Phthalate Exposure and Long-Term Epigenomic Consequences: A Review

Prenatal phthalate exposure and birth size: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Phthalates are common endocrine disruptors. The placental barrier can be crossed by phthalates and may have a negative impact on the health of the fetus. However, the association between prenatal exposure to phthalates and birth size is still debatable. Here, we performed this meta-analysis to assess the relationship between prenatal phthalates exposure and birth size. Eighteen studies were finally included by searching PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Ovid, and Web of Science databases and standardized regression coefficients and standard errors were used to pool effect size. Our results showed that prenatal exposure to MMP (=-0.04, 95%CI: -0.08, -0.01) and MEP (=-0.01, 95%CI: -0.01, -0.002) was significantly associated with birth weight. However, no significant associations were identified for phthalate exposure with birth length, head circumference and chest circumference. Because the limiting of studies, more high-quality case-control studies or cohort studies are urgently needed to draw the best conclusions.

Identification and characterisation of moderately thermostable diisobutyl phthalate degrading esterase from a Great Artesian Basin Bacillus velezensis NP05

Phthalate esters are known to be endocrine disrupting chemicals and are documented to pollute environments. Enzymatic degradation of PAEs is a potential bioremedial strategy to manage contamination. Thermostable bioremedial enzymes have advantages in enzyme manufacturing and storage. In this study, we identified, overexpressed, and characterised a moderately thermostable para-nitrobenzyl esterase from whole genome sequencing of a Bacillus velezensis NP05 from the Great Artesian Basin, capable of sequential 2-step hydrolysis of diisobutyl phthalate. The pnbA enzyme has a molecular weight of 55.14 kDa and pI of 5.31. It preferentially degrades para-nitrophenyl butanoate and has an optimal pH of 7-8. The pnbA esterase has an optimal temperature of 55 °C with a half-life of 4 h. Using HPLC we found that pnbA (0.122 U) can hydrolyse 0.83 mM of DIBP within 25 min. Lastly, pnbA is potentially a more economically viable candidate for enzymatic bioremediation of diisobutyl phthalate as a free enzyme.

In silico investigation of the role of miRNAs in a possible developmental origin of prostate cancer in F1 and F2 offspring of mothers exposed to a phthalate mixture

A previous study using miRNA sequencing revealed that exposure to a mixture of phthalates during pregnancy and lactation dysregulated rno-miR-184 and rno-miR-141-3p in the ventral prostate (VP) of offspring. Here, rno-miR-184 and rno-miR-141-3 expressions were obtained by RT-qPCR in the VP of F1 males as well as in F2 offspring, aiming to establish a relationship with possible oncogenic targets through in silico analyses with multigenerational approach. Additionally, some targets were measured by western blots to highlight a possible relationship between the deregulated miRNAs and some of their targets. VP samples from rats exposed to a mixture of phthalates maternally during pregnancy and lactation (GD10 to PND21-F1) and VP from offspring (F2) were examined. The phthalate mixture at both concentrations (20 μg and 200 mg/kg/day) increased the expression of both miRNAs in the F1 (PND22 and 120) and F2 (descendants of F1-treated males) prostate. Target prediction analysis revealed that both microRNAs are responsible for modulating the expression and synthesis of 40 common targets. A phthalate target association analysis and the HPA database showed an interesting relationship among these possible miRNAs modulated targets with prostate adenocarcinoma and other oncogenic processes. Western blots showed alteration in P63, P53, WNT5, and STAT3 expression, which are targeted by the miRNAs, in the VP of F1/F2 males. The data draw attention to the epigenetic modulation in the prostate of descendants exposed to phthalates and adds to one of the few currently found in the literature to point to microRNAs signature as biomarkers of exposure to plasticizers.

Association between urinary phthalates and phthalate metabolites and cancer risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Phthalates, widely utilized in industrial products, are classified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Although certain phthalate and their metabolites have been implicated in cancer development, the reported findings have exhibited inconsistencies. Therefore, we conducted the comprehensive literature search to assess the association between phthalate and their metabolites and cancer risk by identifying original studies measuring phthalates or their metabolites and reporting their correlation with cancer until July 4, 2023. The Odds Ratios (ORs) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were extracted and analyzed to estimate the risk. Pooled data from eleven studies, including 3101 cancer patients and 6858 controls, were analyzed using a fixed- or random-effects model based on heterogeneity tests. When comparing extreme categories of different phthalates and their metabolites, we observed a significant association between urinary phthalates and phthalate metabolites (MEHHP, MECPP, DBP and MBzP) and cancer risk. The findings of our meta-analysis reinforce the existing evidence that urinary phthalates and phthalate metabolites is strongly associated with cancer development. Further investigations are warranted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of this association. These results may offer novel insights into cancer development.

Toxic mechanism in Daphnia magna due to phthalic acid esters and CuO nanoparticles co-exposure: The insight of physiological, microbiomic and metabolomic profiles

Various phthalic acid esters (PAEs) such as dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) co-exist with nanopollutants in aquatic environment. In this study, Daphnia magna was exposed to nano-CuO and DBP or BBP at environmental relevant concentrations for 21-days to investigate these combined toxic effects. Acute EC50 values (48 h) of nano-CuO, DBP, and BBP were 12.572 mg/L, 8.978 mg/L, and 4.785 mg/L, respectively. Results showed that co-exposure with nano-CuO (500 μg/L) for 21 days significantly enhanced the toxicity of DBP (100 μg/L) and BBP (100 μg/L) to Daphnia magna by 18.37% and 18.11%, respectively. The activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione S-transferase were enhanced by 10.95% and 14.07%, 25.63% and 25.91%, and 39.93% and 35.01% in nano-CuO+DBP and nano-CuO+BBP treatments as compared to the individual exposure groups, verifying that antioxidative defense responses were activated. Furthermore, the co-exposure of nano-CuO and PAEs decreased the population richness and diversity microbiota, and changed the microbial community composition in Daphnia magna. Metabolomic analysis elucidated that nano-CuO + PAEs exposure induced stronger disturbance on metabolic network and molecular function, including amino acid, nucleotides, and lipid metabolism-related metabolic pathways, as comparison to PAEs single exposure treatments. In summary, the integration of physiological, microflora, and untargeted metabolomics analysis offers a fresh perspective into the potential ecological risk associated with nanopollutants and phthalate pollution in aquatic ecosystems.

The mitochondrial link: Phthalate exposure and cardiovascular disease

Phthalates' pervasive presence in everyday life poses concern as they have been revealed to induce perturbing health defects. Utilized as a plasticizer, phthalates are riddled throughout many common consumer products including personal care products, food packaging, home furnishings, and medical supplies. Phthalates permeate into the environment by leaching out of these products which can subsequently be taken up by the human body. It is previously established that a connection exists between phthalate exposure and cardiovascular disease (CVD) development; however, the specific mitochondrial link in this scenario has not yet been described. Prior studies have indicated that one possible mechanism for how phthalates exert their effects is through mitochondrial dysfunction. By disturbing mitochondrial structure, function, and signaling, phthalates can contribute to the development of the foremost cause of death worldwide, CVD. This review will examine the potential link among phthalates and their effects on the mitochondria, permissive of CVD development.

Analysis and remediation of phthalates in aquatic matrices: current perspectives

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are high production volume chemicals used extensively as plasticizers, to increase the flexibility of the main polymer. They are reported to leach into their surroundings from plastic products and are now a ubiquitous environmental contaminant. Phthalate levels have been determined in several environmental matrices, especially in water. These levels serve as an indicator of plasticizer abuse and plastic pollution, and also serve as a route of exposure to different species including humans. Reports published on effects of different PAEs on experimental models demonstrate their carcinogenic, teratogenic, reproductive, and endocrine disruptive effects. Therefore, regular monitoring and remediation of environmental water samples is essential to ascertain their hazard quotient and daily exposure levels. This review summarises the extraction and detection techniques available for phthalate analysis in water samples such as chromatography, biosensors, immunoassays, and spectroscopy. Current remediation strategies for phthalate removal such as adsorption, advanced oxidation, and microbial degradation have also been highlighted.

Understanding risk and causal mechanisms for developing obesity in infants and young children: A National Institutes of Health workshop

Obesity in children remains a major public health problem, with the current prevalence in youth ages 2-19 years estimated to be 19.7%. Despite progress in identifying risk factors, current models do not accurately predict development of obesity in early childhood. There is also substantial individual variability in response to a given intervention that is not well understood. On April 29-30, 2021, the National Institutes of Health convened a virtual workshop on "Understanding Risk and Causal Mechanisms for Developing Obesity in Infants and Young Children." The workshop brought together scientists from diverse disciplines to discuss (1) what is known regarding epidemiology and underlying biological and behavioral mechanisms for rapid weight gain and development of obesity and (2) what new approaches can improve risk prediction and gain novel insights into causes of obesity in early life. Participants identified gaps and opportunities for future research to advance understanding of risk and underlying mechanisms for development of obesity in early life. It was emphasized that future studies will require multi-disciplinary efforts across basic, behavioral, and clinical sciences. An exposome framework is needed to elucidate how behavioral, biological, and environmental risk factors interact. Use of novel statistical methods may provide greater insights into causal mechanisms.

Menstrual Products: Attitudes About Taxation and Safety

Background: This study explored factors associated with the differences between women and men in attitudes, norms, and the support of taxation of menstrual products (MPs) and menstrual-adjacent products. It also investigated the use of these products in women. Methods: Young adults from 18 to 30 years of age were recruited via social media, listserve emails, and flyers placed throughout a university campus. Following cognitive interviewing, a survey investigated attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors associated with MPs. Results: Individuals self-identified as men or women. Women (n = 154) had more positive general attitudes, less positive safety attitudes, and less support for taxation of MPs than men (n = 43). Regression analyses indicated that factors, such as race, age, attitudes, norms, and taxation, were associated with product use. Conclusions: Attitudes about safety and taxation differ for men and women. Tax policies and attitude-shifting interventions need to be tailored to their audience, and our study can inform that effort.

Endocrine Disruptors and Metabolic Changes: Impact on Puberty Control

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to explore the significant impact of environmental chemicals on disease development, focusing on their role in developing metabolic and endocrine diseases. The objective is to understand how these chemicals contribute to the increasing prevalence of precocious puberty, considering various factors, including epigenetic changes, lifestyle, and emotional disturbances.

METHODS

The study employs a comprehensive review of descriptive observational studies in both human and animal models to identify a degree of causality between exposure to environmental chemicals and disease development, specifically focusing on endocrine disruption. Due to ethical constraints, direct causation studies in human subjects are not feasible; therefore, the research relies on accumulated observational data.

RESULTS

Puberty is a crucial life period with marked physiological and psychological changes. The age at which sexual characteristics develop is changing in many regions. The findings indicate a correlation between exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals and the early onset of puberty. These chemicals have been shown to interfere with normal hormonal processes, particularly during critical developmental stages such as adolescence. The research also highlights the interaction of these chemical exposures with other factors, including nutritional history, social and lifestyle changes, and emotional stress, which together contribute to the prevalence of precocious puberty.

CONCLUSION

Environmental chemicals significantly contribute to the development of certain metabolic and endocrine diseases, particularly in the rising incidence of precocious puberty. Although the evidence is mainly observational, it adequately justifies regulatory actions to reduce exposure risks. Furthermore, these findings highlight the urgent need for more research on the epigenetic effects of these chemicals and their wider impact on human health, especially during vital developmental periods.

Association between Biomarkers of Phthalate Exposure and Serum Folate Concentrations in Children: A Population-Based Cross-Sectional Study of the NHANES from 2011 to 2016

BACKGROUND

Although adverse health effects of phthalates have been reported, very few studies have assessed the associations between biomarkers of phthalate exposure and serum folate concentrations in children.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to examine the association between urinary phthalate metabolites, as biomarkers of exposure to phthalates, and total serum folate concentrations in children using national data from the United States.

METHODS

We conducted cross-sectional analyses of 2100 individuals aged 6-18 y enrolled in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011-2016. Multivariable linear regression was applied to examine the relationship between natural logarithm (ln)-transformed urinary phthalate metabolites and serum folate concentrations. The quantile-based g-computation was used to assess the association of urinary phthalate metabolite mixture with serum folate levels. Subgroup analyses were conducted by sex, age, and race/ethnicity, and the interactions were assessed by adding interaction terms of these stratifying variables and phthalates and modeling through the Wald test.

RESULTS

In multiple linear regression models, for participants in the highest tertile of MEHHP, MEOHP, DEHP, MCPP, and MCOP, total serum folate concentrations were 1.566 [β: -1.566; 95% confidence interval: -2.935, -0.196], 1.423 (-1.423; -2.689, -0.157), 1.309 (-1.309; -2.573, -0.044), 1.530 (-1.530; -2.918, -0.142), and 1.381 (-1.381; -2.641, -0.122) ng/mL lower than those in the lowest tertile. The inverse associations were consistent in different subgroups by sex, age, and race/ethnicity (P for interaction ≥0.083 for all). In addition, the phthalate mixture showed a strong inverse correlation with serum folate; a quartile increase in the phthalate mixture on the ln scale was associated with 0.888 (-0.888; -1.677, -0.099) ng/mL decrease in the serum folate.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher concentrations of urinary phthalate metabolites were associated with lower serum folate concentrations in children. Although our findings should be validated through additional population and mechanistic studies, they support a potential adverse effect of phthalate exposure on folate metabolism in children.

Various additive release from microplastics and their toxicity in aquatic environments

Additives may be present in amounts higher than 50% within plastic objects. Additives in plastics can be gradually released from microplastics (MPs) into the aquatic environment during their aging and fragmentation because most of them do not chemically react with the polymers. Some are known to be hazardous substances, which can cause toxicity effects on organisms and pose ecological risks. In this paper, the application of functional additives in MPs and their leaching in the environment are first summarized followed by their release mechanisms including photooxidation, chemical oxidation, biochemical degradation, and physical abrasion. Important factors affecting the additive release from MPs are also reviewed. Generally, smaller particle size, light irradiation, high temperature, dissolved organic matter (DOM) existence and alkaline conditions can promote the release of chemicals from MPs. In addition, the release of additives is also influenced by the polymer's structure, electrolyte types, as well as salinity. These additives may transfer into the organisms after ingestion and disrupt various biological processes, leading to developmental malformations and toxicity in offspring. Nonetheless, challenges on the toxicity of chemicals in MPs remain hindering the risk assessment on human health from MPs in the environment. Future research is suggested to strengthen research on the leaching experiment in the actual environment, develop more techniques and analysis methods to identify leaching products, and evaluate the toxicity effects of additives from MPs based on more model organisms. The work gives a comprehensive overview of current process for MP additive release in natural waters, summarizes their toxicity effects on organisms, and provides recommendations for future research.

Sex-Specific Associations between Prenatal Exposure to Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate, Epigenetic Age Acceleration, and Susceptibility to Early Childhood Upper Respiratory Infections

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a common plasticizer that can affect immune system development and susceptibility to infection. Aging processes (measured as epigenetic age acceleration (EAA)) may mediate the immune-related effects of prenatal exposure to DEHP. This study's objective was to examine associations between prenatal DEHP exposure, EAA at three months of age, and the number of upper respiratory infections (URIs) from 12 to 18 months of age using a sample of 69 maternal-child pairs from a Canadian pregnancy cohort. Blood DNA methylation data were generated using the Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip; EAA was estimated using Horvath's pan-tissue clock. Robust regressions examined overall and sex-specific associations. Higher prenatal DEHP exposure (B = 6.52, 95% CI = 1.22, 11.81) and increased EAA (B = 2.98, 95% CI = 1.64, 4.32) independently predicted more URIs. In sex-specific analyses, some similar effects were noted for boys, and EAA mediated the association between prenatal DEHP exposure and URIs. In girls, higher prenatal DEHP exposure was associated with decreased EAA, and no mediation was noted. Higher prenatal DEHP exposure may be associated with increased susceptibility to early childhood URIs, particularly in boys, and aging biomarkers such as EAA may be a biological mechanism. Larger cohort studies examining the potential developmental immunotoxicity of phthalates are needed.

Association of phthalate exposure with all-cause mortality across renal function status: The U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005-2018

BACKGROUND

Wide phthalate exposure has been associated with both declines in renal function and an elevated risk of mortality. Whether phthalate-associated risk of premature mortality differs by renal function status remains unclear.

METHODS

This study included 9605 adults from the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Urinary concentrations of 11 phthalate metabolites were assessed using high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. According to estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), participants were grouped as having normal or modestly declined renal functions, or chronic kidney disease (CKD). Multivariable Cox regression models estimated all-cause mortality associated with phthalate exposure, overall and by renal function status.

RESULTS

Overall, Mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP), Mono-benzyl phthalate (MBzP), Mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP) and Mono-(2-ethyl-5-carbox-ypentyl) phthalate (MECPP) were associated with an elevated risk of mortality (P-trend across tertile <0.05). Moreover, significant interactions were observed between eGFR and MEHHP, MEOHP, MECPP, DEHP in the whole population (P for interactions <0.05). After stratification by renal function, total Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was additionally found to be associated with mortality risk in the CKD group (HR = 1.12; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.25). Co-exposure to the 11 phthalate metabolites was associated with a higher risk of all-cause mortality in the CKD (HR = 1.47; 95% CI: 1.18, 1.84) and modestly declined renal function group (HR = 1.25; 95% CI: 1.09, 1.44).

CONCLUSIONS

The associations between phthalate exposure and risk of all-cause mortality were primarily observed in CKD patients, reinforcing the need for monitoring phthalate exposure in this patient population.

Exploring the associations between phthalate exposure and cardiometabolic risk factors clustering among children: The potential mediating role of insulin-resistant-related genes DNA methylation

The relationship between childhood phthalates (PAEs) exposure, DNA methylation, and cardiometabolic risk (CMR) factors is not well understood. Children were included from a longitudinal cohort 2018-2020 in Xiamen, China. A nest case-control study was additionally conducted, and methylation in lysyl oxidase-like 3 (LOXL3) and solute Carrier Family 6 Member 19 (SLC6A19) were measured. Generalized linear models were used to estimate the associations between PAEs exposure and CMR factors, and mediation analyses of DNA methylation were conducted. The longitudinal study included 835 children aged 7-11 years, and the nest case-control study included 120 cases and 120 controls. Exposure to higher PAEs was correlated with increased CMR scores at baseline (β = 0.299, 95 %CI = 0.114, 0.485) and the final visit (β = 0.202, 95 %CI = 0.008, 0.397). In nest case-control study, higher mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP) exposure was related with elevated triglycerides (TG) (β = 0.283, 95 %CI = 0.025, 0.540). A decrement of methylation of CpG 33.34 of LOXL3 was found in response to MnBP exposure (β = -0.014, 95 %CI = -0.027, -0.001). Furthermore, increased methylation of LOXL3_CpG 33.34 and SLC6A19_CpG 11.12 was related to reduced TG. De-methylation of LOXL3_CpG 33.34 and SLC6A19_CpG 11.12 could mediate MnBP-TG pathways. Childhood exposure to PAEs was associated with increased CMR scores, and mediation of PAE exposure on childhood cardiometabolic health by LOXL3 and SLC6A19 de-methylation was observed.

Prenatal exposure to low-dose di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) induces potentially hepatic lipid accumulation and fibrotic changes in rat offspring

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a plasticizer that is widely used to enhance the flexibility and durability of various products. As an endocrine disruptor, DEHP can interfere with normal hormonal functions, posing substantial health risks to organisms. Given the critical role of the liver in DEHP metabolism, we investigated potential liver damage in offspring induced by prenatal exposure to low doses of DEHP in Sprague Dawley rats. Pregnant rats were divided into three groups and administered 20 or 200 μg/kg/day of DEHP or corn oil vehicle control via oral gavage from gestation days 0-20. Male rat offspring were euthanized on postnatal day 84, and blood and liver specimens were collected for analysis. We observed fibrotic changes in the livers of the exposed groups, accompanied by the proliferation and activation of hepatic stellate cells and upregulated expression of TGF-B and collagen 1A1. Additionally, an inflammatory response, characterized by increased macrophage infiltration and elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, was evident. Third, hepatic and serum triglyceride and serum cholesterol were notably increased, along with upregulated expression of lipid metabolism-related proteins, such as sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, fatty acid synthase, and diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 1, particularly in the low-dose group. These results suggest that prenatal exposure to DEHP can disrupt lipid metabolism, resulting in hepatic lipid accumulation in the offspring. This exposure may also induce an inflammatory response that contributes to the development of liver fibrosis. Thus, even at relatively low doses, such exposure can precipitate latent liver damage in offspring.

Unpacking Phthalates from Obscurity in the Environment

Phthalates (PAEs) are a group of synthetic esters of phthalic acid compounds mostly used as plasticizers in plastic materials but are widely applied in most industries and products. As plasticizers in plastic materials, they are not chemically bound to the polymeric matrix and easily leach out. Logically, PAEs should be prevalent in the environment, but their prevalence, transport, fate, and effects have been largely unknown until recently. This has been attributed, inter alia, to a lack of standardized analytical procedures for identifying them in complex matrices. Nevertheless, current advancements in analytical techniques facilitate the understanding of PAEs in the environment. It is now known that they can potentially impact ecological and human health adversely, leading to their categorization as endocrine-disrupting chemicals, carcinogenic, and liver- and kidney-failure-causing agents, which has landed them among contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). Thus, this review article reports and discusses the developments and advancements in PAEs' standard analytical methods, facilitating their emergence from obscurity. It further explores the opportunities, challenges, and limits of their advancements.

Biological Aging Acceleration Due to Environmental Exposures: An Exciting New Direction in Toxicogenomics Research

Biological clock technologies are designed to assess the acceleration of biological age (B-age) in diverse cell types, offering a distinctive opportunity in toxicogenomic research to explore the impact of environmental stressors, social challenges, and unhealthy lifestyles on health impairment. These clocks also play a role in identifying factors that can hinder aging and promote a healthy lifestyle. Over the past decade, researchers in epigenetics have developed testing methods that predict the chronological and biological age of organisms. These methods rely on assessing DNA methylation (DNAm) levels at specific CpG sites, RNA levels, and various biomolecules across multiple cell types, tissues, and entire organisms. Commonly known as 'biological clocks' (B-clocks), these estimators hold promise for gaining deeper insights into the pathways contributing to the development of age-related disorders. They also provide a foundation for devising biomedical or social interventions to prevent, reverse, or mitigate these disorders. This review article provides a concise overview of various epigenetic clocks and explores their susceptibility to environmental stressors.

Sensitivity of Legionella pneumophila to phthalates and their substitutes

Phthalates constitute a family of anthropogenic chemicals developed to be used in the manufacture of plastics, solvents, and personal care products. Their dispersion and accumulation in many environments can occur at all stages of their use (from synthesis to recycling). However, many phthalates together with other accumulated engineered chemicals have been shown to interfere with hormone activities. These compounds are also in close contact with microorganisms that are free-living, in biofilms or in microbiota, within multicellular organisms. Herein, the activity of several phthalates and their substitutes were investigated on the opportunistic pathogen Legionella pneumophila, an aquatic microbe that can infect humans. Beside showing the toxicity of some phthalates, data suggested that Acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC) and DBP (Di-n-butyl phthalate) at environmental doses (i.e. 10-6 M and 10-8 M) can modulate Legionella behavior in terms of motility, biofilm formation and response to antibiotics. A dose of 10-6 M mostly induced adverse effects for the bacteria, in contrast to a dose of 10-8 M. No perturbation of virulence towards Acanthamoeba castellanii was recorded. These behavioral alterations suggest that L. pneumophila is able to sense ATBC and DBP, in a cross-talk that either mimics the response to a native ligand, or dysregulates its physiology.

Year-to-year variation in phthalate metabolites in the Midlife Women's Health Study

BACKGROUND

Humans are widely exposed to phthalates, which are metabolized in the body and excreted in urine. Phthalate metabolites are excreted within hours of exposure, making urinary phthalate biomarker concentrations highly variable.

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this study was to characterize the long-term variability in phthalate biomarker concentrations in women across the midlife transition and to identify factors that may be associated with increased variability in those phthalate biomarker concentrations by analyzing longitudinal urinary phthalate metabolite data from the Midlife Women's Health Study (2006-2015).

METHODS

A total of 741 women were enrolled in the study for a period of up to 4 years, during which they each provided 2-4 urine samples per year over 4 consecutive weeks that were pooled for analysis (1876 total pools). Nine phthalate metabolites were assessed individually and as molar sums representative of common compounds (all phthalates: ƩPhthalates; DEHP: ƩDEHP), exposure sources (plastics: ƩPlastic; personal care products: ƩPCP), and modes of action (anti-androgenic: ƩAA). Phthalate metabolites were analyzed by quartile using generalized linear models. In addition, the impact of explanatory variables (race, annual family income, and type of work) on phthalate quartile was examined using ordinal logistic regression models.

IMPACT STATEMENT

Phthalate biomarker concentrations are highly variable among midlife women over time, and annual sampling may not be sufficient to fully characterize long-term exposure.

Efficient adsorption of organic pollutants phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) utilizing magnetite functionalized covalent organic frameworks (MCOFs): A promising future material for industrial applications

The utilization of phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) as the major component in plastic and its derivative industry has raised concerns among the public due to the harmful effects caused by these organic pollutants. These pollutants are found to exhibit unique physicochemical properties that allow the pollutants to have prolonged existence in the environment, thus causing damage to the environment. Since phthalates and bisphenol A are used in a variety of industrial applications, the industry must recover these compounds from its water before releasing the pollutants into the environment. As a result, these materials have a promising future in industrial applications. Therefore, the discovery of new quick and reliable abatement technologies is important to ensure that these organic pollutants can be detected and removed from the water sources. This review highlights the use of the adsorption method to remove phthalates and BPA from water sources by employing novel modified adsorbent magnetite functionalized covalent organic frameworks (MCOFs). MCOFs is a new class of porous materials that have demonstrated promising features in a variety of applications due to their adaptable structures, significant surface areas, configurable porosity, and customizable chemistry. The structural attributes, functional design strategies, and specialized for environmental applications before offering some closing thoughts and suggestions for further research were discussed in this paper in addition to developing an innovative solution for the industry to the accessibility for clean water.

Prenatal exposures to endocrine disrupting chemicals: The role of multi-omics in understanding toxicity

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are a diverse group of toxicants detected in populations globally. Prenatal EDC exposures impact birth and childhood outcomes. EDCs work through persistent changes at the molecular, cellular, and organ level. Molecular and biochemical signals or 'omics' can be measured at various functional levels - including the epigenome, transcriptome, proteome, metabolome, and the microbiome. In this narrative review, we introduce each omics and give examples of associations with prenatal EDC exposures. There is substantial research on epigenomic modifications in offspring exposed to EDCs during gestation, and a growing number of studies evaluating the transcriptome, proteome, metabolome, or microbiome in response to these exposures. Multi-omics, integrating data across omics layers, may improve understanding of disrupted function pathways related to early life exposures. We highlight several data integration methods to consider in multi-omics studies. Information from multi-omics can improve understanding of the biological processes and mechanisms underlying prenatal EDC toxicity.

Phthalates and their effects on human health: Focus on erythrocytes and the reproductive system

Plastics, long-chain artificial polymers, are used worldwide with a global production of 350 million tonnes per year. Various degradation processes transform plastics into smaller fragments divided into micro, meso and macroplastics. In various industries, such as construction, certain plastic additives are used to improve flexibility and enhance performance. Plastic additives include phthalates (PAE), dibutyl phthalate (DPB) and diethyl phthalate (DEP). Due to the use of plastics and plastic additives, these small fragments of different shapes and colours are present in all environmental compartments. For their characteristics, PAEs can be introduced particularly by ingestion, inhalation and dermal absorption. They can accumulate in the human body, where they have already been identified in blood, amniotic fluid and urine. The purpose of this review is to gather the effects that these plastic additives have on various systems in the human body. Being endocrine disruptors, the effects they have on erythrocytes and how they can be considered targets for xenobiotics have been analysed. The influence on the reproductive system was also examined. Phthalates are therefore often overused. Due to their properties, they can reach human tissues and have a negative impact on health. The aim of this review is to give an overview of the presence of phthalates and their hazards. Therefore, the use of these plastic additives should be reduced, replaced and their disposal improved.

Phthalate exposure and risk of ovarian dysfunction in endometriosis: human and animal data

Objective: We aimed to explore the correlations between and possible mechanisms of common environmental endocrine disruptors, phthalates, and ovarian dysfunction in endometriosis. Methods: Subjects were included in the case group (n = 107) who were diagnosed with endometriosis by postoperative pathology in Fujian Maternal and Child Hospital from February 2018 to February 2021, and the women who were excluded from endometriosis by surgery were as the control group (n = 70). The demographic information of the subjects were evaluated by questionnaire, and the clinical characteristics were evaluated by medical records and 3-year follow-up results. Gas chromatography‒mass spectrometry was used to quantify 10 metabolites of phthalates, including dimethyl ortho-phthalate (DMP), mono-n-methyl phthalate (MMP), dioctyl ortho-phthalate (DEP), mono-ethyl phthalate (MEP), di-n-butyl ortho-phthalate (DBP), mono-butyl phthalate (MBP), benzylbutyl phthalate (BBzP), mono-benzyl; phthalate (MBzP), diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and mono-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP), in the urine samples of the subjects. Furthermore, a total of 54 SD rats were exposed to DEHP 0, 5, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1,000, 2000, and 3,000 mg/kg/day for 2 weeks. The SD rats' body weight, oestrus cycle changes, and serum anti-mullerian hormone (AMH) levels were evaluated. After sacrifice, the mass index of the rat uterus and bilateral ovaries were calculated. Finally, bioinformatics analysis of rat ovarian tissues was performed to explore the possible mechanism. SPSS 24.0 (IBM, United States) was used for data analysis. p-value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: The human urinary levels of DMP (p < 0.001), MMP (p = 0.001), DEP (p = 0.003), MEP (p = 0.002), DBP (p = 0.041), MBP (p < 0.001), BBzP (p = 0.009), DEHP (p < 0.001), and MEHP (p < 0.001) were significantly higher in women with endometriosis than in controls. Notably, DEHP was a significant risk factor for endometriosis (OR: 11.0, 95% CI: 5.4-22.6). The area under the ROC curve increased when multiple phthalates were diagnosed jointly, reaching 0.974 as the highest value, which was helpful for the diagnosis of endometriosis. In vivo experiments showed that after DEHP exposure in rats, the mass index of the ovary and uterus decreased in a dose-dependent manner; the oestrus cycle of SD rats was irregularly prolonged and disordered; and the serum AMH level was negatively correlated with the DEHP exposure dose (Rho = -0.8, p < 0.001). Bioinformatics analysis of rat ovarian tissues showed that seven genes involved in the steroid biosynthesis pathway were upregulated and may play a negative role in ovarian function. Conclusion: Exposure to phthalates, especially DEHP, is associated with the occurrence of endometriosis and affects women's reproductive prognosis and ovarian function. The steroid biosynthesis pathway may be related to ovarian dysfunction. The detection of phthalate in urine may become a new biological target for the diagnosis of endometriosis.

Phthalates exposure and pubertal development in a 15-year follow-up birth cohort study in Taiwan

Purpose

Phthalates are ubiquitous endocrine disruptors that can affect pubertal development in children. The association of fetal and childhood levels of phthalates with pubertal development were explored.

Methods

We conduct a population-based birth cohort study to investigate the association between prenatal and childhood exposure to phthalates and pubertal development. Initially, a total of 445 children were recruited from 2000 to 2001, of which 90 children were followed for 15 years which measurements of urine and development assessed at 2, 5, 8, 11, and 14 years. We defined higher Tanner stage as the 14-year-old Tanner stage ≥ 4 and 5 for boys and girls, respectively. A logistic regression analysis was conducted to estimate the crude and adjusted odds ratio of a higher Tanner stage at 14 years old. The Pearson correlation coefficient and multiple linear regression were used to estimate the association of testicular volume, uterine volume, ovarian volume, and blood hormones at 14 years of age with the log-transformed concentration of phthalates at 2, 5, 8, 11, and 14 years.

Results

In boys, a significantly different geometric mean of mono-benzyl phthalate (MBzP) was observed in 11-year-olds; 6.82 and 2.96 in the lower Tanner stage group and higher Tanner stage group. In girls, a significant difference in the geometric mean of mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP) in 11-year-olds and mono-ethyl phthalate (MEP) in 2-year-olds was observed; MEHHP was 32.97 and 18.13 in the lower Tanner stage group and higher Tanner stage group, and MEP was 26.54 and 65.74 in the lower Tanner stage group and higher Tanner stage group, respectively. Uterine volume at 14 years old was negatively associated with several phthalate metabolites (MEHP at 8 years old, MnBP at 8 years old, MBzP at 14 years old, MMP prenatally, MMP at 8 years old, and MEP at 8 years old) after adjusting for covariates. However, no significant correlations were found between phthalate metabolites and ovarian or testicular volume.

Conclusion

Phthalate exposure at certain time points may influence the reproductive development of children during puberty; however, further studies should be conducted to determine the causal nature of this association.

Iodine Deficiency, Maternal Hypothyroxinemia and Endocrine Disrupters Affecting Fetal Brain Development: A Scoping Review

This scoping review critically discusses the publications of the last 30 years on the impact of mild to moderate iodine deficiency and the additional impact of endocrine disrupters during pregnancy on embryonal/fetal brain development. An asymptomatic mild to moderate iodine deficiency and/or isolated maternal hypothyroxinemia might affect the development of the embryonal/fetal brain. There is sufficient evidence underlining the importance of an adequate iodine supply for all women of childbearing age in order to prevent negative mental and social consequences for their children. An additional threat to the thyroid hormone system is the ubiquitous exposure to endocrine disrupters, which might exacerbate the effects of iodine deficiency in pregnant women on the neurocognitive development of their offspring. Ensuring adequate iodine intake is therefore essential not only for healthy fetal and neonatal development in general, but it might also extenuate the effects of endocrine disruptors. Individual iodine supplementation of women of childbearing age living in areas with mild to moderate iodine deficiency is mandatory as long as worldwide universal salt iodization does not guarantee an adequate iodine supply. There is an urgent need for detailed strategies to identify and reduce exposure to endocrine disrupters according to the "precautional principle".

Associations between prenatal phthalate exposure and childhood epigenetic age acceleration

BACKGROUND

Phthalates, a group of pervasive endocrine-disrupting chemicals found in plastics and personal care products, have been associated with a wide range of developmental and health outcomes. However, their impact on biomarkers of aging has not been characterized. We tested associations between prenatal exposure to 11 phthalate metabolites on epigenetic aging in children at birth, 7, 9, and 14 years of age. We hypothesized that prenatal phthalate exposure will be associated with epigenetic age acceleration measures at birth and in early childhood, with patterns dependent on sex and timing of DNAm measurement.

METHODS

Among 385 mother-child pairs from the CHAMACOS cohort, we measured DNAm at birth, 7, 9, and 14 years of age, and utilized adjusted linear regression to assess the association between prenatal phthalate exposure and Bohlin's Gestational Age Acceleration (GAA) at birth and Intrinsic Epigenetic Age Acceleration (IEAA) throughout childhood. Additionally, quantile g-computation was utilized to assess the effect of the phthalate mixture on GAA at birth and IEAA throughout childhood.

RESULTS

We found a negative association between prenatal di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) exposure and IEAA among males at age 7 (-0.58 years; 95% CI: 1.02 to -0.13), and a marginal negative association between the whole phthalate mixture and GAA among males at birth (-1.54 days, 95% CI: 2.79 to -0.28), while most other associations were nonsignificant.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that prenatal exposure to certain phthalates is associated with epigenetic aging in children. Additionally, our findings suggest that the influence of prenatal exposures on epigenetic age may only manifest during specific periods of child development, and studies relying on DNAm measurements solely from cord blood or single time points may overlook potential relationships.

Urinary di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites are independently related to serum neurofilament light chain, a biomarker of neurological diseases, in adults: results from NHANES 2013-2014

Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a chemical commonly used in the manufacturing of plastics and can pose human health risks, including endocrine disruption, reproductive toxicity, and potential carcinogenic effects. Children may be particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of DEHP. Early exposure to DEHP has been linked to potential behavioral and learning problems. However, there are no reports to date on whether DEHP exposure in adulthood has neurotoxic effects. Serum neurofilament light chain (NfL), a protein released into the blood after neuroaxonal damage, has been shown to be a reliable biomarker for many neurological diseases. To date, no study has examined the relationship between DEHP exposure and NfL. For the present study, we selected 619 adults (aged ≥ 20 years) from the 2013-2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to examine the association between urinary DEHP metabolites and serum NfL. We reported higher urinary levels of ln-mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP), ln-mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP), and ln-mono(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP), and ln-ΣDEHP levels were associated with higher serum levels of ln-NfL (ΣDEHP: β-coefficient = 0. 075; S.E. = 0.026; P = 0.011). When we divided ΣDEHP into quartiles, mean NfL concentrations increased with quartiles of MEHHP (P for trend = 0.023). The association was more pronounced in males, non-Hispanic white race, higher income, and BMI < 25. In conclusion, higher DEHP exposure was positively associated with higher serum NfL in adults from NHANES 2013-2014. If this finding is causal, it is possible that DEHP exposure in adulthood may also induce neurological damage. Although the causality of this observation and the clinical significance are uncertain, our findings suggest that additional research is needed on DEHP exposure, serum NfL, and neurological disease in adults.

Prenatal phthalate exposure and cord blood DNA methylation

Exposure to phthalates has been shown to impede the human endocrine system, resulting in deleterious effects on pregnant women and their children. Phthalates modify DNA methylation patterns in infant cord blood. We examined the association between prenatal phthalate exposure and DNA methylation patterns in cord blood in a Korean birth cohort. Phthalate levels were measured in 274 maternal urine samples obtained during late pregnancy and 102 neonatal urine samples obtained at birth, and DNA methylation levels were measured in cord blood samples. For each infant in the cohort, associations between CpG methylation and both maternal and neonate phthalate levels were analyzed using linear mixed models. The results were combined with those from a meta-analysis of the levels of phthalates in maternal and neonatal urine samples, which were also analyzed for MEOHP, MEHHP, MnBP, and DEHP. This meta-analysis revealed significant associations between the methylation levels of CpG sites near the CHN2 and CUL3 genes, which were also associated with MEOHP and MnBP in neonatal urine. When the data were stratified by the sex of the infant, MnBP concentration was found to be associated with one CpG site near the OR2A2 and MEGF11 genes in female infants. In contrast, the concentrations of the three maternal phthalates showed no significant association with CpG site methylation. Furthermore, the data identified distinct differentially methylated regions in maternal and neonatal urine samples following exposure to phthalates. The CpGs with methylation levels that were positively associated with phthalate levels (particularly MEOHP and MnBP) were found to be enriched genes and related pathways. These results indicate that prenatal phthalate exposure is significantly associated with DNA methylation at multiple CpG sites. These alterations in DNA methylation may serve as biomarkers of maternal exposure to phthalates in infants and are potential candidates for investigating the mechanisms by which phthalates impact maternal and neonatal health.

Plastic used in in vitro fertilization procedures induces massive placental gene expression alterations

BACKGROUND

The exposure to plastic derivatives during human life is deleterious. Infants conceived using ART (IVF or ICSI) have twice as many risks of major birth defects compared to naturally conceived infants. Could plastic ware used during ART trigger defects in the fetal development?

METHODS

Three groups of blastocysts were transferred to pseudopregnant mice. One was obtained after IVF and embryo development in plastic ware, the second in glass ware. The third, was obtained in vivo by natural mating. On day 16.5 of pregnancy, females were sacrificed and fetal organs collected for gene expression analysis. Fetal sex was determined by RT-PCR. RNA was extracted from a pool of five placental or brain samples coming from at least two litters from the same group and analyzed by hybridisation onto the mouse Affymetrix 430.2.0 GeneChips, confirmed by RT-qPCR for 22 genes.

FINDINGS

This study highlights a major impact of plastic ware on placental gene expression (1121 significantly deregulated genes), while glassware was much closer to in vivo offspring (only 200 significantly deregulated genes). Gene Ontology indicated that the modified placental genes were mostly involved in stress, inflammation and detoxification. A sex specific analysis revealed in addition a more drastic effect on female than male placentas. In the brains, whatever the comparison, less than 50 genes were found deregulated.

INTERPRETATION

Embryos incubated in plastic ware resulted in pregnancy with massive alterations of placental gene expression profile in concerted biological functions. There were no obvious effects on the brains. Besides other effects, this suggests that plastic ware in ART could be a cause of the increased level of pregnancy disorders observed recurrently in ART pregnancies.

FUNDING

This study was funded by two grants from the Agence de la Biomedecine in 2017 and 2019.

Molecular Dynamics Simulation Prediction of the Partitioning Constants (KH, Kiw, Kia) of 82 Legacy and Emerging Organic Contaminants at the Water-Air Interface

The tendency of organic contaminants (OCs) to partition between different phases is a key set of properties that underlie their human and ecological health impacts and the success of remediation efforts. A significant challenge associated with these efforts is the need for accurate partitioning data for an ever-expanding list of OCs and breakdown products. All-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have the potential to help generate these data, but existing studies have applied these techniques only to a limited variety of OCs. Here, we use established MD simulation approaches to examine the partitioning of 82 OCs, including many compounds of critical concern, at the water-air interface. Our predictions of the Henry's law constant (K_H) and interfacial adsorption coefficients (K_iw, K_ia) correlate strongly with experimental results, indicating that MD simulations can be used to predict K_H, K_iw, and K_ia values with mean absolute deviations of 1.1, 0.3, and 0.3 logarithmic units after correcting for systematic bias, respectively. A library of MD simulation input files for the examined OCs is provided to facilitate future investigations of the partitioning of these compounds in the presence of other phases.

Maternal urinary bisphenols and phthalates in relation to estimated fetal weight across mid to late pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Bisphenols and phthalates are high production volume chemicals used as additives in a variety of plastic consumer products leading to near ubiquitous human exposure. These chemicals have established endocrine disrupting properties and have been linked to a range of adverse reproductive and developmental outcomes. Here, we investigated exposure in relation to fetal growth.

METHODS

Participants included 855 mother-fetal pairs enrolled in the population-based New York University Children's Health and Environment Study (NYU CHES). Bisphenols and phthalates were measured in maternal urine collected repeatedly during pregnancy. Analyses included 15 phthalate metabolites and 2 bisphenols that were detected in 50 % of participants or more. Fetal biometry data were extracted from electronic ultrasonography records and estimated fetal weight (EFW) was predicted for all fetuses at 20, 30, and 36 weeks gestation. We used quantile regression adjusted for covariates to model exposure-outcome relations across percentiles of fetal weight at each gestational timepoint. We examined sex differences using stratified models.

RESULTS

Few statistically significant associations were observed across chemicals, gestational time periods, percentiles, and sexes. However, within gestational timepoints, we found that among females, the molar sums of the phthalates DiNP and DnOP were generally associated with decreases in EFW among smaller babies and increases in EFW among larger babies. Among males, the opposite trend was observed. However, confidence intervals were generally wide at the tails of the distribution.

CONCLUSION

In this sample, exposure to bisphenols and phthalates was associated with small sex-specific shifts in fetal growth; however, few associations were observed at the median of fetal weight and confidence intervals in the tails were wide. Findings were strongest for DiNP and DnOP, which are increasingly used as replacements for DEHP, supporting the need for future research on these contaminants.

The Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health

Background

Plastics have conveyed great benefits to humanity and made possible some of the most significant advances of modern civilization in fields as diverse as medicine, electronics, aerospace, construction, food packaging, and sports. It is now clear, however, that plastics are also responsible for significant harms to human health, the economy, and the earth's environment. These harms occur at every stage of the plastic life cycle, from extraction of the coal, oil, and gas that are its main feedstocks through to ultimate disposal into the environment. The extent of these harms not been systematically assessed, their magnitude not fully quantified, and their economic costs not comprehensively counted.

Goals

The goals of this Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health are to comprehensively examine plastics' impacts across their life cycle on: (1) human health and well-being; (2) the global environment, especially the ocean; (3) the economy; and (4) vulnerable populations-the poor, minorities, and the world's children. On the basis of this examination, the Commission offers science-based recommendations designed to support development of a Global Plastics Treaty, protect human health, and save lives.

Report Structure

This Commission report contains seven Sections. Following an Introduction, Section 2 presents a narrative review of the processes involved in plastic production, use, and disposal and notes the hazards to human health and the environment associated with each of these stages. Section 3 describes plastics' impacts on the ocean and notes the potential for plastic in the ocean to enter the marine food web and result in human exposure. Section 4 details plastics' impacts on human health. Section 5 presents a first-order estimate of plastics' health-related economic costs. Section 6 examines the intersection between plastic, social inequity, and environmental injustice. Section 7 presents the Commission's findings and recommendations.

Plastics

Plastics are complex, highly heterogeneous, synthetic chemical materials. Over 98% of plastics are produced from fossil carbon- coal, oil and gas. Plastics are comprised of a carbon-based polymer backbone and thousands of additional chemicals that are incorporated into polymers to convey specific properties such as color, flexibility, stability, water repellence, flame retardation, and ultraviolet resistance. Many of these added chemicals are highly toxic. They include carcinogens, neurotoxicants and endocrine disruptors such as phthalates, bisphenols, per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), brominated flame retardants, and organophosphate flame retardants. They are integral components of plastic and are responsible for many of plastics' harms to human health and the environment.Global plastic production has increased almost exponentially since World War II, and in this time more than 8,300 megatons (Mt) of plastic have been manufactured. Annual production volume has grown from under 2 Mt in 1950 to 460 Mt in 2019, a 230-fold increase, and is on track to triple by 2060. More than half of all plastic ever made has been produced since 2002. Single-use plastics account for 35-40% of current plastic production and represent the most rapidly growing segment of plastic manufacture.Explosive recent growth in plastics production reflects a deliberate pivot by the integrated multinational fossil-carbon corporations that produce coal, oil and gas and that also manufacture plastics. These corporations are reducing their production of fossil fuels and increasing plastics manufacture. The two principal factors responsible for this pivot are decreasing global demand for carbon-based fuels due to increases in 'green' energy, and massive expansion of oil and gas production due to fracking.Plastic manufacture is energy-intensive and contributes significantly to climate change. At present, plastic production is responsible for an estimated 3.7% of global greenhouse gas emissions, more than the contribution of Brazil. This fraction is projected to increase to 4.5% by 2060 if current trends continue unchecked.

Plastic Life Cycle

The plastic life cycle has three phases: production, use, and disposal. In production, carbon feedstocks-coal, gas, and oil-are transformed through energy-intensive, catalytic processes into a vast array of products. Plastic use occurs in every aspect of modern life and results in widespread human exposure to the chemicals contained in plastic. Single-use plastics constitute the largest portion of current use, followed by synthetic fibers and construction.Plastic disposal is highly inefficient, with recovery and recycling rates below 10% globally. The result is that an estimated 22 Mt of plastic waste enters the environment each year, much of it single-use plastic and are added to the more than 6 gigatons of plastic waste that have accumulated since 1950. Strategies for disposal of plastic waste include controlled and uncontrolled landfilling, open burning, thermal conversion, and export. Vast quantities of plastic waste are exported each year from high-income to low-income countries, where it accumulates in landfills, pollutes air and water, degrades vital ecosystems, befouls beaches and estuaries, and harms human health-environmental injustice on a global scale. Plastic-laden e-waste is particularly problematic.

Environmental Findings

Plastics and plastic-associated chemicals are responsible for widespread pollution. They contaminate aquatic (marine and freshwater), terrestrial, and atmospheric environments globally. The ocean is the ultimate destination for much plastic, and plastics are found throughout the ocean, including coastal regions, the sea surface, the deep sea, and polar sea ice. Many plastics appear to resist breakdown in the ocean and could persist in the global environment for decades. Macro- and micro-plastic particles have been identified in hundreds of marine species in all major taxa, including species consumed by humans. Trophic transfer of microplastic particles and the chemicals within them has been demonstrated. Although microplastic particles themselves (>10 µm) appear not to undergo biomagnification, hydrophobic plastic-associated chemicals bioaccumulate in marine animals and biomagnify in marine food webs. The amounts and fates of smaller microplastic and nanoplastic particles (MNPs <10 µm) in aquatic environments are poorly understood, but the potential for harm is worrying given their mobility in biological systems. Adverse environmental impacts of plastic pollution occur at multiple levels from molecular and biochemical to population and ecosystem. MNP contamination of seafood results in direct, though not well quantified, human exposure to plastics and plastic-associated chemicals. Marine plastic pollution endangers the ocean ecosystems upon which all humanity depends for food, oxygen, livelihood, and well-being.

Human Health Findings

Coal miners, oil workers and gas field workers who extract fossil carbon feedstocks for plastic production suffer increased mortality from traumatic injury, coal workers' pneumoconiosis, silicosis, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer. Plastic production workers are at increased risk of leukemia, lymphoma, hepatic angiosarcoma, brain cancer, breast cancer, mesothelioma, neurotoxic injury, and decreased fertility. Workers producing plastic textiles die of bladder cancer, lung cancer, mesothelioma, and interstitial lung disease at increased rates. Plastic recycling workers have increased rates of cardiovascular disease, toxic metal poisoning, neuropathy, and lung cancer. Residents of "fenceline" communities adjacent to plastic production and waste disposal sites experience increased risks of premature birth, low birth weight, asthma, childhood leukemia, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer.During use and also in disposal, plastics release toxic chemicals including additives and residual monomers into the environment and into people. National biomonitoring surveys in the USA document population-wide exposures to these chemicals. Plastic additives disrupt endocrine function and increase risk for premature births, neurodevelopmental disorders, male reproductive birth defects, infertility, obesity, cardiovascular disease, renal disease, and cancers. Chemical-laden MNPs formed through the environmental degradation of plastic waste can enter living organisms, including humans. Emerging, albeit still incomplete evidence indicates that MNPs may cause toxicity due to their physical and toxicological effects as well as by acting as vectors that transport toxic chemicals and bacterial pathogens into tissues and cells.Infants in the womb and young children are two populations at particularly high risk of plastic-related health effects. Because of the exquisite sensitivity of early development to hazardous chemicals and children's unique patterns of exposure, plastic-associated exposures are linked to increased risks of prematurity, stillbirth, low birth weight, birth defects of the reproductive organs, neurodevelopmental impairment, impaired lung growth, and childhood cancer. Early-life exposures to plastic-associated chemicals also increase the risk of multiple non-communicable diseases later in life.

Economic Findings

Plastic's harms to human health result in significant economic costs. We estimate that in 2015 the health-related costs of plastic production exceeded $250 billion (2015 Int$) globally, and that in the USA alone the health costs of disease and disability caused by the plastic-associated chemicals PBDE, BPA and DEHP exceeded $920 billion (2015 Int$). Plastic production results in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions equivalent to 1.96 gigatons of carbon dioxide (CO2e) annually. Using the US Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) social cost of carbon metric, we estimate the annual costs of these GHG emissions to be $341 billion (2015 Int$).These costs, large as they are, almost certainly underestimate the full economic losses resulting from plastics' negative impacts on human health and the global environment. All of plastics' economic costs-and also its social costs-are externalized by the petrochemical and plastic manufacturing industry and are borne by citizens, taxpayers, and governments in countries around the world without compensation.

Social Justice Findings

The adverse effects of plastics and plastic pollution on human health, the economy and the environment are not evenly distributed. They disproportionately affect poor, disempowered, and marginalized populations such as workers, racial and ethnic minorities, "fenceline" communities, Indigenous groups, women, and children, all of whom had little to do with creating the current plastics crisis and lack the political influence or the resources to address it. Plastics' harmful impacts across its life cycle are most keenly felt in the Global South, in small island states, and in disenfranchised areas in the Global North. Social and environmental justice (SEJ) principles require reversal of these inequitable burdens to ensure that no group bears a disproportionate share of plastics' negative impacts and that those who benefit economically from plastic bear their fair share of its currently externalized costs.

Conclusions

It is now clear that current patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal are not sustainable and are responsible for significant harms to human health, the environment, and the economy as well as for deep societal injustices.The main driver of these worsening harms is an almost exponential and still accelerating increase in global plastic production. Plastics' harms are further magnified by low rates of recovery and recycling and by the long persistence of plastic waste in the environment.The thousands of chemicals in plastics-monomers, additives, processing agents, and non-intentionally added substances-include amongst their number known human carcinogens, endocrine disruptors, neurotoxicants, and persistent organic pollutants. These chemicals are responsible for many of plastics' known harms to human and planetary health. The chemicals leach out of plastics, enter the environment, cause pollution, and result in human exposure and disease. All efforts to reduce plastics' hazards must address the hazards of plastic-associated chemicals.

Recommendations

To protect human and planetary health, especially the health of vulnerable and at-risk populations, and put the world on track to end plastic pollution by 2040, this Commission supports urgent adoption by the world's nations of a strong and comprehensive Global Plastics Treaty in accord with the mandate set forth in the March 2022 resolution of the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA).International measures such as a Global Plastics Treaty are needed to curb plastic production and pollution, because the harms to human health and the environment caused by plastics, plastic-associated chemicals and plastic waste transcend national boundaries, are planetary in their scale, and have disproportionate impacts on the health and well-being of people in the world's poorest nations. Effective implementation of the Global Plastics Treaty will require that international action be coordinated and complemented by interventions at the national, regional, and local levels.This Commission urges that a cap on global plastic production with targets, timetables, and national contributions be a central provision of the Global Plastics Treaty. We recommend inclusion of the following additional provisions:The Treaty needs to extend beyond microplastics and marine litter to include all of the many thousands of chemicals incorporated into plastics.The Treaty needs to include a provision banning or severely restricting manufacture and use of unnecessary, avoidable, and problematic plastic items, especially single-use items such as manufactured plastic microbeads.The Treaty needs to include requirements on extended producer responsibility (EPR) that make fossil carbon producers, plastic producers, and the manufacturers of plastic products legally and financially responsible for the safety and end-of-life management of all the materials they produce and sell.The Treaty needs to mandate reductions in the chemical complexity of plastic products; health-protective standards for plastics and plastic additives; a requirement for use of sustainable non-toxic materials; full disclosure of all components; and traceability of components. International cooperation will be essential to implementing and enforcing these standards.The Treaty needs to include SEJ remedies at each stage of the plastic life cycle designed to fill gaps in community knowledge and advance both distributional and procedural equity.This Commission encourages inclusion in the Global Plastic Treaty of a provision calling for exploration of listing at least some plastic polymers as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention.This Commission encourages a strong interface between the Global Plastics Treaty and the Basel and London Conventions to enhance management of hazardous plastic waste and slow current massive exports of plastic waste into the world's least-developed countries.This Commission recommends the creation of a Permanent Science Policy Advisory Body to guide the Treaty's implementation. The main priorities of this Body would be to guide Member States and other stakeholders in evaluating which solutions are most effective in reducing plastic consumption, enhancing plastic waste recovery and recycling, and curbing the generation of plastic waste. This Body could also assess trade-offs among these solutions and evaluate safer alternatives to current plastics. It could monitor the transnational export of plastic waste. It could coordinate robust oceanic-, land-, and air-based MNP monitoring programs.This Commission recommends urgent investment by national governments in research into solutions to the global plastic crisis. This research will need to determine which solutions are most effective and cost-effective in the context of particular countries and assess the risks and benefits of proposed solutions. Oceanographic and environmental research is needed to better measure concentrations and impacts of plastics <10 µm and understand their distribution and fate in the global environment. Biomedical research is needed to elucidate the human health impacts of plastics, especially MNPs.

Summary

This Commission finds that plastics are both a boon to humanity and a stealth threat to human and planetary health. Plastics convey enormous benefits, but current linear patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal that pay little attention to sustainable design or safe materials and a near absence of recovery, reuse, and recycling are responsible for grave harms to health, widespread environmental damage, great economic costs, and deep societal injustices. These harms are rapidly worsening.While there remain gaps in knowledge about plastics' harms and uncertainties about their full magnitude, the evidence available today demonstrates unequivocally that these impacts are great and that they will increase in severity in the absence of urgent and effective intervention at global scale. Manufacture and use of essential plastics may continue. However, reckless increases in plastic production, and especially increases in the manufacture of an ever-increasing array of unnecessary single-use plastic products, need to be curbed.Global intervention against the plastic crisis is needed now because the costs of failure to act will be immense.

Epigenotoxicity: a danger to the future life

Environmental toxicants can regulate gene expression in the absence of DNA mutations via epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs' (ncRNAs). Here, all three epigenetic modifications for seven important categories of diseases and the impact of eleven main environmental factors on epigenetic modifications were discussed. Epigenetic-related mechanisms are among the factors that could explain the root cause of a wide range of common diseases. Its overall impression on the development of diseases can help us diagnose and treat diseases, and besides, predict transgenerational and intergenerational effects. This comprehensive article attempted to address the relationship between environmental factors and epigenetic modifications that cause diseases in different categories. The studies main gap is that the precise role of environmentally-induced epigenetic alterations in the etiology of the disorders is unknown; thus, still more well-designed researches need to be accomplished to fill this gap. The present review aimed to first summarize the adverse effect of certain chemicals on the epigenome that may involve in the onset of particular disease based on in vitro and in vivo models. Subsequently, the possible adverse epigenetic changes that can lead to many human diseases were discussed.

The interaction of DNMT1 and DNMT3A epigenetic enzymes with phthalates and perfluoroalkyl substances: an in silico approach

The occurrence of long-lasting adverse effects of the environmental contaminants on human health is a current emerging issue. In particular, phthalates, poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances are proposed to trigger toxic effects as well as persistent changes on human development and metabolism by different mechanisms, including epigenetic modifications, although the specific underlying pathways are still unknown. This study contributes to identify the potential molecular initiating events of epigenetic-mediated adverse effects by an in silico approach, which combines molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation. The approach probes the potential molecular interaction between several different phthalates and persistent organic pollutants and a specific class of epigenetic modulators, namely the DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs). The dynamics of interaction and the binding free energies of the ligand-DNMTs complexes demonstrated that pollutants can be classified into two main groups, according to the ligand-target complex stability: (1) a larger class of phthalates (DBP, DEHP, MBP and MEHP) acting as inhibitors of the enzymatic activity of the epigenetic targets and (2) a smaller class of phthalates (DMP and MMP) and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFOA and PFOS) which do not interact stably with the human DNMTs. These findings provide the first valuable in silico insights on the ability of these specific environmental pollutants to directly bind and inhibit a key class of epigenetic regulators. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Remediation of phthalate acid esters from contaminated environment—Insights on the bioremedial approaches and future perspectives

Phthalates are well-known emerging pollutants that are toxic to the environment and human health. Phthalates are lipophilic chemicals used as plasticizers in many of the items for improving their material properties. These compounds are not chemically bound and are released to the surroundings directly. Phthalate acid esters (PAEs) are endocrine disruptors and can interfere with hormones, which can cause issues with development and reproduction, thus there is a huge concern over their existence in various ecological surroundings. The purpose of this review is to explore the occurrence, fate, and concentration of phthalates in various environmental matrices. This article also covers the phthalate degradation process, mechanism, and outcomes. Besides the conventional treatment technology, the paper also aims at the recent advancements in various physical, chemical, and biological approaches developed for phthalate degradation. In this paper, a special focus has been given on the diverse microbial entities and their bioremedial mechanisms executes the PAEs removal. Critically, the analyses method for determining intermediate products generated during phthalate biotransformation have been discussed. Concluisvely, the challenges, limitations, knowledge gaps and future opportunities of bioremediation and their significant role in ecology have also been highlighted.

Endocrine modulating chemicals in food packaging: A review of phthalates and bisphenols

Phthalates and bisphenol chemicals have been widely used globally in packaging materials and consumer products for several decades. These highly functional chemicals have become a concern due to their toxicity (i.e., endocrine/hormone modulators) and ability to migrate from food contact materials (FCMs) into food matrices and the environment resulting in human and environmental health risks. FCMs, composed of postconsumer materials, are particularly high risk for containing these compounds. The evaluation of postconsumer recycled feedstocks in FCMs is compulsory and selection of an appropriate detection method to comply with applicable regulations is necessary to evaluate human and environmental safety. Numerous regulations have been proposed and passed globally for both compound classes that are recognized as priority pollutants by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the European Union. Several brand owners and retailers have also released their own "restricted substance lists" due to the mounting consumer and regulatory concerns. This review article has two goals: (1) discuss the utilization, toxicology, human exposure routes, and occurrence levels of phthalates and bisphenols in FCMs and associated legislation in various countries and (2) discuss critical understanding and updates for detection/quantification techniques. Current techniques discussed include extraction and sample preparation methods (solid-phase microextraction [SPME], headspace SPME, Soxhlet procedure, ultrasound-assisted extraction), chromatographic techniques (gas, liquid, detectors), and environmental/blank considerations for quantification. This review complements a previous review of phthalates in foods from 2009 by discussing phthalate and bisphenol characteristics, analytical methods of determining concentrations in packaging materials, and their influence on the migration potential into food.

Lipophilicity profiling and cell viability assessment of a selected panel of endocrine disruptors

Endocrine disruptors are chemicals widely used worldwide by industries in a variety of applications. Routinely exposure to these chemicals, even if at low doses, can cause damage effects on human health. In the present study, we evaluated toxic effects of nine chemicals, among which phthalates, using various cell lines to inspect their capability to interfere with cell proliferation and viability. Alongside, we investigated their affinity for phospholipids to assess the possible passage through biomembranes. Experimentally determined logk_w^IAM.MG values ranged from 1.37 to 3.49 whilst calculated log k_w^IAM.DD2 spanned from 1.80 to 5.21, supporting the target contaminants to exhibit lipophilicity moderate or very high. The achieved results were related to pharmacokinetic and toxicological properties by ADMET predictor™ and EPI Suite™ software. Triclosan and 4-Nonylphenol were found to be the most toxic against all cell lines screened, showing an IC₅₀ of 30 μM for triclosan on human keratinocytes and of 50 μM for 4-Nonylphenol on human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells. Overall, even if the phthalates showed higher IC₅₀ values (ranging from 170 μM to 280 μM), we can assert that all contaminants herein tested were able to interfere with cell growth and viability.

A human-relevant mixture of endocrine disrupting chemicals induces changes in hippocampal DNA methylation correlating with hyperactive behavior in male mice

Humans are ubiquitously exposed to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), substances that interfere with endogenous hormonal signaling. Exposure during early development is of particular concern due to the programming role of hormones during this period. A previous epidemiological study has shown association between prenatal co-exposure to 8 EDCs (Mixture N1) and language delay in children, suggesting an effect of this mixture on neurodevelopment. Furthermore, in utero exposure to Mixture N1 altered gene expression and behavior in adult mice. In this study, we investigated whether epigenetic mechanisms could underlie the long term effects of Mixture N1 on gene expression and behavior. To this end, we analyzed DNA methylation at regulatory regions of genes whose expression was affected by Mixture N1 in the hippocampus of in utero exposed mice using bisulfite-pyrosequencing. We show that Mixture N1 decreases DNA methylation in males at three genes that are part of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis: Nr3c1, Nr3c2, and Crhr1, coding for the glucocorticoid receptor, the mineralocorticoid receptor, and the corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1, respectively. Furthermore, we show that the decrease in Nr3c1 methylation correlates with increased gene expression, and that Nr3c1, Nr3c2, and Crhr1 methylation correlates with hyperactivity and reduction in social behavior. These findings indicate that an EDC mixture corresponding to a human exposure scenario induces epigenetic changes, and thus programming effects, on the HPA axis that are reflected in the behavioral phenotypes of the adult male offspring.

Environmental contaminants, endocrine disruption, and transgender: Can "born that way" in some cases be toxicologically real?

Gender is viewed by many as strictly binary based on a collection of body traits typical of a female or male phenotype, presence of a genotype that includes at least one copy of a Y chromosome, or ability to produce either egg or sperm cells. A growing non-binary view is that these descriptors, while compelling, may nonetheless fail to accurately capture an individual's true gender. The position of the American Psychological Association (APA) agrees with this view and is that transgender people are a defendable and real part of the human population. The considerable diversity of transgender expression then argues against any unitary or simple explanations, however, prenatal hormone levels, genetic influences, and early and later life experiences have been suggested as playing roles in development of transgender identities. The present review considers existing and emerging toxicologic data that may also support an environmental chemical contribution to some transgender identities, and suggest the possibility of a growing nonbinary brain gender continuum in the human population.

Can paternal environmental experiences affect the breast cancer risk in offspring? A systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Studies in recent years have shown that parental environmental experiences can affect their offspring's risk of breast cancer (BC). We assessed the effect of different paternal factors on BC risk in offspring by reviewing the existing literature.

METHOD

This systematic review followed the Joanna Briggs Institute's (JBI) method for systematic reviews of qualitative evidence. The primary keywords were searched in reliable databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, Elsevier, SID, and Wiley in English until 31 December 2021. Two authors independently examined the articles in terms of inclusion criteria and quality assessment of the articles.

RESULTS

Of the 438 studies, 19 met the inclusion criteria of this systematic review and were included in the study. Paternal factors investigated in these studies included age at delivery, diet, occupational exposures, occupation type and education. The reported relationships between these factors and breast cancer varied among different studies.

CONCLUSION

Studies considered in this article show that fathers' age at the time of delivery of the child, dietary habits, overweight and occupational factors can affect the incidence of BC risk in the next generation.

Association between endocrine-disrupting chemical mixture and metabolic indices among children, adolescents, and adults: A population-based study in Korea

Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) play a role in the etiology of obesity and dyslipidemia. However, few studies have analyzed the combined effects of EDC mixtures. This study explored the association between concurrent exposure to EDCs and obesity or dyslipidemia in children, adolescents, and adults. A total of 1454 children, 891 adolescents, and 3758 (for BMI) and 3424 (for TG/HDL) adults from the Korean National Environmental Health Survey 2015 to 2017 were included in this cross-sectional study. Urinary concentrations of eight phthalate metabolites, three phenols, three parabens, and one pyrethroid pesticides metabolite were quantified. Body mass index (BMI) was measured for all participants, and triglyceride (TG) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) levels were measured for adolescents and adults. Associations between combined EDC mixtures with the BMI and TG to HDL-c ratio were evaluated using Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression (BKMR). In all age groups, most of the chemical exposures, with the exception of BPF and BPS, were detected in more than 90% of participants. There were significant moderate to high correlations within phthalate metabolites and a high correlation within parabens. The BKMR showed that EDC mixtures were associated with higher BMI in both adolescents and adults, with greater significance in adults compared with adolescents, and a higher TG/HDL in male adolescents. In adolescents, MEP and MCPP drove the main effects on BMI and TG/HDL, respectively. In adults, 3PBA and BPA drove the main effects on BMI. The findings of this study suggest that exposure to EDC mixtures is associated with higher BMI and TG/HDL, and adolescence may be a critical period for EDC mixture in terms of both outcomes. Further studies are needed, but strategies to reduce EDC exposure from early life stages may be necessary to lower the risk of metabolic disease.

Uptake and photoinduced degradation of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in Ulva lactuca highlight its potential application in environmental bioremediation

The bioaccumulation of phthalates was studied in fragments of Ulva lactuca exposed for a maximum of 31 days at different concentrations of a solution of six phthalic acid esters (PAEs). The algal matrix showed rapid uptake since the first sampling, which increased over the time of the experimental period, at the end of which seaweed's bioaccumulation potential was also evaluated. After the uptake, the algal matrix was subjected to UV irradiation in order to verify the removal of the phthalates. PAEs with higher octanol-water partition coefficients (logK_ow) and molecular weights were preferentially uptaken by U. lactuca in all the exposure experiments. It was observed that both accumulation (biota-sediment accumulation factor (log₁₀BSAF) ranging from 3.75 to 4.02) and photodegradation (higher than 70% removal for all phthalates in 8 h) are more efficient at lower concentration levels. These results suggest the potential use of the algal matrices for environmental bioremediation, in order to mitigate the impact of pollution from ubiquitous pollutants such as PAEs.

Fetal exposure to phthalates and bisphenols and DNA methylation at birth: the Generation R Study

BACKGROUND

Phthalates and bisphenols are non-persistent endocrine disrupting chemicals that are ubiquitously present in our environment and may have long-lasting health effects following fetal exposure. A potential mechanism underlying these exposure-outcome relationships is differential DNA methylation. Our objective was to examine the associations of maternal phthalate and bisphenol concentrations during pregnancy with DNA methylation in cord blood using a chemical mixtures approach.

METHODS

This study was embedded in a prospective birth cohort study in the Netherlands and included 306 participants. We measured urine phthalates and bisphenols concentrations in the first, second and third trimester. Cord blood DNA methylation in their children was processed using the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip using an epigenome-wide association approach. Using quantile g-computation, we examined the association of increasing all mixture components by one quartile with cord blood DNA methylation.

RESULTS

We did not find evidence for statistically significant associations of a maternal mixture of phthalates and bisphenols during any of the trimesters of pregnancy with DNA methylation in cord blood (all p values > 4.01 * 10^-8). However, we identified one suggestive association (p value < 1.0 * 10^-6) of the first trimester maternal mixture of phthalates and bisphenols and three suggestive associations of the second trimester maternal mixture of phthalates and bisphenols with DNA methylation in cord blood.

CONCLUSIONS

Although we did not identify genome-wide significant results, we identified some suggestive associations of exposure to a maternal mixture of phthalates and bisphenols in the first and second trimester with DNA methylation in cord blood that need further exploration in larger study samples.

Effects of bis (2-butoxyethyl) phthalate on adrenocortical function in male rats in puberty partially via down-regulating NR5A1/NR4A1/NR4A2 pathways

Phthalates may interfere with the biosynthesis of steroid hormones in the adrenal cortex. Bis (2-butoxyethyl) phthalate (BBOP) is a phthalate containing oxygen atoms in the alcohol moiety. In this study, 35-day-old male Sprague-Dawley rats were daily gavaged with BBOP (0, 10, 100, 250, and 500 mg/kg body weight) for 21 days. BBOP did not affect the weight of body and adrenal glands. BBOP significantly reduced serum corticosterone levels at 250 and 500 mg/kg, and lowered aldosterone level at 500 mg/kg without affecting adrenocorticotropic hormone. BBOP did not alter the thickness of the adrenal cortex. BBOP significantly down-regulated the expression of steroidogenesis-related genes (Scarb1, Star, Cyp11a1, Cyp21, Cyp11b1, Cyp11b2, Nr5a1, Nr4a1, and Nr4a2) and proteins, and antioxidant enzymes (Sod1, Sod2, Gpx1, and Cat) and their proteins, while up-regulating the expression of Mc2r and Agtr1a at various doses. BBOP reduced the phosphorylation of AKT1, AKT2, and ERK1/2, as well as the levels of SIRT1 and PGC1α without affecting the phosphorylation of AMPK. BBOP significantly induced the production of reactive oxygen species and apoptosis rate in H295R cells at 100 μM and higher after 24 h of treatment. In conclusion, male rats exposed to BBOP in puberty have significant reduction of steroid biosynthesis with a potential mechanism that is involved in the decrease in the phosphorylation of AKT1, AKT2, ERK1/2, as well as SIRT1 and PGC1α and increase in ROS.

Prenatal and perinatal phthalate exposure is associated with sex-dependent changes in hippocampal miR-15b-5p and miR-34a-5p expression and changes in testicular morphology in rat offspring

MicroRNAs are a large group of non-coding nucleic acids, usually 20-22 nt long, which bind to regulatory sections of messenger RNA (mRNA) and inhibit gene expression. However, genome activity is also regulated by hormones. Endocrine disruptors such as those from the phthalate group imitate or block these hormonal effects, and our previous study showed a long-lasting decrease in plasma testosterone levels in rat offspring exposed to a mixture of three phthalates in utero and postnatally. These effects were also observed at the behavioural level. To shed more light on these findings, in this new study we compared testicular tissue morphology between control and phthalatetreated males and investigated possible persistent changes and sex differences in the expression of two hippocampal microRNAs - miR- 15b-5p and miR-34a-5p - participating in the transcription of steroidogenic genes. Histologically observed changes in testicular tissue morphology of phthalate-exposed males compared to control support testosterone drop observed in the previous study. At the microRNA level, we observed more significant changes in phthalate-treated females than in males. However, we are unable to relate these effects to the previously observed behavioural changes.

Association of phthalate exposure with all-cause and cause-specific mortality among people with hypertension: The U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2003-2014

There is growing evidence that phthalate exposure results in a deteriorated effect on human health, while very few studies directly investigate the relationship of phthalate metabolites with mortality among people with hypertension. We aimed to explore whether exposure to phthalates is associated with all-cause and cause-specific mortality among people with hypertension. This study included 4012 people with hypertension from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2003 to 2014. Death information was obtained from the National Death Index until 2015. A total of 577 deaths including 196 deaths due to cardiovascular disease (CVD) and 119 deaths due to cancer were documented. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). After adjustment for potential covariates, participants exposed to mono-ethyl phthalate (MEP) had a higher risk of cancer mortality (HR, 2.06; 95% CI, 1.07-3.95). Participants exposed to mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP) had higher risks of all-cause (HR, 1.83; 95% CI, 1.28-2.60), CVD (HR, 2.19; 95% CI, 1.21-3.95), and cancer (HR, 2.35; 95% CI, 1.07-5.17) mortality. Participants exposed to mono-benzyl phthalate (MBzP) had higher risks of all-cause (HR, 2.19; 95% CI, 1.58-3.05) and CVD (HR, 2.36; 95% CI, 1.35-4.13) mortality. Participants exposed to di-2-ethylhexylphthalate (DEHP) had a higher risk of all-cause mortality (HR, 1.69; 95% CI, 1.19-2.39). Our findings suggested that higher levels of specific phthalates were significantly associated with increased risks of all-cause, CVD, and cancer mortality among people with hypertension. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings and identify the underlying mechanisms.

Trimester-specific phthalate exposures in pregnancy are associated with circulating metabolites in children

Background

Prenatal phthalates exposures have been related to adiposity in peripuberty in a sex-specific fashion. Untargeted metabolomics analysis to assess circulating metabolites offers the potential to characterize biochemical pathways by which early life exposures influence the development of cardiometabolic risk during childhood and adolescence, prior to becoming evident in clinical markers.

Methods

Among mother-child dyads from the Early Life Exposure in Mexico to ENvironmental Toxicants (ELEMENT) birth cohort, we measured 9 phthalate metabolites and bisphenol A in maternal spot urine samples obtained during each trimester of pregnancy, corrected for urinary specific gravity and natural log-transformed. In 110 boys and 124 girls aged 8–14 years, we used a mass-spectrometry based untargeted metabolomics platform to measure fasting serum metabolites, yielding 572 annotated metabolites. We estimated the associations between trimester-specific urinary toxicants and each serum metabolite, among all children or stratified by sex and adjusting for child age, BMI z-score, and pubertal onset. We accounted for multiple comparisons using a 10% false discovery rate (q<0.1).

Results

Associations between exposures and metabolites were observed among all children and in sex-stratified analyses (q<0.1). First trimester MEP, MiBP, and MCPP were associated with decreased 2-deoxy-D-glucose among all children. Among girls, third trimester concentrations of MECPP, MEHHP, MEHP, and MCPP were associated with 15, 13, 1, and 10 metabolites, respectively, including decreased choline and increased acylcarnitines and saturated FAs (FA). Among boys, third trimester MIBP was positively associated with 9 features including long chain saturated FAs, and second trimester MBzP was inversely associated with thyroxine.

Conclusions

Metabolomics biomarkers may reflect sex- and exposure timing-specific responses to prenatal phthalate exposures manifesting in childhood that may not be detected using standard clinical markers of cardiometabolic risk.