruginosa, S. aureus and C. albicans biofilm formation by 91.83 ± 1.71%, 55.47 ± 2.12% and 66.4 ± 1.76%; respectively. The promising results of the current study in biofilm inhibition by necrotizing biofilm architecture, reducing its significant constituents and inhibiting microbial cell proliferation encourage their use as natural biosafe and biocompatible anti-adherent coating in antibiofouling membranes, medical bandage/tissues and food packaging materials.

Antiviral Activity of Chitosan Nanoparticles and Chitosan Silver Nanocomposites against Alfalfa Mosaic Virus

Plant viruses are a global concern for sustainable crop production. Among the currently available antiviral approaches, nanotechnology has been overwhelmingly playing an effective role in circumventing plant viruses. Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) was isolated and identified from symptomatic pepper plants in Egypt using symptomatology, serological tests using the direct ELISA technique, differential hosts and electron microscopy. The virus was biologically purified from a single local lesion that developed on Chenopodium amaranticolor. The AMV infection was further confirmed using an AMV coat protein-specific primer RT-PCR. We further evaluated the antiviral potential of chitosan nanoparticles (CS-NPs) and chitosan silver nanocomposites (CS-Ag NC) in different concentrations against AMV infections in pepper plants. All tested concentrations of CS-NPs and CS-Ag NC induced the inhibition of AMV systemically infected pepper plants when applied 24 h after virus inoculation. The foliar application of 400 ppm CS-NPs or 200 ppm CS-Ag NC produced the highest AMV inhibitory effect (90 and 91%) when applied 24 h after virus inoculation. Treatment with CS-NPs and CS-Ag NC considerably increased the phenol, proline and capsaicin contents compared to the infected plants. Moreover, the agronomic metrics (plant height, fresh and dry pod weights and number of pods per plant) were also significantly improved. According to our results, the potential applications of CS-NPs and CS-Ag NC may provide an effective therapeutic measure for better AMV and other related plant virus management.

Chitosan-Based Nano Systems for Natural Antioxidants in Breast Cancer Therapy

Breast cancer is a major cause of death globally, accounting for around 13% of all deaths. Chemotherapy, the common treatment for cancer, can have side effects that lead to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and an increase in oxidative stress in the body. Antioxidants are important for maintaining the health of cells and helping the immune system function properly. They play a crucial role in balancing the body's internal environment. Using natural antioxidants is an alternative to mitigate the harmful effects of oxidative stress. However, around 80% of natural antioxidants have limited effectiveness when taken orally because they do not dissolve well in water or other solvents. This poor solubility affects their ability to be absorbed by the body and limits their bioavailability. One strategy that has been considered is to increase their water solubility to increase their oral bioavailability. Chitosan-based nanoparticle (CSNP) systems have been extensively explored due to their reliability and simpler synthesis routes. This review focuses on the various methods of chitosan-based nanoformulation for developing effective oral dosage forms for natural antioxidants based on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics properties. Chitosan (CS) could be a model, because of its wide use in polymeric NPs research, thus providing a better understanding of the role of vehicles that carry natural antioxidants in maintaining the stability and enhancing the performance of cancer drugs.

Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles for Nucleic Acid Delivery: Technological Aspects, Applications, and Future Perspectives

Chitosan is a naturally occurring polymer derived from the deacetylation of chitin, which is an abundant carbohydrate found mainly in the shells of various marine and terrestrial (micro)organisms. Chitosan has been extensively used to construct nanoparticles (NPs), which are biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic, easy to prepare, and can function as effective drug delivery systems. Moreover, chitosan NPs have been employed in gene and vaccine delivery, as well as advanced cancer therapy, and they can also serve as new therapeutic tools against viral infections. In this review, we summarize the most recent developments in the field of chitosan-based NPs intended as nucleic acid delivery vehicles and gene therapy vectors. Special attention is given to the technological aspects of chitosan complexes for nucleic acid delivery.

PBMC MicroRNAs: Promising Biomarkers for the Differential Diagnosis of COVID-19 Patients with Abnormal Coagulation Indices

MicroRNAs, or miRNAs, may involve in coagulation and inflammation pathways caused by severe Coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Accordingly, this attempt was made to explore the behavior of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) miRNAs as effective biomarkers to diagnose COVID-19 patients with normal and abnormal coagulation indices. We selected the targeted miRNAs (miR-19a-3p, miR-223-3p, miR-143-5p, miR-494-3p and miR-301a-5p) according to previous reports, whose PBMC levels were then determined by real-time PCR. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was obtained to clarify the diagnostic potency of studied miRNAs. The differentially expressed miRNA profiles and corresponding biological activities were predicted in accordance with bioinformatics data. Targeted miRNAs' expression profiles displayed a significant difference between COVID-19 subjects with normal and abnormal coagulation indices. Moreover, the average miR-223-3p level expressed in COVID-19 cases with normal coagulation indices was significantly lower than that in healthy controls. Based on data from ROC analysis, miR-223-3p and miR-494-3p are promising biomarkers to distinguish the COVID-19 cases with normal or abnormal coagulation indices. Bioinformatics data highlighted the prominent role of selected miRNAs in the inflammation and TGF-beta signaling pathway. The differences existed in the expression profiles of selected miRNAs between the groups introduced miR-494-3p and miR-223-3p as potent biomarkers to prognosis the incidence of COVID-19.

In Vivo Wound-Healing Effect of Chemical and Green Synthesized Chitosan Nanoparticles Using Lawsonia inermis Ethanolic Extract

Wounds can be a result of surgery, an accident, or other factors. There is still a challenge to find effective topical wound-healing agents. This study aims to investigate the wound-healing activity of chemical and green synthesized chitosan nanoparticles (Ch-NPs) using Lawsonia inermis leaves extract. The nanoparticles were morphologically and chemically characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). Forty-five adult female albino rats were randomly divided into three groups. The cutaneous surgical wounds were topically treated with 0.9% normal saline (control group), green Ch-NPs (second group), and chemical Ch-NPs gels (third group), respectively. The clinical picture of wounds and histopathological changes were assessed on the 3rd, 7th, 14th, and 21st days post-treatment. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed great crystallinity and purity of nanoparticles. The studied nanoparticles increased the wound contraction percent (WC%), reduced healing time and wound surface area (WSA), and these results were backed up by histological findings that indicated improved epithelialization, dermal differentiation, collagen deposition, and angiogenesis in treated rats compared with control rats (p < 0.05). We concluded that the wound-healing effects of the studied nanoparticles are encouraging, and further studies for complete assessment are still needed.

COVID-19 Therapeutic Potential of Natural Products

Despite the fact that coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) treatment and management are now considerably regulated, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is still one of the leading causes of death in 2022. The availability of COVID-19 vaccines, FDA-approved antivirals, and monoclonal antibodies in low-income countries still poses an issue to be addressed. Natural products, particularly traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) and medicinal plant extracts (or their active component), have challenged the dominance of drug repurposing and synthetic compound libraries in COVID-19 therapeutics. Their abundant resources and excellent antiviral performance make natural products a relatively cheap and readily available alternative for COVID-19 therapeutics. Here, we deliberately review the anti-SARS-CoV-2 mechanisms of the natural products, their potency (pharmacological profiles), and application strategies for COVID-19 intervention. In light of their advantages, this review is intended to acknowledge the potential of natural products as COVID-19 therapeutic candidates.

A clinical perspective of chitosan nanoparticles for infectious disease management

Infectious diseases and their effective management are still a challenge in this modern era of medicine. Diseases, such as the SARS-CoV-2, Ebola virus, and Zika virus, still put human civilization at peril. Existing drug banks, which include antivirals, antibacterial, and small-molecule drugs, are the most advocated method for treatment, although effective but they still flounder in many instances. This calls for finding more effective alternatives for tackling the menace of infectious diseases. Nanoformulations are progressively being implemented for clinical translation and are being considered a new paradigm against infectious diseases. Natural polymers like chitosan are preferred to design nanoparticles owing to their biocompatibility, biodegradation, and long shelf-life. The chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) being highly adaptive delivers contemporary prevention for infectious diseases. Currently, they are being used as antibacterial, drug, and vaccine delivery vehicles, and wound-dressing materials, for infectious disease treatment. Although the recruitment of CNPs in clinical trials associated with infectious diseases is minimal, this may increase shortly due to the sudden emergence of unknown pathogens like SARS-CoV-2, thus turning them into a panacea for the management of microorganisms. This review particularly focuses on the all-around application of CNPs along with their recent clinical applications in infectious disease management.

Anti-COVID-19 Credentials of Chitosan Composites and Derivatives: Future Scope?

Chitosan derivatives and composites are the next generation polymers for biomedical applications. With their humble origins from the second most abundant naturally available polymer chitin, chitosan is currently one of the most promising polymer systems, with wide biological applications. This current review gives a bird’s eye view of the antimicrobial applications of chitosan composites and derivatives. The antiviral activity and the mechanisms behind the inhibitory activity of these components have been reviewed. Specifically, the anti-COVID-19 aspects of chitosan composites and their derivatives have been compiled from the existing scattered reports and presented. Defeating COVID-19 is the battle of this century, and the chitosan derivative-based combat strategies naturally become very attractive. The challenges ahead and future recommendations have been addressed.

Hierarchical and urchin-like chitosan/hydroxyapatite microspheres as drug-laden cell carriers

Biopolymer/hydroxyapatite (HAp) composites are one type of the most promising materials for a variety of biomedical applications. In this study, hierarchical and urchin-like chitosan/HAp nanowire (HU-CS/HAp NW) microspheres were for the first time synthesized by in situ hydrothermal treatment of chitosan/HAp (CS/HAp) microspheres in the acetic acid solution. The results indicate that HU-CS/HAp NW microspheres were spherical in morphology with a diameter of 100-300 μm. Their surface was mainly constructed by numerous HAp NWs with the diameter of 80-120 nm and showed a hierarchical and urchin-like nanofibrous architecture. It was found that the acidic hydrothermal treatment caused an in situ conversion of HAp NPs to HAp NWs. In vitro biocompatible evaluation indicates that HU-CS/HAp NW microspheres showed an enhanced cell attachment and proliferation due to the presence of hierarchical and urchin-like architecture. Furthermore, HU-CS/HAp NW microspheres showed a good adsorption capacity for tetracycline hydrochloride (model drug, one of the most representative antibiotics) with a higher adsorption capacity than CS/HAp microspheres and well maintained their antibacterial efficacy to inhibit the growth of bacteria: Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Thus, the present HU-CS/HAp NW microspheres would be applicable as novel drug-laden cell carriers.

Application of chitosan nanoparticles in quality and preservation of postharvest fruits and vegetables: A review

Chitosan is an interesting alternative material for packaging development due to its biodegradability. However, its poor mechanical properties and low permeability limit its actual applications. Chitosan nanoparticles (CHNPs) have emerged as a suitable solution to overcome these intrinsic limitations. In this review, all studies regarding the use of CHNPs to extend the shelf life and improve the quality of postharvest products are covered. The characteristics of CHNPs and their combinations with essential oils and metals, along with their effects on postharvest products, are compared and discussed throughout the manuscript. CHNPs enhanced postharvest antioxidant capacity, extended shelf life, increased nutritional quality, and promoted tolerance to chilling stress. Additionally, the CHNPs reduced the incidence of postharvest phytopathogens. In most instances, smaller CHNPs (<150 nm) conferred higher benefits than larger ones (>150 nm). This was likely a result of the greater plant tissue penetrability and surface area of the smaller CHNPs. The CHNPs were either applied after preparing an emulsion or incorporated into a film, with the latter often exhibiting greater antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. CHNPs were used to encapsulate essential oils, which could be released over time and may enhance the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of the CHNPs. Even though most applications were performed after harvest, preharvest application had longer lasting effects.

Chloroquine chaos and COVID-19: Smart delivery perspectives through pH sensitive polymers/micelles and ZnO nanoparticles

The global pandemic of COVID-19 had a consequential impact on our lives. (Hydroxy)chloroquine, a well-known drug for treatment or prevention against malaria and chronic inflammatory conditions, was also used for COVID patients with reported potential efficacy. Although it was well tolerated, however in some cases, it produced severe side effects, including grave cardiac issues. The variable reports on the administration of (hydroxy)chloroquine in COVID19 patients led to chaos. This drug is a well-known zinc ionophore, besides possessing antiviral effects. Zinc ionophores augment the intracellular Zn²⁺ concentration by facilitating the zinc ions into the cells and subsequently impair virus replication. Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have been reported to possess antiviral activity. However, the adverse effects of both components are also reported. We discussed in depth their possible mechanism as antiviral and smart delivery perspectives through pH-sensitive polymers/ micelles and ZnO NPs.

Effects of environmental stimuli on the physicochemical and rheological properties of chitosan-macroalgal polyphenol stabilized Pickering emulsion

In this study, Pickering emulsions stabilized by chitosan (CS), chitosan-Laminaria japonica polyphenols (CP) and chitosan-Ascophyllum nodosum polyphenols (CB) were fabricated. This study also evaluated the stability of CS, CP, and CB under different environmental factors including pH (2-9), NaCl concentrations (0-500 mM), heat treatments (50-100 °C) and storage period (0-8 weeks). The characterization on interfacial layer of emulsion droplets demonstrated that macroalgal polyphenols could combined with the amorphous regions of chitosan particles through hydrogen bond and electrostatic interactions, providing stronger dual wettability with enhanced ability of interfacial layer in stabilizing Pickering emulsions. All three emulsions showed best droplet distribution, highest emulsion stability and specific surface area at pH 6 and 0 mM NaCl concentration as fresh emulsion. Moreover, CS, CP, and CB exhibited the rheological behaviour of pseudoplastic fluids at different pH and NaCl concentration. It should be noted that CP and CB exhibited higher emulsion stability than CS under a variety of environmental stresses. Overall, this research proved that chitosan-macroalgal polyphenol co-stabilized Pickering emulsion had enhanced stability against various environmental stimuli, which could be utilized as potential delivery and protection system for hydrophobic bioactive compounds.

Formulation for the Targeted Delivery of a Vaccine Strain of Oncolytic Measles Virus (OMV) in Hyaluronic Acid Coated Thiolated Chitosan as a Green Nanoformulation for the Treatment of Prostate Cancer: A Viro-Immunotherapeutic Approach

Background

Oncolytic viruses are reported as dynamite against cancer treatment nowadays.

Methodology

In the present work, a live attenuated oral measles vaccine (OMV) strain was used to formulate a polymeric surface-functionalized ligand-based nanoformulation (NF). OMV (half dose: not less than 500 TCID units; 0.25 mL) was encapsulated in thiolated chitosan and outermost coating with hyaluronic acid by ionic gelation method characterizing parameters was performed.

Results and Discussion

CD44 high expression was confirmed in prostatic adenocarcinoma (PRAD) by GEPIA which extracted data of normal and cancer tissue from GTEx and TCGA. Bioinformatics tools confirmed the viral hemagglutinin capsid protein interaction with human Caspase-I, NLRP3, and TNF-α and viral fusion protein interaction with COX-II and Caspase-I after successful delivery of MV encapsulated in NFs due to high affinity of hyaluronic acid with CD44 on the surface of prostate cancer cells. Particle size = 275.6 mm, PDI = 0.372, and ±11.5 zeta potential were shown by zeta analysis, while the thiolated group in NFs was confirmed by FTIR and Raman analysis. SEM and XRD showed a spherical smooth surface and crystalline nature, respectively, while TEM confirmed virus encapsulation within nanoparticles, which makes it very useful in targeted virus delivery systems. The virus was released from NFs in a sustained but continuous release pattern till 48 h. The encapsulated virus titer was calculated as 2.34×107 TCID50/mL units, which showed syncytia formation on post-day infection 7. Multiplicities of infection 0.1, 0.5, 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, and 20 of HA-coated OMV-loaded NFs as compared to MV vaccine on PC3 was inoculated with IC50 of 5.1 and 3.52, respectively, and growth inhibition was seen after 72 h via MTT assay which showed apoptotic cancer cell death.

Conclusion

Active targeted, efficacious, and sustained delivery of formulated oncolytic MV is a potent moiety in cancer treatment at lower doses with safe potential for normal prostate cells.

Development of Inhalable Chitosan-Coated Oxymatrine Liposomes to Alleviate RSV-Infected Mice

Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection is the most important cause of acute lower respiratory tract infection in infants, neonates, and young children, even leading to hyperinflation and atelectasis. Oxymatrine (OMT), originating from natural herbs, possessed potential antivirus activity against influenza A virus, Coxsackie B3 virus, and RSV, whereas the absence of an in vivo study indicated the difficulties in overcoming the physiological obstacles. Since RSV basically replicated in lung tissue, in this study, we fabricated and characterized a chitosan (CS)-coated liposome with OMT loaded for the treatment of lethal RSV infection via inhalation. The results uncovered that OMT, as a hydrophilic drug, was liable to diffuse in the mucus layer and penetrate through the gas-blood barrier to enter systemic circulation quickly, which might restrict its inhibitory effect on RSV replication. The CS-coated liposome enhanced the distribution and retention of OMT in lung tissue without restriction from mucus, which contributed to the improved alleviative effect of OMT on lethal RSV-infected mice. Overall, this study provides a novel inhalation therapy for RSV infection, and the CS-coated liposome might be a potential inhalable nanocarrier for hydrophilic drugs to prevent pulmonary infections.

Chitosan nanoparticle immersion vaccine offers protection against tilapia lake virus in laboratory and field studies

Tilapia lake virus (TiLV), an enveloped negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus, causes tilapia lake virus disease (TiLVD), which is associated with mass mortality and severe economic impacts in wild and farmed tilapia industries worldwide. In this study, we developed a chitosan nanoparticle TiLV immersion vaccine and assessed the efficacy of the vaccine in laboratory and field trials. Transmission electron microscopy showed that the inactivated vaccine had a particle size of 210.3 nm, while the nano inactivated vaccine had a spherical shape with a diameter of 120.4 nm. Further analysis using fluorescent staining and immunohistochemistry analysis revealed the mucoadhesive properties of the nanovaccine (CN-KV) through fish gills. We assessed the efficacy of an immersion-based TiLV nanovaccine using a cohabitation challenge model. The fish that received the nanovaccine showed better relative percent survival (RPS) at 68.17% compared with the RPS of the inactivated virus vaccine (KV) group at 25.01%. The CN-KV group also showed a higher TiLV-specific antibody response than the control and KV groups (p < 0.05). Importantly, under field conditions, the fish receiving the CN-KV nanovaccine had better RPS at 52.2% than the nonvaccinated control group. Taken together, the CN-KV nanovaccinated fish showed better survival and antibody response than the control and KV groups both under laboratory control challenge conditions and field trials. The newly developed immersion-based nanovaccine is easy to administer in small fish, is less labor-intensive, and allows for mass vaccination to protect fish from TiLV infection.

Nanovaccines against Viral Infectious Diseases

Infectious diseases have always been regarded as one of the greatest global threats for the last century. The current ongoing COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 is living proof that the world is still threatened by emerging infectious diseases. Morbidity and mortality rates of diseases caused by Coronavirus have inflicted devastating social and economic outcomes. Undoubtedly, vaccination is the most effective method of eradicating infections and infectious diseases that have been eradicated by vaccinations, including Smallpox and Polio. To date, next-generation vaccine candidates with novel platforms are being approved for emergency use, such as the mRNA and viral vectored vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. Nanoparticle based vaccines are the perfect candidates as they demonstrated targeted antigen delivery, improved antigen presentation, and sustained antigen release while providing self-adjuvanting functions to stimulate potent immune responses. In this review, we discussed most of the recent nanovaccines that have found success in immunization and challenge studies in animal models in comparison with their naked vaccine counterparts. Nanovaccines that are currently in clinical trials are also reviewed.

Green synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles, optimization, characterization and antibacterial efficacy against multi drug resistant biofilm-forming Acinetobacter baumannii

Chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) are promising versatile cationic polymeric nanoparticles, which have received growing interest over last few decades. The biocompatibility, biodegradability, environmental safety and non-toxicity of the chitosan nanoparticles makes it preferred for a wide range of biological applications including agriculture, medical and pharmaceutical fields. In this study, CNPs were biosynthesized by aqueous extract of Eucalyptus globulus Labill fresh leaves as bio-reductant. Box-Behnken design in 29 experimental runs was used for optimization of different factors affecting the production of CNPs. The maximum yield of CNPs was 9.91 mg/mL at pH of 4.5, chitosan concentration of 1%, incubation time of 60 min and temperature of 50 °C. The crystallinity, particle size and morphology of the biosynthesized CNPs were characterized. The CNPs possess a positively charged surface of 31.1 mV. The SEM images of the CNPs confirms the formation of spherical form with smooth surface. The TEM images show CNPs were spherical in shape and their size range was between 6.92 and 10.10 nm. X-ray diffraction indicates the high degree of CNPs crystallinity. FTIR analysis revealed various functional groups of organic compounds including NH, NH2, C-H, C-O, C-N, O-H, C-C, C-OH and C-O-C. The thermogravimetric analysis results revealed that CNPs are thermally stable. The antibacterial activity of CNPs was determined against pathogenic multidrug-resistant bacteria, Acinetobacter baumannii. The diameters of the inhibition zones were 12, 16 and 30 mm using the concentrations of 12.5, 25 and 50 mg/mL; respectively. When compared to previous studies, the biosynthesized CNPs produced using an aqueous extract of fresh Eucalyptus globulus Labill leaves have the smallest particle sizes (with a size range between 6.92 and 10.10 nm). Consequently, it is a promising candidate for a diverse range of medical applications and pharmaceutical industries.

Chitosan-Based Nanomaterial as Immune Adjuvant and Delivery Carrier for Vaccines

With the support of modern biotechnology, vaccine technology continues to iterate. The safety and efficacy of vaccines are some of the most important areas of development in the field. As a natural substance, chitosan is widely used in numerous fields-such as immune stimulation, drug delivery, wound healing, and antibacterial procedures-due to its good biocompatibility, low toxicity, biodegradability, and adhesion. Chitosan-based nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted extensive attention with respect to vaccine adjuvants and delivery systems due to their excellent properties, which can effectively enhance immune responses. Here, we list the classifications and mechanisms of action of vaccine adjuvants. At the same time, the preparation methods of chitosan, its NPs, and their mechanism of action in the delivery system are introduced. The extensive applications of chitosan and its NPs in protein vaccines and nucleic acid vaccines are also introduced. This paper reviewed the latest research progress of chitosan-based NPs in vaccine adjuvant and drug delivery systems.

Current status and development prospects of aquatic vaccines

Diseases are a significant impediment to aquaculture's sustainable and healthy growth. The aquaculture industry is suffering significant financial losses as a result of the worsening water quality and increasing frequency of aquatic disease outbreaks caused by the expansion of aquaculture. Drug control, immunoprophylaxis, ecologically integrated control, etc. are the principal control strategies for fish infections. For a long time, the prevention and control of aquatic diseases have mainly relied on the use of various antibiotics and chemical drugs. However, long-term use of chemical inputs not only increases pathogenic bacteria resistance but also damages the fish and aquaculture environments, resulting in drug residues in aquatic products, severely impeding the development of the aquaculture industry. The development and use of aquatic vaccines are the safest and most effective ways to prevent aquatic animal diseases and preserve the health and sustainability of aquaculture. To give references for the development and implementation of aquatic vaccines, this study reviews the development history, types, inoculation techniques, mechanisms of action, development prospects, and challenges encountered with aquatic vaccines.

Dual-Targeting Polymer Nanoparticles Efficiently Deliver DNA Vaccine and Induce Robust Prophylactic Immunity against Spring Viremia of Carp Virus Infection

Spring viremia of carp virus (SVCV) is highly contagious and lethal to most cyprinid fish, causing serious economic losses to the carp aquaculture industry. Although DNA vaccines can generate long-term humoral and cellular immune responses, which provide protective immunity against SVCV, the major drawback of DNA vaccines is their low immunogenicity in clinical tests. Here, we construct a dual-targeted polymer DNA vaccine delivery platform (MCS-PCHG) by using mannosylated chitosan to encapsulate the poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide)-loaded DNA vaccine containing the heavy-chain C_H3 region (CH3) of common carp IgM and the antigenic domain (G131c). The developed nanovaccine delivery platform showed good biocompatibility in vivo and in vitro. With the modification of the mannose moiety and the modification of CH3, the constructed MCS-PCHG could efficiently activate the maturation of antigen-presenting cells. Moreover, we observe significantly high level of immune-related genes expression, serum antigen-specific IgM, SVCV-neutralizing antibody titers in fish vaccinated with MCS-PCHG. Next, the protective efficacy of MCS-PCHG was further evaluated by challenge test. The highest survival rate (ca. 84%) was observed in fish vaccinated with MCS-PCHG after challenging with SVCV. This study presents a novel design for smart, dual-targeted polymer nanoparticles, which are inherently biocompatible, promising for targeted vaccine delivery. IMPORTANCE Spring viremia of carp virus (SVCV) affects global cyprinid fish farming industry, with no available commercial vaccine. Herein, we developed a dual-targeting polymer nanovaccine (MCS-PCHG) by using mannose and common carp IgM heavy chain C_H3 region (CH3) as antigen presenting cell (APCs) recognition moiety, attaining the effective delivery of antigen. This dual-targeting polymer vaccine can efficiently activate the APCs, and further induce robust and durable adaptive immune response with good protection against SVCV infection. Our study provides valuable theoretical basis for developing efficient vaccine against infectious diseases in aquaculture.

Polymeric Nanoparticles for Inhaled Vaccines

Many recent studies focus on the pulmonary delivery of vaccines as it is needle-free, safe, and effective. Inhaled vaccines enhance systemic and mucosal immunization but still faces many limitations that can be resolved using polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs). This review focuses on the use of properties of PNPs, specifically chitosan and PLGA to be used in the delivery of vaccines by inhalation. It also aims to highlight that PNPs have adjuvant properties by themselves that induce cellular and humeral immunogenicity. Further, different factors influence the behavior of PNP in vivo such as size, morphology, and charge are discussed. Finally, some of the primary challenges facing PNPs are reviewed including formulation instability, reproducibility, device-related factors, patient-related factors, and industrial-level scale-up. Herein, the most important variables of PNPs that shall be defined in any PNPs to be used for pulmonary delivery are defined. Further, this study focuses on the most popular polymers used for this purpose.

Retention Time Extended by Nanoparticles Improves the Eradication of Highly Antibiotic-Resistant Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori infection usually causes gastrointestinal complications, including gastrointestinal bleeding or perforation, and serious infections may lead to gastric cancer. Amoxicillin is used to treat numerous bacterial infections but is easily decomposed in the gastric acid environment via the hydrolyzation of the β-lactam ring. In this study, we develop chitosan-based nanoparticles loaded with amoxicillin (CAANs) as an H. pylori eradication platform. The CAANs were biocompatible and could retain the antibiotic activity of amoxicillin against H. pylori growth. The mucoadhesive property of chitosan and alginate enabled the CAANs to adhere to the mucus layers and penetrate through these to release amoxicillin in the space between the layers and the gastric epithelium. The use of this nanoparticle could prolong the retention time and preserve the antibiotic activity of amoxicillin in the stomach and help enhance the eradication rate of H. pylori and reduce treatment time. These CAANs, therefore, show potential for the effective treatment of highly antibiotic-resistant H. pylori infection using amoxicillin.

Chitosan Nanoparticles: A Versatile Platform for Biomedical Applications

Chitosan is a biodegradable and biocompatible natural polymer that has been extensively explored in recent decades. The Food and Drug Administration has approved chitosan for wound treatment and nutritional use. Furthermore, chitosan has paved the way for advancements in different biomedical applications including as a nanocarrier and tissue-engineering scaffold. Its antibacterial, antioxidant, and haemostatic properties make it an excellent option for wound dressings. Because of its hydrophilic nature, chitosan is an ideal starting material for biocompatible and biodegradable hydrogels. To suit specific application demands, chitosan can be combined with fillers, such as hydroxyapatite, to modify the mechanical characteristics of pH-sensitive hydrogels. Furthermore, the cationic characteristics of chitosan have made it a popular choice for gene delivery and cancer therapy. Thus, the use of chitosan nanoparticles in developing novel drug delivery systems has received special attention. This review aims to provide an overview of chitosan-based nanoparticles, focusing on their versatile properties and different applications in biomedical sciences and engineering.

Nanoparticle-Based Inhalation Therapy for Pulmonary Diseases

The lung is exposed to various pollutants and is the primary site for the onset of various diseases, including infections, allergies, and cancers. One possible treatment approach for such pulmonary diseases involves direct administration of therapeutics to the lung so as to maintain the topical concentration of the drug. Particles with nanoscale diameters tend to reach the pulmonary region. Nanoparticles (NPs) have garnered significant interest for applications in biomedical and pharmaceutical industries because of their unique physicochemical properties and biological activities. In this article, we describe the biological and pharmacological activities of NPs as well as summarize their potential in the formulation of drugs employed to treat pulmonary diseases. Recent advances in the use of NPs in inhalation chemotherapy for the treatment of lung diseases have also been highlighted.

Chitosan and its derivatives as polymeric anti-viral therapeutics and potential anti-SARS-CoV-2 nanomedicine

The coronavirus pandemic, COVID-19 has a global impact on the lives and livelihoods of people. It is characterized by a widespread infection by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), where infected patients may develop serious medical complications or even face death. Development of therapeutic is essential to reduce the morbidity and mortality of infected patients. Chitosan is a versatile biomaterial in nanomedicine and exhibits anti-microbial, anti-cancer and immunomodulatory properties. This review highlights the progress in chitosan design and application pertaining to the anti-viral effects of chitosan and chitosan derivatives (hydroxypropyl trimethylammonium, sulfate, carboxymethyl, bromine, sialylglycopolymer, peptide and phosphonium conjugates) as a function of molecular weight, degree of deacetylation, type of substituents and their degree and site of substitution. The physicochemical attributes of these polymeric therapeutics are identified against the possibility of processing them into nanomedicine which can confer a higher level of anti-viral efficacy. The designs of chitosan for the purpose of targeting SARS-CoV-2, as well as the ever-evolving strains of viruses with a broad spectrum anti-viral activity to meet pandemic preparedness at the early stages of outbreak are discussed.