New Insight into Quinoa Seed Quality under Salinity: Changes in Proteomic and Amino Acid Profiles, Phenolic Content, and Antioxidant Activity of Protein Extracts

Unveiling the nutritional spectrum: A comprehensive analysis of protein quality and antinutritional factors in three varieties of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Wild)

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) is renowned for its high protein content and balanced amino acid profile. Despite promising protein characteristics, plant-based sources usually possess antinutritional factors (ANFs). This study aimed to analyze the nutritional and ANFs composition of three quinoa varieties (Black, Yellow, and Red), and assessed the protein quality. Among these varieties, Black quinoa showed the highest protein content (20.90 g/100 g) and total dietary fiber (TDF) (22.97 g/100 g). In contrast, Red quinoa exhibited the highest concentration of phenolic compounds (338.9 mg/100 g). The predominant ANFs identified included oxalates (ranging from 396.9 to 715.2 mg/100 g), saponins (83.27-96.82 g/100 g), and trypsin inhibitors (0.35-0.46 TUI/100 g). All three varieties showed similar in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) (> 76.9 %), while Black quinoa exhibited the highest protein quality. In conclusion to ensure reduction of ANFs, processing methods are necessary in order to fully benefit from the high protein and nutritional value of quinoa.

Identification and analysis of flavonoid pathway genes in responsive to drought and salinity stress in Medicago truncatula

Flavonoid compounds are widely present in various organs and tissues of different plants, playing important roles when plants are exposed to abiotic stresses. Different types of flavonoids are biosynthesized by a series of enzymes that are encoded by a range of gene families. In this study, a total of 63 flavonoid pathway genes were identified from the genome of Medicago truncatula. Gene structure analysis revealed that they all have different gene structure, with most CHS genes containing only one intron. Additionally, analysis of promoter sequences revealed that many cis-acting elements responsive to abiotic stress are located in the promoter region of flavonoid pathway genes. Furthermore, analysis on M. truncatula gene chip data revealed significant changes in expression level of most flavonoid pathway genes under the induction of salt or drought treatment. qRT-PCR further confirmed significant increase in expression level of several flavonoid pathway genes under NaCl and mannitol treatments, with CHS1, CHS9, CHS10, F3'H4 and F3'H5 genes showing significant up-regulation, indicating they are key genes in response to abiotic stress in M. truncatula. In summary, our study identified key flavonoid pathway genes that were involved in salt and drought response, which provides important insights into possible modification of flavonoid pathway genes for molecular breeding of forage grass with improved abiotic resistance.

Quinoa: A Promising Crop for Resolving the Bottleneck of Cultivation in Soils Affected by Multiple Environmental Abiotic Stresses

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has gained worldwide recognition for its nutritional values, adaptability to diverse environments, and genetic diversity. This review explores the current understanding of quinoa tolerance to environmental stress, focusing on drought, salinity, heat, heavy metals, and UV-B radiation. Although drought and salinity have been extensively studied, other stress factors remain underexplored. The ever-increasing incidence of abiotic stress, exacerbated by unpredictable weather patterns and climate change, underscores the importance of understanding quinoa's responses to these challenges. Global gene banks safeguard quinoa's genetic diversity, supporting breeding efforts to develop stress-tolerant varieties. Recent advances in genomics and molecular tools offer promising opportunities to improve stress tolerance and increase the yield potential of quinoa. Transcriptomic studies have shed light on the responses of quinoa to drought and salinity, yet further studies are needed to elucidate its resilience to other abiotic stresses. Quinoa's ability to thrive on poor soils and limited water resources makes it a sustainable option for land restoration and food security enterprises. In conclusion, quinoa is a versatile and robust crop with the potential to address food security challenges under environmental constraints.

Genome-wide association study, combined with bulk segregant analysis, identify plant receptors and defense related genes as candidate genes for downy mildew resistance in quinoa

BACKGROUND

Downy mildew is the most relevant disease of quinoa and the most widespread. Though, little is known about the genetics of resistance to this disease. The objective of this study was to identify the genomic regions controlling downy mildew resistance in quinoa and candidate genes for this trait. With this aim we carried out a GWAS analysis in a collection formed by 211 quinoa accessions from different origins. This approach was combined with inheritance studies and Bulk Segregant Analysis (BSA) in a segregating population.

RESULTS

GWAS analysis identified 26 genomic regions associated with the trait. Inheritance studies in a F2 population segregating for resistance revealed the existence of a major single dominant gene controlling downy mildew complete resistance in quinoa accession PI614911. Through BSA, this gene was found to be located in chromosome 4, in a region also identified by GWAS. Furthermore, several plant receptors and resistance genes were found to be located into the genomic regions identified by GWAS and are postulated as candidate genes for resistance.

CONCLUSIONS

Until now, little was known about the genetic control of downy mildew resistance in quinoa. A previous inheritance study suggested that resistance to this disease was a quantitative polygenic trait and previous GWAS analyses were unable to identify accurate markers for this disease. In our study we demonstrate the existence of, at least, one major gene conferring resistance to this disease, identify the genomic regions involved in the trait and provide plausible candidate genes involved in defense. Therefore, this study significantly increases our knowledge about the genetics of downy mildew resistance and provides relevant information for breeding for this important trait.

Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry Combined with Chemometrics for Protein Profiling and Classification of Boiled and Extruded Quinoa from Conventional and Organic Crops

Quinoa is an Andean crop that stands out as a high-quality protein-rich and gluten-free food. However, its increasing popularity exposes quinoa products to the potential risk of adulteration with cheaper cereals. Consequently, there is a need for novel methodologies to accurately characterize the composition of quinoa, which is influenced not only by the variety type but also by the farming and processing conditions. In this study, we present a rapid and straightforward method based on matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) to generate global fingerprints of quinoa proteins from white quinoa varieties, which were cultivated under conventional and organic farming and processed through boiling and extrusion. The mass spectra of the different protein extracts were processed using the MALDIquant software (version 1.19.3), detecting 49 proteins (with 31 tentatively identified). Intensity values from these proteins were then considered protein fingerprints for multivariate data analysis. Our results revealed reliable partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) classification models for distinguishing between farming and processing conditions, and the detected proteins that were critical for differentiation. They confirm the effectiveness of tracing the agricultural origins and technological treatments of quinoa grains through protein fingerprinting by MALDI-TOF-MS and chemometrics. This untargeted approach offers promising applications in food control and the food-processing industry.

Effect of illite pretreatment on germinated Brown rice with Special Reference to amino acids, antioxidants, texture, and mineral elements

The pretreatment process of various foods has been reported to improve their nutritional properties. The soaking of brown rice improves the texture and nutrients, which are crucial for cooking and maintaining its high functional value. Illite, a clay mineral, has recently been discovered to improve the nutritional value of seeds. Based on these findings, we soaked brown rice with different concentrations of illite solution for different durations and allowed the germination to perform analyses. Soaking the brown rice for 6 h with a germination period of 48 h was determined to be the optimal condition because of its higher sprout length. In addition, this optimal condition had improved textural characteristics such as reduced hardness, gumminess, chewiness, and cohesiveness, and it also had increased adhesiveness and stabilized resilience and springiness. The treatment solutions were free from heavy metal contaminants, whereas the mineral contents such as K, Ca, Fe, Mg, and Na were significantly increased with the increase in illite concentration. Moreover, our results showed that illite treatment could preserve the color appearance and seed germination. The ratio of essential amino acids to non-essential amino acids and antioxidants (phenolic contentγ-oryzanol, and flavonoid) of germinated brown rice was considerably increased with illite treatment. In germinated brown rice, an increase in DPPH and superoxide dismutase levels, a slight decrease in flavonoids, and no difference in polyphenol content were observed. These findings suggest that pre-soaking brown rice seeds with the appropriate concentration of illite could enhance their nutritional properties, which might attract consumers' interest to include this in their daily diet.

The Protection of Quinoa Protein on the Quality of Pork Patties during Freeze-Thaw Cycles: Physicochemical Properties, Sensory Quality and Protein Oxidative

The present study investigated the impact of quinoa protein (QP) on the physicochemical properties, sensory quality, and oxidative stability of myofibrillar protein (MP) in pork patties during five freeze-thaw (F-T) cycles. It was observed that repeated F-T cycles resulted in a deterioration of pork patty quality; however, the incorporation of QP effectively mitigated these changes. Throughout the F-T cycles, the sensory quality of the QP-treated group consistently surpassed that of the control group. After five F-T cycles, the thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) content in the control group was measured at 0.423 mg/kg, whereas it significantly decreased to 0.347 mg/kg in the QP-treated group (p < 0.05). Furthermore, QP inclusion led to a decrease in pH and an increase in water-holding capacity (WHC) within pork patties. Following five F-T cycles, Ca2+-ATPase activity exhibited a significant increase of 11.10% in the QP-treated group compared to controls (p < 0.05). Additionally, supplementation with QP resulted in elevated total sulfhydryl content and reduced carbonyl content, Schiff base content, and dityrosine content within myofibrillar proteins (MPs), indicating its inhibitory effect on MP oxidation. In particular, after five F-T cycles, total sulfhydryl content reached 58.66 nmol/mL for the QP-treated group significantly higher than that observed for controls at 43.65 nmol/mL (p < 0.05). While carbonyl content increased from 2.37 nmol/mL to 4.63 nmol/mL between the first and fifth F-T cycle for controls; it only rose from 2.15 nmol/mL to 3.47 nmol/mL in the QP-treated group. The endogenous fluorescence levels were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the QP-treated group compared to controls. In conclusion, the addition of QP enhanced the quality of pork patties and effectively inhibited the oxidative denaturation of MP during F-T cycles.

Early Physiological, Cytological and Antioxidative Responses of the Edible Halophyte Chenopodium quinoa Exposed to Salt Stress

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a plant of South American origin recently valorized for its nutritional and nutraceutical properties in human diet. Quinoa is cultivated in many parts of the world, with a selection of varieties with good adaptability to extreme climatic conditions and salt stress. The variety Red Faro, native to southern Chile but harvested in Tunisia, was considered for salt stress resistance, considering its seed germination and 10-day seedling growth at increasing doses of NaCl (0, 100, 200 and 300 mM). Seedlings were spectrophotometrically analyzed for antioxidant secondary metabolites (polyphenols, flavonoids, flavonols and anthocyanins), antioxidant capacity (ORAC, oxygen radical absorbance capacity, DPPH*, 2,2-diphenyl-1-pic-rylhydrazyl), antioxidant enzyme activity (superoxide dismutase (SOD), guaiacol peroxidase (GPX), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and catalase (CAT)) and mineral nutrient content in root and shoot tissues. Cytogenetic analysis of root tip was performed to check for meristematic activity and the possible presence of chromosomal abnormalities induced by salt stress. The results indicated a general increase in antioxidant molecules and antioxidant enzymes NaCl dose-dependent, no effects on seed germination but negative effects on seedling growth, and little effect on root meristems mitotic activity. These results indicated that stress conditions can induce an increase in biologically active molecules that could be used for nutraceutical purposes.

Metabolomics based on GC-MS revealed hub metabolites of pecan seeds germinating at different temperatures

BACKGROUND

As an important plant source of food and edible oils, pecans are rich in metabolites. Few studies have focused on metabolites involved in pecan seed germination at different temperatures.

RESULTS

In our study, we germinated pecan seeds at different temperatures and found that, the germination rate and water content were highest at 30°C. It was found that the radicle of pecan seeds could sense seed coat cracking by observing the microstructure and cell ultra-structure of the seeds at the early stage of germination. We compared the metabolomes of seeds at different temperatures with different germination processes. A total of 349 metabolites were identified, including 138 primary metabolites and 211 secondary metabolites. KEGG enrichment analysis indicated that the differential metabolites were mainly enriched in the metabolic pathways, amino acid synthesis pathways and ABC transporters. Using weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), three modules of closely related metabolites were identified. In the brown module, most of hub metabolites were amino substances, whereas in the blue module, many hub metabolites were sugars.

CONCLUSIONS

Amino acids and carbohydrates play an important role in pecan seed germination. Differential metaboliteanalysis showed that 30°C was the temperature at which metabolites differed most significantly. This study provides useful information for further research on the seedling establishment of pecan seeds.

Snapshot of four mature quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) seeds: a shotgun proteomics analysis with emphasis on seed maturation, reserves and early germination

Chenopodium quinoa Willd. is a crop species domesticated over 5000 years ago. This species is highly diverse, with a geographical distribution that covers more than 5000 km from Colombia to Chile, going through a variety of edaphoclimatic conditions. Quinoa grains have great nutritional quality, raising interest at a worldwide level. In this work, by using shotgun proteomics and in silico analysis, we present an overview of mature quinoa seed proteins from a physiological context and considering the process of seed maturation and future seed germination. For this purpose, we selected grains from four contrasting quinoa cultivars (Amarilla de Maranganí, Chadmo, Sajama and Nariño) with different edaphoclimatic and geographical origins. The results give insight on the most important metabolic pathways for mature quinoa seeds including: starch synthesis, protein bodies and lipid bodies composition, reserves and their mobilization, redox homeostasis, and stress related proteins like heat-shock proteins (HSPs) and late embryogenesis abundant proteins (LEAs), as well as evidence for capped and uncapped mRNA translation. LEAs present in our analysis show a specific pattern of expression matching that of other species. Overall, this work presents a complete snapshot of quinoa seeds physiological context, providing a reference point for further studies.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-023-01295-8.

Yield, growth development and grain characteristics of seven Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) genotypes grown in open-field production systems under hot-arid climatic conditions

Quinoa is an important Andean crop that can play a strategic role in the development of degraded lands in hot arid regions due to its high nutritional value, genetic diversity and its high adaptability to stressful environments. The aim of this work was to evaluate the agronomic performance (growth development, grain yield and grain quality characteristics) of seven quinoa genotypes (Giza1, Sajama, Santa Maria, Q102, Q29, Q27 and Q18) cultivated under open field conditions in the Sahara Desert of Algeria. Using randomized complete block design (4 blocks), field trials were conducted during two cropping seasons (2017-2018 and 2018-2019) from November to April. The measured parameters included: plant height, number of panicles per plant, 1000-grain weight (TGW), grain yield (GYd), grain protein content (GPt), grain saponin content (GSC), and maturity indicators. The genotype effect was statistically the main source of variation in most parameters investigated as compared to the effect of cropping year. The Q102 genotype produced the highest GYd (2.87 t/ha) and GPt (16.7 g/100 g DM); and it required medium period (149 days) to reach harvest maturity as compared to other genotypes. The genotype Giza1 showed the lowest GYd and also low values for most of traits measured. However, it had the shortest harvest maturity (139 days) and the lowest GSC (0.62 g/100 g DM). The variety Santa Maria recorded the highest TGW (2.68 g), but it took 164 days to reach harvest maturity and it had high GSC (1.92 g/100 g DM). Though the best yield and grain quality characteristics were not reunited in single genotype, our findings showed that quinoa has multi-benefit potentials as a new crop for the arid agriculture in particular in hot-arid regions of North Africa.

Engineered Nanomaterials for Improving the Nutritional Quality of Agricultural Products: A Review

To ensure food safety, the current agricultural development has put forward requirements for improving nutritional quality and reducing the harmful accumulation of agricultural chemicals. Nano-enabled sustainable agriculture and food security have been increasingly explored as a new research frontier. Nano-fertilizers show the potential to be more efficient than traditional fertilizers, reducing the amount used while ensuring plant uptake, supplying the inorganic nutrients needed by plants, and improving the process by which plants produce organic nutrients. Other agricultural uses of nanotechnology affect crop productivity and nutrient quality in addition to nano-fertilizers. This article will review the research progress of using nanomaterials to improve nutritional quality in recent years and point out the focus of future research.

TMT proteomics analysis of a pseudocereal crop, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), during seed maturation

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), an Andean native crop, is increasingly popular around the world due to its high nutritional content and stress tolerance. The production and the popularity of this strategic global food are greatly restricted by many limiting factors, such as seed pre-harvest sprouting, bitter saponin, etc. To solve these problems, the underlying mechanism of seed maturation in quinoa needs to be investigated. In this study, based on the investigation of morphological characteristics, a quantitative analysis of its global proteome was conducted using the combinational proteomics of tandem mass tag (TMT) labeling and parallel reaction monitoring (PRM). The proteome changes related to quinoa seed maturation conversion were monitored to aid its genetic improvement. Typical changes of morphological characteristics were discovered during seed maturation, including mean grain diameter, mean grain thickness, mean hundred-grain weight, palea, episperm color, etc. With TMT proteomics analysis, 581 differentially accumulated proteins (DAPs) were identified. Functional classification analysis and Gene Ontology enrichment analysis showed that most DAPs involved in photosynthesis were downregulated, indicating low levels of photosynthesis. DAPs that participated in glycolysis, such as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, pyruvate decarboxylase, and alcohol dehydrogenase, were upregulated to fulfill the increasing requirement of energy consumption during maturation conversion. The storage proteins, such as globulins, legumins, vicilins, and oleosin, were also increased significantly during maturation conversion. Protein-protein interaction analysis and function annotation revealed that the upregulation of oleosin, oil body-associated proteins, and acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 2 resulted in the accumulation of oil in quinoa seeds. The downregulation of β-amyrin 28-oxidase was observed, indicating the decreasing saponin content, during maturation, which makes the quinoa "sweet". By the PRM and qRT-PCR analysis, the expression patterns of most selected DAPs were consistent with the result of TMT proteomics. Our study enhanced the understanding of the maturation conversion in quinoa. This might be the first and most important step toward the genetic improvement of quinoa.

Diversity of quinoa genetic resources for sustainable production: A survey on nutritive characteristics as influenced by environmental conditions

Environmental extremes and climatic variability have enhanced the changes in numerous plant stressors. Researchers have been working to improve “major” crops for several decades to make them more adaptable and tolerant to environmental stresses. However, neglected and underutilized crop species that have the potential to ensure food and nutritional security for the ever-growing global population have received little or no research attention. Quinoa is one of these crops. It is a pseudocereal, considered a rich and balanced food resource due to its protein content and protein quality, high mineral content, and health benefits. This review provides currently available information on the genetic resources of quinoa and their quality in terms of variability of economically important traits such as yield, and the content of bioactive compounds, such as protein and amino acid composition. The influence of variety and environmental conditions on selected traits is also discussed. The various types of nutrients present in the different varieties form the basis and are key for future breeding efforts and for efficient, healthy, and sustainable food production.

Changes in nutritional quality-related traits of quinoa seeds under different storage conditions

Within the context of climate change and its impact on global food security, seed storage has become key, as it ensures long-term food and next-season seed preservation. Aiming at evaluating quality-related changes in quinoa seeds over storage time, different storage temperatures (–20, 4, 12, 25, and 37°C) and humidity conditions (use of silica gel or not) were studied and different seed nutritional parameters were evaluated at different points during a year of storage. Also, to determine if these variations could be conditioned by the genotype used, two quinoa cultivars were compared. The results proved that quinoa seed quality is highly dependent on the storage temperature but is not consistently affected by the use of silica gel if the seed moisture content (SMC) is kept between 5 and 12%. Furthermore, quality can be maintained and even improved by keeping SMC lower than 12% and storage temperatures low (4°C). Under these conditions (at 4°C in hermetic packaging with or without silica gel), and after 12 months of storage, there was an increase in amino acids like isoleucine, serine, arginine, glycine, and glutamic acid and in seed viability and germination. On the contrary, quinoa seeds stored at 37°C showed an accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which was related to a lower antioxidant capacity and a reduction in the contents of essential amino acids like isoleucine, lysine, histidine, and threonine, resulting in a delayed and reduced germination capacity, and, therefore, lower seed quality. Besides, quality-related differences appeared between cultivars highlighting differences linked to the genotype. Overall, this work demonstrates that optimal storage temperatures and SMC can preserve or even improve quinoa seed nutritional quality, which in turn can impact food safety and agriculture.

Integrative Analysis of the Metabolome and Transcriptome Provides Insights into the Mechanisms of Flavonoid Biosynthesis in Quinoa Seeds at Different Developmental Stages

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a crop with high nutritional and health benefits. Quinoa seeds are rich in flavonoid compounds; however, the mechanisms behind quinoa flavonoid biosynthesis remain unclear. We independently selected the high-generation quinoa strain ‘Dianli-3260′, and used its seeds at the filling, milk ripening, wax ripening, and mature stages for extensive targeted metabolome analysis combined with joint transcriptome analysis. The results showed that the molecular mechanism of flavonoid biosynthesis in quinoa seeds was mainly concentrated in two pathways: “flavonoid biosynthesis pathway” and “flavone and flavonol biosynthesis pathway”. Totally, 154 flavonoid-related metabolites, mainly flavones and flavonols, were detected in the four development stages. Moreover, 39,738 genes were annotated with KEGG functions, and most structural genes of flavonoid biosynthesis were differentially expressed during grain development. We analyzed the differential flavonoid metabolites and transcriptome changes between the four development stages of quinoa seeds and found that 11 differential flavonoid metabolites and 22 differential genes were the key factors for the difference in flavonoid biosynthesis. This study provides important information on the mechanisms underlying quinoa flavonoid biosynthesis, the screening of potential quinoa flavonoid biosynthesis regulation target genes, and the development of quinoa products.

Identification of antidiabetic peptides derived from in silico hydrolysis of three ancient grains: Amaranth, Quinoa and Chia

The antidiabetic potential of bioactive peptides derived from simulated gastrointestinal digestion (SGID) of proteins present in amaranth quinoa and chia was evaluated using their bioactivity profile and theoretical interaction with DPP-IV and α-glucosidases. In silico SGID generated 52 different fragments with in vitro antidiabetic activity where fragments PW, PF, PPG, PM, SW, IW, SF, PP, PPL, PG, PY, VW and PL scored highly in bioactivity probability, with molecular weights ranging from 172.2 to 325.44 Da; positive bulkiness index and hydrophobicity (except PP and PY) and no toxic properties. Fragments IW and PW presented the lowest free energy values for enzymes DPP-IV, maltase-glucoamylase, pancreatic α-amylase and sucrase-isomaltase (-8.2, -7.5, -7.7 and -7.5 kcal/mol; and -7.8, -7.4, -8.2, -7.4 kcal/mol respectively) We can conclude that proteins from amaranth, quinoa and chia may be a good source of antidiabetic BP and may exert antidiabetic activity through the release of BP after digestion.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): Genetic Diversity According to ISSR and SCoT Markers, Relative Gene Expression, and Morpho-Physiological Variation under Salinity Stress

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a halophytic crop that can withstand a variety of abiotic stresses, including salt. The present research examined the mechanisms of salt tolerance in five different quinoa genotypes at four different salinity levels (control (60), 80, 120, and 160 mM NaCl). ISSR and SCoT analysis revealed high polymorphism percentages of 90.91% and 85.26%, respectively. Furthermore, ISSR 1 and SCoT 7 attained the greatest number of polymorphic amplicons (27 and 26), respectively. Notably, LINE-6 and M-28 genotypes demonstrated the greatest number of unique positive and negative amplicons (50 and 42) generated from ISSR and SCoT, respectively. Protein pattern analysis detected 11 bands with a polymorphism percentage 27.27% among the quinoa genotypes, with three unique bands distinguishable for the M-28 genotype. Similarity correlation indicated that the highest similarity was between S-10 and Regeolone-3 (0.657), while the lowest similarity was between M-28 and LINE-6 (0.44). Significant variations existed among the studied salinity treatments, genotypes, and the interactions between them. The highest and lowest values for all the studied morpho-physiological and biochemical traits were recorded at 60 and 160 mM NaCl concentrations, respectively, except for the Na and proline contents, which exhibited the opposite relationship. The M-28 genotype demonstrated the highest values for all studied characteristics, while the LINE-6 genotype represented the lowest in both seasons. On the other hand, mRNA transcript levels for CqSOS1 did not exhibit differential expression in roots and leaf tissues, while the expression of CqNHX1 was upregulated more in both tissues for the M-28 genotype than for the LINE-6 genotype, and its maximum induction was seen in the leaves. Overall, the genotypes M-28 and LINE-6 were identified as the most and least salinity-tolerant, respectively.

Cations and Phenolic Compounds Concentrations in Fruits of Fig Plants Exposed to Moderate Levels of Salinity

Fig trees are often grown in areas affected by salinity problems. We investigated changes in the concentrations of 15 phenolic compounds and mineral elements (Mg, Ca, K, Zn, Cu, Mn, Mo, Fe, Na) in fruits of fig plants (Ficus carica L. cv. Dottato) subjected to irrigation with saline water (100 mM of NaCl) for 28 days. We used UHPLC-MS/MS techniques to determine chlorogenic acid, tiliroside, catechin, epicatechin (ECTC), p-coumaric acid, trans-ferulic acid, phloridzin, phloretine, quercetagetin 7-O-glucoside, rutin, quercetin 3-O-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol 7-O-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-glucoside, and quercetin. There was a steep gradient of Na⁺ concentrations between the root and the canopy of salinized plants, but leaf Na⁺ was similar in control and salt-treated plants. Quercetin, ECTC, and chlorogenic acid were the most abundant phenolic compounds in fig fruits. Salinity increased total phenols by 5.6%, but this increase was significant only for ECTC. Salt stress significantly increased Zn and Mg concentration in the fruit. Leaf levels of K, Mg, Ca, and Mn were similar in control and salinized plants. Moderate salt stress appears to improve fig fruit quality because of its positive effect on nutrients and antioxidant compounds such as epicatechin.

Genotype-Dependent Variation of Nutritional Quality-Related Traits in Quinoa Seeds

Exploiting the relationship between the nutritional properties of seeds and the genetic background constitutes an essential analysis, which contributes to broadening our knowledge regarding the control of the nutritional quality of seeds or any other edible plant structure. This is an important aspect when aiming at improving the nutritional characteristics of crops, including those of Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (quinoa), which has the potential to contribute to food security worldwide. Previous works have already described changes in the nutritional properties of quinoa seeds due to the influence of the environment, the genotype, or their interaction. However, there is an important limitation in the analyses carried out, including the outcomes that can be translated into agronomical practices and their effect on seed quality. In the present study, several seed nutritional-related parameters were analyzed in 15 quinoa cultivars grown in a particular environmental context. Important agronomical and nutritional differences were found among cultivars, such as variations in mineral or protein contents and seed viability. More importantly, our analyses revealed key correlations between seed quality-related traits in some cultivars, including those that relate yield and antioxidants or yield and the germination rate. These results highlight the importance of considering the genotypic variation in quinoa when selecting improved quinoa varieties with the best nutritional characteristics for new cultivation environments.

Comparative proteomic approach to study the salinity effect on the growth of two contrasting quinoa genotypes

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of NaCl salinity (0, 100 and 300 mM) on the individual response of the quinoa varieties Kcoito (Altiplano Ecotype) and UDEC-5 (Sea-level Ecotype) with physiological and proteomic approaches. Leaf protein profile was performed using two dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE). UDEC-5 showed an enhanced capacity to withstand salinity stress compared to Kcoito. In response to salinity, we detected overall the following differences between both genotypes: Toxicity symptoms, plant growth performance, photosynthesis performance and intensity of ROS-defense. We found a mirroring of these differences in the proteome of each genotype. Among the 700 protein spots reproducibly detected, 24 exhibited significant abundance variations between samples. These proteins were involved in energy and carbon metabolism, photosynthesis, ROS scavenging and detoxification, stress defense and chaperone functions, enzyme activation and ATPases. A specific set of proteins predominantly involved in photosynthesis and ROS scavenging showed significantly higher abundance under high salinity (300 mM NaCl). The adjustment was accompanied by a stimulation of various metabolic pathways to balance the supplementary demand for energy or intermediates. However, the more salt-resistant genotype UDEC-5 presented a beneficial and significantly higher expression of nearly all stress-related altered enzymes than Kcoito.

Characterization and differentiation of quinoa seed proteomes by label-free mass spectrometry-based shotgun proteomics

Quinoa seed proteins are of prime importance in human nutrition and in plant breeding for cultivar identification and improvement. In this study, proteins from seeds of black, red, white quinoa from Peru and white quinoa from Bolivia (also known as royal) were extracted, digested and analyzed by nano-liquid chromatography coupled to Orbitrap tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The raw mass spectra data were processed for identification and label-free quantification (LFQ) using MaxQuant/Andromeda against a specific quinoa database from The National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). In total, 1,211 quinoa proteins (85 were uncharacterized) were identified. Inspection and visualization using Venn diagrams, heat maps and Gene Ontology (GO) graphs revealed proteome similarities and differences between the four varieties. The presented data provides the most comprehensive experimental quinoa seed proteome map existing to date in the literature, as a starting point for more specific characterization and nutritional studies of quinoa and quinoa-containing foodstuff.

Studying the Impact of Different Field Environmental Conditions on Seed Quality of Quinoa: The Case of Three Different Years Changing Seed Nutritional Traits in Southern Europe

Chenopodium quinoa Willd (quinoa) has acquired an increased agronomical and nutritional relevance due to the capacity of adaptation to different environments and the exceptional nutritional properties of their seeds. These include high mineral and protein contents, a balanced amino acid composition, an elevated antioxidant capacity related to the high phenol content, and the absence of gluten. Although it is known that these properties can be determined by the environment, limited efforts have been made to determine the exact changes occurring at a nutritional level under changing environmental conditions in this crop. To shed light on this, this study aimed at characterizing variations in nutritional-related parameters associated with the year of cultivation and different genotypes. Various nutritional and physiological traits were analyzed in seeds of different quinoa cultivars grown in the field during three consecutive years. We found differences among cultivars for most of the nutritional parameters analyzed. It was observed that the year of cultivation was a determinant factor in every parameter studied, being 2018 the year with lower yields, germination rates, and antioxidant capacity, but higher seed weights and seed protein contents. Overall, this work will greatly contribute to increase our knowledge of the impact of the environment and genotype on the nutritional properties of quinoa seeds, especially in areas that share climatic conditions to Southern Europe.

Enhanced antioxidant activity of Chenopodium formosanum Koidz. by lactic acid bacteria: Optimization of fermentation conditions

In this study, different probiotics commonly used to produce fermented dairy products were inoculated independently for Chenopodium formosanum Koidz. fermentation. The strain with the highest level of antioxidant activity was selected and the fermentation process was further optimized via response surface methodology (RSM). Lactobacillus plantarum BCRC 11697 was chosen because, compared to other lactic acid bacteria, it exhibits increased free radical scavenging ability and can produce more phenolic compounds, DPPH (from 72.6% to 93.2%), and ABTS (from 64.2% to 76.9%). Using RSM, we further optimize the fermentation protocol of BCRC 11697 by adjusting the initial fermentation pH, agitation speed, and temperature to reach the highest level of antioxidant activity (73.5% of DPPH and 93.8% of ABTS). The optimal protocol (pH 5.55, 104 rpm, and 24.4°C) resulted in a significant increase in the amount of phenolic compounds as well as the DPPH and ABTS free radical scavenging ability of BCRC 11697 products. The IC50 of the DPPH and ABTS free radical scavenging ability were 0.33 and 2.35 mg/mL, respectively, and both protease and tannase activity increased after RSM. An increase in lower molecular weight (<24 kDa) protein hydrolysates was also observed. Results indicated that djulis fermented by L. plantarum can be a powerful source of natural antioxidants for preventing free radical-initiated diseases.

Biochemical aspects of seeds from Cannabis sativa L. plants grown in a mountain environment

Cannabis sativa L. (hemp) is a versatile plant which can adapt to various environmental conditions. Hempseeds provide high quality lipids, mainly represented by polyunsaturated acids, and highly digestible proteins rich of essential aminoacids. Hempseed composition can vary according to plant genotype, but other factors such as agronomic and climatic conditions can affect the presence of nutraceutic compounds. In this research, seeds from two cultivars of C. sativa (Futura 75 and Finola) grown in a mountain environment of the Italian Alps were analyzed. The main purpose of this study was to investigate changes in the protein profile of seeds obtained from such environments, using two methods (sequential and total proteins) for protein extraction and two analytical approaches SDS-PAGE and 2D-gel electrophoresis, followed by protein identification by mass spectrometry. The fatty acids profile and carotenoids content were also analysed. Mountain environments mainly affected fatty acid and protein profiles of Finola seeds. These changes were not predictable by the sole comparison of certified seeds from Futura 75 and Finola cultivars. The fatty acid profile confirmed a high PUFA content in both cultivars from mountain area, while protein analysis revealed a decrease in the protein content of Finola seeds from the experimental fields.

Agro-Morphological, Yield and Quality Traits and Interrelationship with Yield Stability in Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Genotypes under Saline Marginal Environment

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a halophytic crop that shows resistance to multiple abiotic stresses, including salinity. In this study we investigated the salinity tolerance mechanisms of six contrasting quinoa cultivars belonging to the coastal region of Chile using agro-physiological parameters (plant height (PH), number of branches/plant (BN), number of panicles/plant (PN), panicle length (PL), biochemical traits (leaf C%, leaf N%, grain protein contents); harvest index and yield (seed yield and plant dry biomass (PDM) under three salinity levels (0, 10, and 20 d Sm^-1 NaCl). The yield stability was evaluated through comparision of seed yield characteristics [(static environmental variance (S²) and dynamic Wricke's ecovalence (W²)]. Results showed that significant variations existed in agro-morphological and yield attributes. With increasing salinity levels, yield contributing parameters (number of panicles and panicle length) decreased. Salt stress reduced the leaf carbon and nitrogen contents. Genotypes Q21, and AMES13761 showed higher seed yield (2.30 t ha^-1), more productivity and stability at various salinities as compared to the other genotypes. Salinity reduced seed yield to 44.48% and 60% at lower (10 dS m^-1) and higher salinity (20 dS m^-1), respectively. Grain protein content was highest in NSL106398 and lowest in Q29 when treated with saline water. Seed yield was positively correlated with PH, TB, HI, and C%. Significant and negative correlations were observed between N%, protein contents and seed yield. PH showed significant positive correlation with APL, HI, C% and C:N ratio. HI displayed positive correlations with C%, N% and protein content., All measured plant traits, except for C:N ratio, responded to salt in a genotype-specific way. Our results indicate that the genotypes (Q21 and AMES13761) proved their suitability under sandy desert soils of Dubai, UAE as they exhibited higher seed yield while NSL106398 showed an higher seed protein content. The present research highlights the need to preserve quinoa biodiversity for a better seedling establishment, survival and stable yield in the sandy desertic UAE environment.

Assessing the Performance of Different Grains in Gluten-Free Bread Applications

A comparative analysis of quinoa, sorghum, millet and rice flours and breads in terms of proximate composition, resistant starch, antioxidant activity and total phenolic content was realized in this study. Quinoa whole flour had the highest content of proteins, fat, ash and total dietary fiber, followed by millet and sorghum flours. Quinoa and rice breads had higher specific volume (192.22 and 181.04 cm3/100 g, respectively) and lower crumb firmness (10.81 and 13.74 N, respectively) compared to sorghum and millet breads. The highest total phenol content was obtained in the case of bread prepared with quinoa flour (398.42 mg ferulic acid equiv/100 g d.w.), while the lowest content was obtained for the rice flour bread (70.34 mg ferulic acid equiv/100 g d.w). The antioxidant activity of gluten-free breads decreased in the following order: sorghum > quinoa > millet > rice. Quinoa bread had the highest resistant starch content of 3.28% d.w., while the rice bread had the highest digestible starch content of 81.48% d.w. The slowly digestible starch varied from 15.5% d.w. for quinoa bread, to 6.51% d.w. for millet bread. These results revealed the huge potential of quinoa, sorghum and millet to be used for developing functional gluten-free bread.

Water droplet surface tension method - An innovation in quantifying saponin content in quinoa seed

Quinoa surface borne saponins are bitter tasting anti-nutritional compounds that must be removed before consumption of the seed. To determine saponin content, the currently available standard afrosimetric foam test method only determines the presence of saponin via a rating of either 'acceptable' or 'unacceptable'. A water droplet surface tension (WDST) based innovative method was developed that can quantify saponin content in aqueous solutions with greater accuracy. The method comprised four steps: solution preparation, droplet creation, image capture and image analysis using Axisymmetric Drop Shape Analysis computer software. The method applied satisfactorily to saponin content up to 0.2 mg.ml^-1 as higher concentrations did not further reduce the surface tension. Results demonstrated that saponin concentration may be measured in the range 0.05 to 0.15 mg.ml^-1 (0.05 - 0.15% saponin by weight of seed). Validation of the WDST method on commercial and experimental samples offers quinoa processors an accurate inexpensive way of measuring saponin concentration to satisfy current seed quality specifications.

Classification of quinoa varieties based on protein fingerprinting by capillary electrophoresis with ultraviolet absorption diode array detection and advanced chemometrics

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is an andean grain with exceptional nutritional properties that has been progressively introduced in western countries as a protein-rich super food with a broad amino acid spectrum. Quinoa is consumed as whole grain, but it is also milled to produce high-value flour, which is susceptible to adulteration. Therefore, there is a growing interest in developing novel analytical methods to get further information about quinoa at the chemical level. In this study, we developed a rapid and simple capillary electrophoresis-ultraviolet absorption diode array detection (CE-UV-DAD) method to obtain characteristic multiwavelength electrophoretic profiles of soluble protein extracts from different quinoa grain varieties. Then, advanced chemometric methods (i.e. multivariate curve resolution alternating least squares, MCR-ALS, followed by principal component analysis, PCA, and partial least squares discriminant analysis, PLS-DA) were applied to deconvolute the components present in the electropherograms and classify the quinoa varieties according to their differential protein composition.

Seed Composition and Amino Acid Profiles for Quinoa Grown in Washington State

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a pseudocereal celebrated for its excellent nutritional quality and potential to improve global food security, especially in marginal environments. However, minimal information is available on how genotype influences seed composition, and thus, nutritional quality. This study aimed to provide a baseline for nutritional quality of Washington grown quinoa and test the hypothesis that these samples contain adequate amounts of essential amino acids to meet daily requirements set by the World Health Organization (WHO). One hundred samples, representing commercial varieties and advanced breeding lines adapted to Washington State, were analyzed for content of 23 amino acids, as well as crude protein, ash, moisture, and crude fat. Mean essential amino acid values for Washington grown quinoa met the daily requirements for all age groups for all essential amino acids, except for the amount of leucine required by infants. We found that only nine genotypes met the leucine requirements for all age groups. A total of 52 and 94 samples met the lysine and tryptophan requirements for all age groups, respectively. Mean values for isoleucine, leucine, lysine, tryptophan, valine, and the sulfur and aromatic amino acids are higher for Washington grown samples than those reported previously reported in the literature. Our results show that not all Washington grown quinoa samples meet daily requirements of essential amino acids, and we identify limiting amino acids for the germplasm and environments investigated. This study provides the first report of leucine as a limiting amino acid in quinoa. Additional research is needed to better understand variation in quinoa nutritional composition, identify varieties that meet daily requirements, and explore how genotype, environment, and management interactions influence nutritional quality.

Proteomic and metabolomic profiling underlines the stage- and time-dependent effects of high temperature on grape berry metabolism

Climate change scenarios predict an increase in mean air temperatures and in the frequency, intensity, and length of extreme temperature events in many wine-growing regions worldwide. Because elevated temperature has detrimental effects on berry growth and composition, it threatens the economic and environmental sustainability of wine production. Using Cabernet Sauvignon fruit-bearing cuttings, we investigated the effects of high temperature (HT) on grapevine berries through a label-free shotgun proteomic analysis coupled to a complementary metabolomic study. Among the 2,279 proteins identified, 592 differentially abundant proteins were found in berries exposed to HT. The gene ontology categories "stress," "protein," "secondary metabolism," and "cell wall" were predominantly altered under HT. High temperatures strongly impaired carbohydrate and energy metabolism, and the effects depended on the stage of development and duration of treatment. Transcript amounts correlated poorly with protein expression levels in HT berries, highlighting the value of proteomic studies in the context of heat stress. Furthermore, this work reveals that HT alters key proteins driving berry development and ripening. Finally, we provide a list of differentially abundant proteins that can be considered as potential markers for developing or selecting grape varieties that are better adapted to warmer climates or extreme heat waves.

Differential Impact of Salinity Stress on Seeds Minerals, Storage Proteins, Fatty Acids, and Squalene Composition of New Quinoa Genotype, Grown in Hyper-Arid Desert Environments

The effects of climate change and soil salinization on dryland ecosystems are already widespread, and ensuring food security is a crucial challenge. In this article, we demonstrate changes in growth performance and seed quality of a new high-yielding quinoa genotype (Q5) exposed to sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄), and mixed salts (NaCl + Na₂SO₄). Differential responses to salt stress in growth performance, seed yield, and seed quality were identified. High salinity (mixed Na₂SO₄ + NaCl) reduces plant height by ∼30%, shoot and root dry weights by ∼29%, head panicle length and panicle weight by 36-43%, and seed yield by 37%, compared with control conditions. However, the 1,000-seed weight changes insignificantly under salinity. High content of essential minerals, such as Fe, Zn, and Ca in quinoa Q5 seeds produced under salinity, gives the Q5 genotype a remarkable advantage for human consumption. Biomarkers detected in our studies show that the content of most essential amino acids is unchanged under salinity. The content of amino acids Pro, Gly, and Ile positively correlates with Na⁺ concentration in soil and seeds, whereas the content of squalene and most fatty acids negatively correlates. Variation in squalene content under increasing salinity is most likely due to toxic effects of sodium and chlorine ions as a result of the decrease in membrane permeability for ion movement as a protective reaction to an increase in the sodium ion concentration. Low squalene accumulation might also occur to redirect the NADPH cofactor to enhance the biosynthesis of proline in response to salinity, as both syntheses (squalene and proline) require NADPH. This evidence can potentially be used by the food and pharmaceutical industries in the development of new food and health products.

RNA-seq Analysis of Salt-Stressed Versus Non Salt-Stressed Transcriptomes of Chenopodium quinoa Landrace R49

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), a model halophytic crop species, was used to shed light on salt tolerance mechanisms at the transcriptomic level. An RNA-sequencing analysis of genotype R49 at an early vegetative stage was performed by Illumina paired-ends method comparing high salinity and control conditions in a time-course pot experiment. Genome-wide transcriptional salt-induced changes and expression profiling of relevant salt-responsive genes in plants treated or not with 300 mM NaCl were analyzed after 1 h and 5 days. We obtained up to 49 million pairs of short reads with an average length of 101 bp, identifying a total of 2416 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) based on the treatment and time of sampling. In salt-treated vs. control plants, the total number of up-regulated and down-regulated genes was 945 and 1471, respectively. The number of DEGs was higher at 5 days than at 1 h after salt treatment, as reflected in the number of transcription factors, which increased with time. We report a strong transcriptional reprogramming of genes involved in biological processes like oxidation-reduction, response to stress and response to abscisic acid (ABA), and cell wall organization. Transcript analyses by real-time RT- qPCR supported the RNA-seq results and shed light on the contribution of roots and shoots to the overall transcriptional response. In addition, it revealed a time-dependent response in the expression of the analyzed DEGs, including a quick (within 1 h) response for some genes, suggesting a "stress-anticipatory preparedness" in this highly salt-tolerant genotype.

A low molecular-weight cyclophilin localizes in different cell compartments of Pyrus communis pollen and is released in vitro under Ca2+ depletion

Cyclophilins (CyPs) are ubiquitous proteins involved in a wide variety of processes including protein maturation and trafficking, receptor complex stabilization, apoptosis, receptor signaling, RNA processing, and spliceosome assembly. The ubiquitous presence is justified by their peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) activity, catalyzing the rotation of X-Pro peptide bonds from a cis to a trans conformation, a critical rate-limiting step in protein folding, as over 90% of proteins contain trans prolyl imide bonds. In Arabidopsis 35 CyPs involved in plant development have been reported, showing different subcellular localizations and tissue- and stage-specific expression. In the present work, we focused on the localization of CyPs in pear (Pyrus communis) pollen, a model system for studies on pollen tube elongation and on pollen-pistil self-incompatibility response. Fluorescent, confocal and immuno-electron microscopy showed that this protein is present in the cytoplasm, organelles and cell wall, as confirmed by protein fractionation. Moreover, an 18-kDa CyP isoform was specifically released extracellularly when pear pollen was incubated with the Ca²⁺ chelator EGTA.

Shotgun proteomic analysis of quinoa seeds reveals novel lysine-rich seed storage globulins

Quinoa seeds have high protein content and an exceptional balance of amino acids, with higher contents of lysine, methionine and cysteine than common cereals. To date, only three globulins, all of which have a content of lysine mass that does not exceed 3.8%, have been identified in quinoa. To address the protein present in quinoa seeds, TCA/Acetone protein extraction was performed using four different quinoa seed genotypes with contrasting edaphoclimatic origins. Proteins were identified and analyzed using label-free shotgun proteomics followed by in silico analysis, using the three published quinoa genomes. This analysis allowed us to identify sixteen globulins, thirteen of which are novel: nine legumin-like proteins and seven vicilin-like proteins. Seven of the novel proteins contain 7.5% or more of lysine mass, justifying the high content of lysine repeatedly reported in quinoa seeds. No significant differences were found between the four genotypes here analyzed.

Response of Phenylpropanoid Pathway and the Role of Polyphenols in Plants under Abiotic Stress

Phenolic compounds are an important class of plant secondary metabolites which play crucial physiological roles throughout the plant life cycle. Phenolics are produced under optimal and suboptimal conditions in plants and play key roles in developmental processes like cell division, hormonal regulation, photosynthetic activity, nutrient mineralization, and reproduction. Plants exhibit increased synthesis of polyphenols such as phenolic acids and flavonoids under abiotic stress conditions, which help the plant to cope with environmental constraints. Phenylpropanoid biosynthetic pathway is activated under abiotic stress conditions (drought, heavy metal, salinity, high/low temperature, and ultraviolet radiations) resulting in accumulation of various phenolic compounds which, among other roles, have the potential to scavenge harmful reactive oxygen species. Deepening the research focuses on the phenolic responses to abiotic stress is of great interest for the scientific community. In the present article, we discuss the biochemical and molecular mechanisms related to the activation of phenylpropanoid metabolism and we describe phenolic-mediated stress tolerance in plants. An attempt has been made to provide updated and brand-new information about the response of phenolics under a challenging environment.

Polyamines in Halophytes

Polyamines (PAs) are related to many aspects of the plant's life cycle, including responses to biotic and abiotic stress. On the other hand, halophytic plants are useful models for studying salt tolerance mechanisms related to the adaptive strategies that these plants present in adverse environments. Furthermore, some halophytes have high economic value, being recommended instead of glycophytes as alternative agricultural crops in salt-affected coastal zones or saline farmlands. In recent years, the understanding of the role of PAs in salt-tolerant plants has greatly advanced. This mini review reports on the advances in the knowledge of PAs and their participation in achieving better salt tolerance in 10 halophytes. PAs are associated with responses to heavy metals in phytoremediation processes using certain salt-tolerant species (Atriplex atacamensis, A. halimus, Inula chrithmoides, and Kosteletzkya pentacarpos). In crops with exceptional nutritional properties such as Chenopodium quinoa, PAs may be useful markers of salt-tolerant genotypes. The signaling and protection mechanisms of PAs have been investigated in depth in the extreme halophyte Mesembryanthemum crystallinum and Thellungiella spp., enabling genetic manipulation of PA biosynthesis. In Prosopis strombulifera, different biochemical and physiological responses have been reported, depending on the type of salt (NaCl, Na2SO4). Increases in spermidine and spermine have been positively associated with stress tolerance as these compounds provide protection in Cymodocea nodosa, and Solanum chilense, respectively. In addition, abscisic acid and salicylic acid can improve the beneficial effect of PAs in these plants. Therefore, these results indicate the great potential of PAs and their contribution to stress tolerance.

Quinoa: In Perspective of Global Challenges

The global population is on the path of an increasing trajectory with a simultaneous decline in arable land resources through salinization and desertification that have resulted mainly from climate change and other anthropogenic activities. Rising temperatures will cause changes in the entire ecosystem, resulting in significant alterations in global climate paradigms and a threat to food security. This review focuses on how the highly resilient Chenopodium quinoa Willd. can sustainably mitigate some of the detrimental impacts, such as starvation, and support or provide ecosystem services. In comparison, compared with the traditional staple food crops, quinoa has remarkable tolerance to abiotic stresses and is highly nutritious, with a unique balance and higher amounts of nutrients, and can therefore be an important crop for food security and nutritional adequacy. This crop has the potential to ameliorate global challenges with respect to increase in global population, effects of climate change, desalinization, phytoremediation, satisfying nutrient deficiency, and alleviating poverty.

Sprouted Grains: A Comprehensive Review

In the last decade, there has been an increase in the use of sprouted grains in human diet and a parallel increase in the scientific literature dealing with their nutritional traits and phytochemical contents. This review examines the physiological and biochemical changes during the germination process, and the effects on final sprout composition in terms of macro- and micro-nutrients and bioactive compounds. The main factors affecting sprout composition are taken into consideration: genotype, environmental conditions experimented by the mother plant, germination conditions. In particular, the review deepens the recent knowledge on the possible elicitation factors useful for increasing the phytochemical contents. Microbiological risks and post-harvest technologies are also evaluated, and a brief summary is given of some important in vivo studies matching with the use of grain sprouts in the diet. All the species belonging to Poaceae (Gramineae) family as well as pseudocereals species are included.

Quinoa Abiotic Stress Responses: A Review

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a genetically diverse Andean crop that has earned special attention worldwide due to its nutritional and health benefits and its ability to adapt to contrasting environments, including nutrient-poor and saline soils and drought stressed marginal agroecosystems. Drought and salinity are the abiotic stresses most studied in quinoa; however, studies of other important stress factors, such as heat, cold, heavy metals, and UV-B light irradiance, are severely limited. In the last few decades, the incidence of abiotic stress has been accentuated by the increase in unpredictable weather patterns. Furthermore, stresses habitually occur as combinations of two or more. The goals of this review are to: (1) provide an in-depth description of the existing knowledge of quinoa's tolerance to different abiotic stressors; (2) summarize quinoa's physiological responses to these stressors; and (3) describe novel advances in molecular tools that can aid our understanding of the mechanisms underlying quinoa's abiotic stress tolerance.

Yield and Quality Characteristics of Different Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Cultivars Grown under Field Conditions in Southwestern Germany

Due to its highly nutritive compounds, the demand for quinoa, a small grain originating from the Andean region of South America, increased rapidly over the last years. However, the main producing countries Bolivia and Peru cannot cover the growing demand. Therefore, the interest of European farmers in cultivating quinoa as a profitable source of income rose very fast. Thanks to a broad genetic diversity an adaption to various climatic conditions is possible. The objective of this study was to evaluate the stability of agronomic performance in two consecutive growing periods (2015 and 2016) of four European quinoa cultivars (Puno, Titicaca, Jessie, Zeno), originating from different genepools to identify a suitable cultivar to grow in southwestern Germany. Measurements included grain yield, thousand kernel weight (TKW), saponin content, protein content, crude fat content, amino acid profile and fatty acid profile. This study demonstrated the possibility of an economic production of quinoa under the environmental conditions in southwestern Germany, combining competitive yields (1.73–2.43 Mg ha−1) with a high grain quality regarding protein content (11.9–16.1%), essential amino acid content (20.35–30.02 g 100 g−1 crude protein), fat content (5.5–7.5%) and fatty acid profile (consists of 60% linoleic acid). Depending on cultivar, the investigated yield (TKW and protein content)-and quality ((semi-)essential amino acids)-traits varied more or less sensitive, which was attributed to lower precipitation and higher temperatures in 2015. Furthermore, best yield- and quality-characteristics were not combined in one cultivar, wherefore the selection of a specific quinoa cultivar has to be aligned with the production aim.

Analysis of Stress Resistance Using Next Generation Techniques

Food security for a growing world population remains one of the most challenging tasks. Rapid climate change accelerates the loss of arable land used for crop production, while it simultaneously imposes increasing biotic and abiotic stresses on crop plants. Analysis and molecular understanding of the factors governing stress tolerance is in the focus of scientific and applied research. One plant is often mentioned in the context with stress resistance—Chenopodium quinoa. Through improved breeding strategies and the use of next generation approaches to study and understand quinoa’s salinity tolerance, an important step towards securing food supply is taken.

In Vitro Screening of Bioactive Compounds in some Gluten-Free Plants

Electrophoretic, antioxidant, and FTIR profiles of some varieties of amaranth, quinoa, and buckwheat seeds and their by products were compared. Water extracts of these products were evaluated by the Folin-Ciocalteau method in order to determine total phenolic content. The antioxidant activities were determined by 2,2'-azobis-2-methyl-propanimidamide, ferric-reducing/antioxidant power, and cupric reducing antioxidant capacity radical scavenging assays. FTIR spectra showed the secondary structure of pseudocereals in the ranges of amides I, II, and III shifts. Results of evaluated methods could be used to control several products (seeds, flours, extracts, flakes, roasting) with high phenolic content and antioxidant activity suitable for supplementation in food applications. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

The impact of different agroecological conditions on the nutritional composition of quinoa seeds

Quinoa cultivation has been expanded around the world in the last decade and is considered an exceptional crop with the potential of contributing to food security worldwide. The exceptional nutritional value of quinoa seeds relies on their high protein content, their amino acid profile that includes a good balance of essential amino acids, the mineral composition and the presence of antioxidants and other important nutrients such as fiber or vitamins. Although several studies have pointed to the influence of different environmental stresses in certain nutritional components little attention has been paid to the effect of the agroecological context on the nutritional properties of the seeds what may strongly impact on the consumer food’s quality. Thus, aiming to evaluate the effect of the agroecological conditions on the nutritional profile of quinoa seeds we analyzed three quinoa cultivars (Salcedo-INIA, Titicaca and Regalona) at different locations (Spain, Peru and Chile). The results revealed that several nutritional parameters such as the amino acid profile, the protein content, the mineral composition and the phytate amount in the seeds depend on the location and cultivar while other parameters such as saponin or fiber were more stable across locations. Our results support the notion that nutritional characteristics of seeds may be determined by seed’s origin and further analysis are needed to define the exact mechanisms that control the changes in the seeds nutritional properties.

Molecular dynamics in germinating, endophyte-colonized quinoa seeds

AIMS

The pseudo-cereal quinoa has an outstanding nutritional value. Seed germination is unusually fast, and plant tolerance to salt stress exceptionally high. Seemingly all seeds harbor bacterial endophytes. This work examines mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activities during early development. It evaluates possible contribution of endophytes to rapid germination and plant robustness.

METHODS

MAPK activities were monitored in water- and NaCl-imbibed seeds over a 4-h-period using an immunoblot-based approach. Cellulolytic and pectinolytic abilities of bacteria were assessed biochemically, and cellular movement, biofilm, elicitor and antimicrobial compound synthesis genes sequenced. GyrA-based, cultivation-independent studies provided first insight into endophyte diversity.

RESULTS

Quinoa seeds and seedlings exhibit remarkably complex and dynamic MAPK activity profiles. Depending on seed origin, variances exist in MAPK patterns and probably also in endophyte assemblages. Mucilage-degrading activities enable endophytes to colonize seed surfaces of a non-host species, chia, without apparent adverse effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Owing to their motility, cell wall-loosening and elicitor-generating abilities, quinoa endophytes have the potential to drive cell expansion, move across cell walls, generate damage-associated molecular patterns and activate MAPKs in their host. Bacteria may thus facilitate rapid germination and confer a primed state directly upon seed rehydration. Transfer into non-native crops appears both desirable and feasible.