Changes in Astroglial Markers in a Maternal Immune Activation Model of Schizophrenia in Wistar Rats are Dependent on Sex

Cannabidiol improves maternal obesity-induced behavioral, neuroinflammatory and neurochemical dysfunctions in the juvenile offspring

Maternal obesity is associated with an increased risk of psychiatric disorders such as anxiety, depression, schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder in the offspring. While numerous studies focus on preventive measures targeting the mothers, only a limited number provide practical approaches for addressing the damages once they are already established. We have recently demonstrated the interplay between maternal obesity and treatment with cannabidiol (CBD) on hypothalamic inflammation and metabolic disturbances, however, little is known about this relationship on behavioral manifestations and neurochemical imbalances in other brain regions. Therefore, here we tested whether CBD treatment could mitigate anxiety-like and social behavioral alterations, as well as neurochemical disruptions in both male and female offspring of obese dams. Female Wistar rats were fed a cafeteria diet for 12 weeks prior to mating, and during gestation and lactation. Offspring received CBD (50 mg/kg) from weaning for 3 weeks. Behavioral tests assessed anxiety-like manifestations and social behavior, while neuroinflammatory and neurochemical markers were evaluated in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus. CBD treatment attenuated maternal obesity-induced anxiety-like and social behavioral alterations, followed by rescuing effects on imbalanced neurotransmitter and endocannabinoid concentrations and altered expression of glial markers, CB1, oxytocin and dopamine receptors, with important differences between sexes. Overall, the findings of this study provide insight into the signaling pathways for the therapeutic benefits of CBD on neuroinflammation and neurochemical imbalances caused by perinatal maternal obesity in the PFC and the hippocampus, which translates into the behavioral manifestations, highlighting the sexual dimorphism encompassing both the transgenerational effect of obesity and the endocannabinoid system.

Modeling psychotic disorders: Environment x environment interaction

Schizophrenia is a major psychotic disorder with multifactorial etiology that includes interactions between genetic vulnerability and environmental risk factors. In addition, interplay of multiple environmental adversities affects neurodevelopment and may increase the individual risk of developing schizophrenia. Consistent with the two-hit hypothesis of schizophrenia, we review rodent models that combine maternal immune activation as the first hit with other adverse environmental exposures as the second hit. We discuss the strengths and pitfalls of the current animal models of environment x environment interplay and propose some future directions to advance the field.

Maternal immune activation and role of placenta in the prenatal programming of neurodevelopmental disorders

Maternal infection during pregnancy, leading to maternal immune activation (mIA) and cytokine release, increases the offspring risk of developing a variety of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs), including schizophrenia. Animal models have provided evidence to support these mechanistic links, with placental inflammatory responses and dysregulation of placental function implicated. This leads to changes in fetal brain cytokine balance and altered epigenetic regulation of key neurodevelopmental pathways. The prenatal timing of such mIA-evoked changes, and the accompanying fetal developmental responses to an altered in utero environment, will determine the scope of the impacts on neurodevelopmental processes. Such dysregulation can impart enduring neuropathological changes, which manifest subsequently in the postnatal period as altered neurodevelopmental behaviours in the offspring. Hence, elucidation of the functional changes that occur at the molecular level in the placenta is vital in improving our understanding of the mechanisms that underlie the pathogenesis of NDDs. This has notable relevance to the recent COVID-19 pandemic, where inflammatory responses in the placenta to SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy and NDDs in early childhood have been reported. This review presents an integrated overview of these collective topics and describes the possible contribution of prenatal programming through placental effects as an underlying mechanism that links to NDD risk, underpinned by altered epigenetic regulation of neurodevelopmental pathways.

Preclinical animal models of mental illnesses to translate findings from the bench to the bedside: Molecular brain mechanisms and peripheral biomarkers associated to early life stress or immune challenges

Animal models are useful preclinical tools for studying the pathogenesis of mental disorders and the effectiveness of their treatment. While it is not possible to mimic all symptoms occurring in humans, it is however possible to investigate the behavioral, physiological and neuroanatomical alterations relevant for these complex disorders in controlled conditions and in genetically homogeneous populations. Stressful and infection-related exposures represent the most employed environmental risk factors able to trigger or to unmask a psychopathological phenotype in animals. Indeed, when occurring during sensitive periods of brain maturation, including pre, postnatal life and adolescence, they can affect the offspring's neurodevelopmental trajectories, increasing the risk for mental disorders. Not all stressed or immune challenged animals, however, develop behavioral alterations and preclinical animal models can explain differences between vulnerable or resilient phenotypes. Our review focuses on different paradigms of stress (prenatal stress, maternal separation, social isolation and social defeat stress) and immune challenges (immune activation in pregnancy) and investigates the subsequent alterations in several biological and behavioral domains at different time points of animals' life. It also discusses the "double-hit" hypothesis where an initial early adverse event can prime the response to a second negative challenge. Interestingly, stress and infections early in life induce the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, alter the levels of neurotransmitters, neurotrophins and pro-inflammatory cytokines and affect the functions of microglia and oxidative stress. In conclusion, animal models allow shedding light on the pathophysiology of human mental illnesses and discovering novel molecular drug targets for personalized treatments.

Disruption of Alternative Splicing in the Amygdala of Pigs Exposed to Maternal Immune Activation

The inflammatory response of gestating females to infection or stress can disrupt gene expression in the offspring’s amygdala, resulting in lasting neurodevelopmental, physiological, and behavioral disorders. The effects of maternal immune activation (MIA) can be impacted by the offspring’s sex and exposure to additional stressors later in life. The objectives of this study were to investigate the disruption of alternative splicing patterns associated with MIA in the offspring’s amygdala and characterize this disruption in the context of the second stress of weaning and sex. Differential alternative splicing was tested on the RNA-seq profiles of a pig model of viral-induced MIA. Compared to controls, MIA was associated with the differential alternative splicing (FDR-adjusted p-value < 0.1) of 292 and 240 genes in weaned females and males, respectively, whereas 132 and 176 genes were differentially spliced in control nursed female and male, respectively. The majority of the differentially spliced (FDR-adjusted p-value < 0.001) genes (e.g., SHANK1, ZNF672, KCNA6) and many associated enriched pathways (e.g., Fc gamma R-mediated phagocytosis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and cGMP-PKG signaling) have been reported in MIA-related disorders including autism and schizophrenia in humans. Differential alternative splicing associated with MIA was detected in the gene MAG across all sex-stress groups except for unstressed males and SLC2A11 across all groups except unstressed females. Precise understanding of the effect of MIA across second stressors and sexes necessitates the consideration of splicing isoform profiles.

Maternal immune activation and neuroinflammation in human neurodevelopmental disorders

Maternal health during pregnancy plays a major role in shaping health and disease risks in the offspring. The maternal immune activation hypothesis proposes that inflammatory perturbations in utero can affect fetal neurodevelopment, and evidence from human epidemiological studies supports an association between maternal inflammation during pregnancy and offspring neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). Diverse maternal inflammatory factors, including obesity, asthma, autoimmune disease, infection and psychosocial stress, are associated with an increased risk of NDDs in the offspring. In addition to inflammation, epigenetic factors are increasingly recognized to operate at the gene-environment interface during NDD pathogenesis. For example, integrated brain transcriptome and epigenetic analyses of individuals with NDDs demonstrate convergent dysregulated immune pathways. In this Review, we focus on the emerging human evidence for an association between maternal immune activation and childhood NDDs, including autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and Tourette syndrome. We refer to established pathophysiological concepts in animal models, including immune signalling across the placenta, epigenetic 'priming' of offspring microglia and postnatal immune-brain crosstalk. The increasing incidence of NDDs has created an urgent need to mitigate the risk and severity of these conditions through both preventive strategies in pregnancy and novel postnatal therapies targeting disease mechanisms.

Exposure to hypertonic solutions during pregnancy induces autism-like behaviors via the NFAT-5 pathway in offspring in a rat model

OBJECTIVES

to investigate the effects of hyperosmolar state (HS) on immune response and inflammation via the NFAT5 pathway and examine whether immune-mediated conditions trigger autism-like behavior in offspring.

METHODS

a pregnant rat model was performed by administering hyperosmotic solutions. Pregnant rats were divided into 2 main groups; control (group I) and hyperosmolar groups (group II). Control group rats were given % 0.25 NaCI (tap water) (n = 6), the Hyperosmolar (HO) group was further subdivided into 3 groups as; Group II a rats which were given % 3 hypertonic NaCl (n = 6), Group II b rats were given mineral water (% 3 NaHCO3+magnesium+calcium content) (n = 6), and Group II c rats were given Ayran (% 0.8 NaCl content) (n = 6). Their offspring were examined for behaviors, biochemical and histological abnormality.

RESULTS

in offspring, TNF- α, IL-17, NFAT-5, and NGF levels in the brain were significantly higher in hyperosmotic solution groups than in control rats. Exposure of pregnant rats to hyperosmotic solution resulted in autism-like behaviors in their offspring. Through immunohistochemical methods, we found that CA1 and CA2 of the hippocampus indicated decreased number of neurons in hyperosmotic solution groups compared with the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

our findings once again emphasized that the immune-mediated conditions involved in the pathophysiology of autism. NFAT5 pathway may be a key factor in the development of neuroinflammation by hyperosmotic solutions.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes a leaky blood-brain barrier and neuroinflammation in the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum regions of infected mice offspring

The maternal system's exposure to pathogens influences foetal brain development through the influx of maternal cytokines and activation of the foetal immune status to a persistent inflammatory state characterised by glia cell activation. Neuroinflammation influences the blood-brain barrier's (BBB) permeability allowing peripheral immune cell trafficking into the brain. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is a pathogen that causes Tuberculosis (TB), a global pandemic responsible for health and economic burdens. Although it is known that maternal infections increase the risk of Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it is not known whether gestational Mtb infections also contribute to impaired foetal neurodevelopment. Here we infect pregnant Balb/c mice with Mtb H37Rv and Valproic acid (VPA) individually and in combination. Neuroinflammation was measured by assessing microglia and astrocyte population in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and cerebellum (CER) of pups. Mtb infection increased the microglia population and caused morphological changes to a reactive phenotype in the PFC. Also, the astrocyte population was significantly increased in the PFC of Mtb pups. The BBB permeability was determined by measuring the Evans Blue (EB) dye concentration in the PFC and CER 1 hr post receiving intravenous EB-dye injection. We found that prenatal Mtb exposure significantly increased the BBB's permeability in the PFC and CER of pups versus saline. Overall, our data demonstrate that prenatal exposure to Mtb predisposes offspring to a higher risk of BBB damage while inducing persistent neuroinflammation, which could lead to impaired neuronal development and function. These findings implicate a potential role of gestational Mtb infections in the aetiology of ASD.

Impact of maternal immune activation on dendritic spine development

Dendritic spines are small dendritic protrusions that harbor most excitatory synapses in the brain. The proper generation and maturation of dendritic spines are crucial for the regulation of synaptic transmission and formation of neuronal circuits. Abnormalities in dendritic spine density and morphology are common pathologies in autism and schizophrenia. According to epidemiological studies, one risk factor for these neurodevelopmental disorders is maternal infection during pregnancy. This review discusses spine alterations in animal models of maternal immune activation in the context of neurodevelopmental disorders. We describe potential mechanisms that might be responsible for prenatal infection-induced changes in the dendritic spine phenotype and behavior in offspring.

Healing autism spectrum disorder with cannabinoids: a neuroinflammatory story

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder with a multifactorial etiology. Latest researches are raising the hypothesis of a link between the onset of the main behavioral symptoms of ASD and the chronic neuroinflammatory condition of the autistic brain; increasing evidence of this connection is shedding light on new possible players in the pathogenesis of ASD. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) has a key role in neurodevelopment as well as in normal inflammatory responses and it is not surprising that many preclinical and clinical studies account for alterations of the endocannabinoid signaling in ASD. These findings lay the foundation for a better understanding of the neurochemical mechanisms underlying ASD and for new therapeutic attempts aimed at exploiting the renowned anti-inflammatory properties of cannabinoids to treat pathologies encompassed in the autistic spectrum. This review discusses the current preclinical and clinical evidence supporting a key role of the ECS in the neuroinflammatory state that characterizes ASD, providing hints to identify new biomarkers in ASD and promising therapies for the future.

The prefrontal cortex as a target for atypical antipsychotics in schizophrenia, lessons of neurodevelopmental animal models

Prefrontal cortex (PFC) inflammatory imbalance, oxidative/nitrosative stress (O/NS) and impaired neuroplasticity in schizophrenia are thought to have neurodevelopmental origins. Animal models are not only useful to test this hypothesis, they are also effective to establish a relationship among brain disturbances and behavior with the atypical antipsychotics (AAPs) effects. Here we review data of PFC post-mortem and in vivo neuroimaging, human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC), and peripheral blood studies of inflammatory, O/NS, and neuroplasticity alterations in the disease as well as about their modulation by AAPs. Moreover, we reviewed the PFC alterations and the AAP mechanisms beyond their canonical antipsychotic action in four neurodevelopmental animal models relevant to the study of schizophrenia with a distinct approach in the generation of schizophrenia-like phenotypes, but all converge in O/NS and altered neuroplasticity in the PFC. These animal models not only reinforce the neurodevelopmental risk factor model of schizophrenia but also arouse some novel potential therapeutic targets for the disease including the reestablishment of the antioxidant response by the perineuronal nets (PNNs) and the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2) pathway, as well as the dendritic spine dynamics in the PFC pyramidal cells.

Enduring neuroimmunological consequences of developmental experiences: From vulnerability to resilience

The immune system is crucial for normal neuronal development and function (neuroimmune system). Both immune and neuronal systems undergo significant postnatal development and are sensitive to developmental programming by environmental experiences. Negative experiences from infection to psychological stress at a range of different time points (in utero to adolescence) can permanently alter the function of the neuroimmune system: given its prominent role in normal brain development and function this dysregulation may increase vulnerability to psychiatric illness. In contrast, positive experiences such as exercise and environmental enrichment are protective and can promote resilience, even restoring the detrimental effects of negative experiences on the neuroimmune system. This suggests the neuroimmune system is a viable therapeutic target for treatment and prevention of psychiatric illnesses, especially those related to stress. In this review we will summarise the main cells, molecules and functions of the immune system in general and with specific reference to central nervous system development and function. We will then discuss the effects of negative and positive environmental experiences, especially during development, in programming the long-term functioning of the neuroimmune system. Finally, we will review the sparse but growing literature on sex differences in neuroimmune development and response to environmental experiences.

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The immune system is essential for development and function of the central nervous system (neuroimmune system)

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Environmental experiences can permanently alter neuroimmune function and associated brain development

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Altered neuroimmune function following negative developmental experiences may play a role in psychiatric illnesses

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Positive experiences can promote resilience and rescue the effects of negative experiences on the neuroimmune system

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The neuroimmune system is therefore a viable therapeutic target for preventing and treating psychiatric illnesses

Increased RNA editing in maternal immune activation model of neurodevelopmental disease

The etiology of major neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia and autism is unclear, with evidence supporting a combination of genetic factors and environmental insults, including viral infection during pregnancy. Here we utilized a mouse model of maternal immune activation (MIA) with the viral mimic PolyI:C infection during early gestation. We investigated the transcriptional changes in the brains of mouse fetuses following MIA during the prenatal period, and evaluated the behavioral and biochemical changes in the adult brain. The results reveal an increase in RNA editing levels and dysregulation in brain development-related gene pathways in the fetal brains of MIA mice. These MIA-induced brain editing changes are not observed in adulthood, although MIA-induced behavioral deficits are observed. Taken together, our findings suggest that MIA induces transient dysregulation of RNA editing at a critical time in brain development.

Poly I:C-induced maternal immune challenge reduces perineuronal net area and raises spontaneous network activity of hippocampal neurons in vitro

Activation of the maternal immune system (MIA) during gestation is linked to neuropsychiatric diseases like schizophrenia. While many studies address behavioural aspects, less is known about underlying cellular mechanisms. In the following study, BALB/c mice received intraperitoneal injections of polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (Poly I:C) (20 µg/ml) or saline (0.9%) at gestation day (GD) 9.5 before hippocampal neurons were isolated and cultured from embryonic mice for further analysis. Interestingly, strongest effects were observed when the perineuronal net (PNN) wearing subpopulation of neurons was analysed. Here, a significant reduction of aggrecan staining intensity, area and soma size could be detected. Alterations of PNNs are often linked to neuropsychiatric diseases, changes in synaptic plasticity and in electrophysiology. Utilizing multielectrode array analysis (MEA), we observed a remarkable increase of the spontaneous network activity in neuronal networks after 21 days in vitro (DIV) when mother mice suffered a prenatal immune challenge. As PNNs are associated with GABAergic interneurons, our data indicate that this neuronal subtype might be stronger affected by a prenatal MIA. Degradation or damage of this subtype might cause the hyperexcitability observed in the whole network. In addition, embryonic neurons of the Poly I:C condition developed significantly shorter axons after five days in culture, while dendritic parameters and apoptosis rate remained unchanged. Structural analysis of synapse numbers revealed an increase of postsynaptic density 95 (PSD-95) puncta after 14 DIV and an increase of presynaptic vesicular glutamate transporter (vGlut) puncta after 21 DIV, while inhibitory synaptic proteins were not altered.

Maternal stressors and the developmental origins of neuropsychiatric risk

The maternal environment during pregnancy is critical for fetal development and perinatal perturbations can prime offspring disease risk. Here, we briefly review evidence linking two well-characterized maternal stressors - psychosocial stress and infection - to increased neuropsychiatric risk in offspring. In the current climate of increasing obesity and globalization of the Western-style diet, maternal overnutrition emerges as a pressing public health concern. We focus our attention on recent epidemiological and animal model evidence showing that, like psychosocial stress and infection, maternal overnutrition can also increase offspring neuropsychiatric risk. Using lessons learned from the psychosocial stress and infection literature, we discuss how altered maternal and placental physiology in the setting of overnutrition may contribute to abnormal fetal development and resulting neuropsychiatric outcomes. A better understanding of converging pathophysiological pathways shared between stressors may enable development of interventions against neuropsychiatric illnesses that may be beneficial across stressors.

Alterations of Astrocytes in the Context of Schizophrenic Dementia

The levels of the astrocyte markers (GFAP, S100B) were increased unevenly in patients with schizophrenia. Reactive astrogliosis was found in approximately 70% of patients with schizophrenia. The astrocytes play a major role in etiology and pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Astrocytes produce the components that altered in schizophrenia extracellular matrix system which are involved in inflammation, functioning of interneurons, glio-, and neurotransmitter system, especially glutamate system. Astrocytes activate the interneurons through glutamate release and ATP. Decreased expression of astrocyte glutamate transporters was observed in patients with schizophrenia. Astrocytes influence on N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors via D-serine, an agonist of the glycine-binding site of NMDA receptors, and kynurenic acid, an endogenous antagonist. NMDA receptors, on its turn, control the impulses of dopamine neurons. Therefore following theories of schizophrenia are proposed. They are a) activation of astrocytes for neuroinflammation, b) glutamate and dopamine theory, as astrocyte products control the activity of NMDA receptors, which influence on the dopamine neurons.

Inflammation: A Proposed Intermediary Between Maternal Stress and Offspring Neuropsychiatric Risk

During pregnancy, programming of the fetal central nervous system establishes vulnerabilities for emergence of neuropsychiatric phenotypes later in life. Psychosocial influences during pregnancy, such as stressful life events and chronic stress, correlate with offspring neuropsychiatric disorders and inflammation, respectively. Stress promotes inflammation, but the role of inflammation as a mediator between maternal psychosocial stress and offspring neuropsychiatric outcomes has not been extensively studied in humans. This review summarizes clinical evidence linking specific types of stress to maternal inflammatory load during pregnancy. We propose that inflammation is a mediator in the relationship between psychosocial stress and offspring neuropsychiatric outcomes, potentially influenced by poor maternal glucocorticoid-immune coordination. We present relevant experimental animal research supporting this hypothesis. We conclude that clinical and preclinical research supports the premise that stress-induced maternal immune activation contributes in part to prenatal programming of risk. Programming of risk is likely due to a combination of vulnerabilities, including multiple or repeated inflammatory events; timing of such events; poor maternal regulation of inflammation; genetic vulnerability; and lifestyle contributors.

Evolution of a maternal immune activation (mIA) model in rats: Early developmental effects

Maternal immune activation (mIA) in rodents is rapidly emerging as a key model for neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia. Here, we optimise a mIA model in rats, aiming to address certain limitations of current work in this field. Specifically, the lack of clear evidence for methodology chosen, identification of successful induction of mIA in the dams and investigation of male offspring only. We focus on gestational and early juvenile changes in offspring following mIA, as detailed information on these critical early developmental time points is sparse. Following strain (Wistar, Lister Hooded, Sprague Dawley) comparison and selection, and polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidylic acid (poly I:C) dose selection (2.5-15 mg/kg single or once daily for 5 days), mIA was induced in pregnant Wistar rats with 10 mg/kg poly I:C i.p. on gestational day (GD) 15. Early morphometric analysis was conducted in male and female offspring at GD21 and postnatal day (PD) 21, eight dams for each treatment at each time point were used, 32 in total. Subsequent microglia analysis was conducted at PD21 in a small group of offspring. Poly I:C at 10 mg/kg i.p. induced a robust, but variable, plasma IL-6 response 3 h post-injection and reduced body weight at 6 h and 24 h post-injection in two separate cohorts of Wistar rats at GD15. Plasma IL-6 was not elevated at PD21 in offspring or dams. Poly I:C-induced mIA did not affect litter numbers, but resulted in PD21 pup, and GD21 placenta growth restriction. Poly I:C significantly increased microglial activation at PD21 in male hippocampi. We have identified 10 mg/kg poly I:C i.p on GD15 as a robust experimental approach for inducing mIA in Wistar rats and used this to identify early neurodevelopmental changes. This work provides a framework to study the developmental trajectory of disease-relevant, sex-specific phenotypic changes in rats.

Brain changes in a maternal immune activation model of neurodevelopmental brain disorders

The developing brain is sensitive to a variety of insults. Epidemiological studies have identified prenatal exposure to infection as a risk factor for a range of neurological disorders, including autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia. Animal models corroborate this association and have been used to probe the contribution of gene-environment interactions to the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders. Here we review the behavior and brain phenotypes that have been characterized in MIA offspring, including the studies that have looked at the interaction between maternal immune activation and genetic risk factors for autism spectrum disorder or schizophrenia. These phenotypes include behaviors relevant to autism, schizophrenia, and other neurological disorders, alterations in brain anatomy, and structural and functional neuronal impairments. The link between maternal infection and these phenotypic changes is not fully understood, but there is increasing evidence that maternal immune activation induces prolonged immune alterations in the offspring's brain which could underlie epigenetic alterations which in turn may mediate the behavior and brain changes. These concepts will be discussed followed by a summary of the pharmacological interventions that have been tested in the maternal immune activation model.

Astroglial correlates of neuropsychiatric disease: From astrocytopathy to astrogliosis

Complex roles for astrocytes in health and disease continue to emerge, highlighting this class of cells as integral to function and dysfunction of the nervous system. In particular, escalating evidence strongly implicates a range of changes in astrocyte structure and function associated with neuropsychiatric diseases including major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, and addiction. These changes can range from astrocytopathy, degeneration, and loss of function, to astrogliosis and hypertrophy, and can be either adaptive or maladaptive. Evidence from the literature indicates a myriad of changes observed in astrocytes from both human postmortem studies as well as preclinical animal models, including changes in expression of glial fibrillary protein, as well as changes in astrocyte morphology and astrocyte-mediated regulation of synaptic function. In this review, we seek to provide a comprehensive assessment of these findings and consequently evidence for common themes regarding adaptations in astrocytes associated with neuropsychiatric disease. While results are mixed across conditions and models, general findings indicate decreased astrocyte cellular features and gene expression in depression, chronic stress and anxiety, but increased inflammation in schizophrenia. Changes also vary widely in response to different drugs of abuse, with evidence reflective of features of astrocytopathy to astrogliosis, varying across drug classes, route of administration and length of withdrawal.

Sub-acute Cerebral Microhemorrhages Induced by Lipopolysaccharide Injection in Rats

Cerebral microhemorrhages (CMHs) are common in aged patients and are correlated to various neuropsychiatric disorders. The etiology of CMHs is complex, and neuroinflammation is often observed as a co-occurrence. Here, we describe a sub-acute CMHs rat model induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection, as well as a method for detecting CMHs. Systemic LPS injection is relatively simple, economical, and cost-effective. One major advantage of LPS injection is its stability to induce inflammation. CMHs caused by LPS injection could be detected by gross observation, hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining, Perl's Prussian staining, Evans blue (EB) double-labeling, and magnetic resonance imaging-susceptibility weighted imaging (MRI-SWI) technology. Finally, other methods of developing CMHs animal models, including their advantages and/or disadvantages, are also discussed in this report.

Sex Differences in the Neuroimmune System

While sex differences in the peripheral immune response have been studied extensively, sex differences in the neuroimmune response, including glial activation and associated cytokine production in the brain, is a recently emerging field. Advances in our understanding of sex differences in the neuroimmune response have important implications for understanding how neural circuits are shaped during early brain development, how activation of the immune system may impact cognitive function and behavior, and how inflammation may be associated with the risk of mental health disorders that have strong sex-biases. The goal of this mini review is to highlight recent work in the field of sex differences in neuroimmune function, with a particular focus on how microglia function is influenced by age and sex hormone exposure.

Maternal inhalation of carbon black nanoparticles induces neurodevelopmental changes in mouse offspring

Background

Engineered nanoparticles are smaller than 100 nm and designed to improve or creating even new physico-chemical properties. Consequently, toxicological properties of materials may change as size reaches the nm size-range. We examined outcomes related to the central nervous system in the offspring following maternal inhalation exposure to nanosized carbon black particles (Printex 90).

Methods

Time-mated mice (NMRI) were exposed by inhalation, for 45 min/day to 0, 4.6 or 37 mg/m³ aerosolized carbon black on gestation days 4–18, i.e. for a total of 15 days. Outcomes included maternal lung inflammation (differential cell count in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and Saa3 mRNA expression in lung tissue), offspring neurohistopathology and behaviour in the open field test.

Results

Carbon black exposure did not cause lung inflammation in the exposed females, measured 11 or 28–29 days post-exposure. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression levels were dose-dependently increased in astrocytes around blood vessels in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus in six weeks old offspring, indicative of reactive astrogliosis. Also enlarged lysosomal granules were observed in brain perivascular macrophages (PVMs) in the prenatally exposed offspring. The number of parvalbumin-positive interneurons and the expression levels of parvalbumin were decreased in the motor and prefrontal cortices at weaning and 120 days of age in the prenatally exposed offspring. In the open field test, behaviour was dose-dependently altered following maternal exposure to Printex 90, at 90 days of age. Prenatally exposed female offspring moved a longer total distance, and especially males spent significantly longer time in the central zone of the maze. In the offspring, the described effects were long-lasting as they were present at all time points investigated.

Conclusion

The present study reports for the first time that maternal inhalation exposure to Printex 90 carbon black induced dose-dependent denaturation of PVM and reactive astrocytes, similarly to the findings observed following maternal exposure to Printex 90 by airway instillation. Of note, some of the observed effects have striking similarities with those observed in mouse models of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12989-018-0272-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Alteration of adaptive behaviors of progeny after maternal mobile phone exposure

Exposure of pregnant women to radiofrequency (RF) devices raises questions on their possible health consequences for their progeny. We examined the hazard threshold of gestational RF on the progeny's glial homeostasis, sensory-motor gating, emotionality, and novelty seeking and tested whether maternal immune activation would increase RF toxicity. Pregnant dams were daily restrained with loop antennas adjoining the abdomen (fetus body specific absorption rates (SAR): 0, 0.7, or 2.6 W/kg) and received three lipopolysaccharide (LPS) intra-peritoneal injections (0 or 80 μg/kg). Scores in the prepulse startle inhibition, fear conditioning, open field, and elevated plus maze were assessed at adolescence and adulthood. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and interleukines-1β (ILs) were quantified. LPS induced a SAR-dependent reduction of the prepulse startle inhibition in adults. Activity in the open field was reduced at 2.6 W/kg at adolescence. GFAP and ILs, emotional memory, and anxiety-related behaviors were not modified. These data support the hypothesis that maternal immune activation increased the developmental RF exposure-induced long-term neurobiological impairments. These data support the fact that fetuses who receive combined environmental exposures with RF need special attention for protection.

Maternal immune activation in neurodevelopmental disorders

Converging lines of evidence from basic science and clinical studies suggest a relationship between maternal immune activation (MIA) and neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia. The mechanisms through which MIA increases the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders have become a subject of intensive research. This review aims to describe how dysregulation of microglial function and immune mechanisms may link MIA and neurodevelopmental pathologies. We also summarize the current evidence in animal models of MIA. Developmental Dynamics 247:588-619, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Decreased S100B serum levels after treatment in bipolar patients in a manic phase

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have suggested that patients with bipolar disorder might have brain damage. The aim of this study was to investigate the serum levels of brain injury biomarkers and S100A10 in bipolar patients in a manic phase, and evaluate the changes in S100B, neuron specific enolase (NSE), heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and S100A10 after treatment.

METHOD

We consecutively enrolled 17 bipolar inpatients in a manic phase and 30 healthy subjects. Serum brain injury biomarkers and S100A10 were measured with assay kits. All patients were evaluated by examining the correlation between brain injury biomarkers and Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS) scores.

RESULT

We found significantly decreased S100B levels only in bipolar manic patients after treatment (p=0.002), but S100B levels were not significantly different from those in healthy controls (p>0.05).

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate there were decreased S100B serum levels in bipolar patients in a manic phase after treatment and that increased serum S100B levels might be a possible indicator of transient disruption of the blood-brain barrier in bipolar patients in a manic phase.

The immune system as a novel regulator of sex differences in brain and behavioral development

Sexual differentiation of the brain occurs early in life as a result of sex-typical hormone action and sex chromosome effects. Immunocompetent cells are being recognized as underappreciated regulators of sex differences in brain and behavioral development, including microglia, astrocytes, and possibly other less well studied cell types, including T cells and mast cells. Immunocompetent cells in the brain are responsive to steroid hormones, but their role in sex-specific brain development is an emerging field of interest. This Review presents a summary of what is currently known about sex differences in the number, morphology, and signaling profile of immune cells in the developing brain and their role in the early-life programming of sex differences in brain and behavior. We review what is currently known about sex differences in the response to early-life perturbations, including stress, inflammation, diet, and environmental pollutants. We also discuss how and why understanding sex differences in the developing neuroimmune environment may provide insight into understanding the etiology of several neurodevelopmental disorders. This Review also highlights what remains to be discovered in this emerging field of developmental neuroimmunology and underscores the importance of filling in these knowledge gaps. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Hippocampal changes in STZ-model of Alzheimer's disease are dependent on sex

The majority of Alzheimer's disease (AD) cases are sporadic and aging is the major risk factor for developing the disease, affecting more women than men. In spite of different gender prevalence, most experimental studies in animal models have been performed in male. This study investigates the streptozotocin (STZ)-induced AD model at three different times (2, 4 and 8 weeks afterwards) and in male and female rats, evaluating cognitive deficit, cholinergic neurotransmission, glucose uptake, glutathione content and specific glial markers (GFAP and S100B protein) in the hippocampus of the rat. Our data reinforce the relevance of alterations in STZ model of dementia, reported in the genesis and/or progression of AD such as cholinergic deficit and glucose uptake decrease. All alterations in these parameters (except GFAP) were dependent on sex. It is unclear, at this moment, which alterations are due to sex steroid modulation. In spite of limitations of this experimental model, these data may contribute to understand AD susceptibility and progression dependent on sex.