Dieting and restrained eating as prospective predictors of weight gain

A systematic review of observational studies exploring the relationship between health and non-weight-centric eating behaviours

Eating behaviour that does not centralise weight, otherwise known as weight-neutral, is associated with improved physical and psychological health, and greater health promoting behaviours. However, consolidated evidence is lacking. This study aimed to systematically evaluate 'health-centric' eating behaviour reflective of weight-neutral approaches, and their relationship with health (physical and mental) and health promoting behaviours. A systematic search was performed, identifying observational studies with adult populations, ≥1 physical/mental health outcome(s), and ≥1 validated measure(s) of health-centric eating behaviour. Study design, sample characteristics and outcomes were extracted and characterised into four domains. Our search identified 8281 records, with 86 studies, 75 unique datasets, and 78 unique exposures including 94,710 individuals. Eating behaviours included intuitive eating (n = 48), mindful eating (n = 19), and eating competence (n = 11). There were 298 outcomes identified for body composition, size, and physical health (n = 116), mental health and wellbeing (n = 123), health promoting behaviours (n = 51) and other eating behaviour (n = 8). Higher levels of intuitive eating, mindful eating and eating competence were significantly related to a lower BMI, better diet quality and greater physical activity. Higher intuitive and mindful eating were significantly related to lower levels of disordered eating, and depressive symptoms, and greater body image, self-compassion, and mindfulness. Greater eating competence and intuitive eating were significantly related to higher fruit and vegetable intake, and greater eating competence to higher fibre intake and better sleep quality. Our results demonstrate that 'health-centric' eating behaviours are related to a range of favourable health outcomes and engagement in health promoting behaviours. These findings help to enhance our understanding of eating behaviours that do not centre around body weight, providing support for health-centric eating behaviour in healthcare. Future research should focus on intervention studies and more diverse population groups.

Physiological, body composition, and body mass measures show that a developmental measure of weight suppression is more valid than the traditional measure

OBJECTIVE

The traditional measure of weight suppression (TWS; the difference between an individual's highest past weight at adult height and current weight), has been associated with many psychological, behavioral and biological variables in those with eating disorders. A new measure of weight suppression, called developmental weight suppression (DWS), corrects two major problems in the original measure. Initial research indicates that DWS represents a superior operationalization of the construct weight suppression was originally designed to measure (Lowe [1993, Psychol Bull, 114: 100]). This study is the first to examine the relation between both WS measures and weight history, body composition and a variety of metabolic hormones.

METHODS

Data were collected in 91 women with bulimia nervosa (BN) or BN-spectrum disorders.

RESULTS

Both weight suppression indices were related to multiple hormones. However, multiple regression analyses showed that the independent effects of DWS differed from the independent effects of TWS in that only DWS was negatively related to: (1) current z-BMI, (2) body fat percentage, and (3) insulin, leptin, T3 free, and TSH. This differential pattern also occurred when results were corrected for multiple comparisons.

DISCUSSION

Findings provide stronger biological support for the construct validity of DWS than TWS and suggest that: (1) from the perspective of individuals with BN, high DWS embodies success at food restriction and weight loss, (2) elevated DWS may trap individuals with BN in a powerful biobehavioral bind, and (3) DWS is the preferred measure of weight suppression in future research on eating disorders.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

Most individuals with bulimia nervosa lose substantial weight in the process of developing their disorder. Such weight suppression is related to many characteristics of those with the eating disorder bulimia nervosa. This study shows why a new measure of weight suppression, based on an individual's growth during development, is more biologically valid than the traditional measure of weight suppression.

The qualitative evaluation of food addiction across the lifespan

Although it remains controversial, food addiction (FA) research has expanded substantially and empirical evidence for FA is growing. While quantitative studies have explored the prevalence and correlates of FA during childhood and adolescence, little is known about the perceived lived experience of FA across the lifespan, nor how experiences and perceptions of FA may change over time. For this study, 16 participants who met symptom threshold criteria for FA on the Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0 completed in-depth, semi-structured qualitative interviews focused on their perceptions of the development of FA overtime, and perceived risk and protective factors. Thematic analysis was used to develop themes about the lived experience of FA in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Overall, highly palatable foods were viewed as the most problematic, while minimally processed foods were less associated with impairment and distress. Themes in childhood included a strong desire for highly processed foods and the perception that parental control over food choices could be either protective or risky for the later development of FA depending on which foods were available at home. In adolescence and young adulthood, increasing autonomy over food choices and the high availability of highly processed foods in the college environment were viewed as risk factors. Additionally, weight gain was a prominent theme. Finally, adulthood was characterized by more severe manifestations of FA, and the stress of adult responsibilities (e.g., work, parenting) contributed to this perception. This research sets the stage for future quantitative studies to explore these novel findings at the population level.

Maternal control and eating styles in children: The mediating role of emotion differentiation

Introduction: Theoretical accounts and empirical research suggest that mother-child interactions significantly influence the child's eating styles (emotional, external, and restrained eating). However, little or no research has explored the association between maternal psychological control and eating styles and whether other mechanisms may be involved in such association. To address this shortcoming, the present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of difficulties in differentiating emotions between maternal control and eating styles.Methods: Participants were 324 elementary school children (Girls = 172, 53.1%) aged between 8 and 11 years (Mage = 9.13, SD = .89) assessed through self-report measures. Parents provided information about weight and height.Results: Path analysis model showed an acceptable fit to the data (χ2 (3) = 3.966, p = .256; RMSEA = .032; CFI = .990; TLI = .911; SRMR = .018). Difficulties in differentiating emotions significantly mediated the relationship between maternal control and emotional eating (β = -.071, 95%CI [-.094, -.052]; p < .001). The model was invariant across genders.Conclusions: Our findings support the importance of dyadic interaction in enhancing the risk for dysfunctional eating style during infancy, showing that emotion differentiation deficits may be particularly salient in such relationship. Clinical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Independent associations of food addiction and binge eating measures with real-time eating behaviors and contextual factors: An exploratory ecological momentary assessment study

Food addiction (FA) is a concept centered around the addictive potential of highly palatable processed foods, though there is debate over the discriminative validity of FA as a distinct construct from binge-eating symptomatology. This study explored how trait measures of FA and binge-eating symptoms independently and interactively predicted eating behaviors and posited correlates of FA and binge eating measured via ecological momentary assessment (EMA). Adult participants (N = 49) who met the criteria for FA and/or binge-eating disorder completed baseline measures of FA (Yale Food Addiction Scale [YFAS 2.0]) and binge-eating symptoms (Eating Pathology Symptom Inventory [EPSI] binge eating scale) followed by a 10-day EMA protocol. Generalized linear mixed models examined the independent effects of YFAS 2.0, EPSI, and their interaction predicting EMA outcomes. Higher YFAS 2.0 symptom count scores were uniquely related to greater EMA-measured overeating, loss of control eating, negative and positive affect, and impulsivity when controlling for EPSI scores. Conversely, higher EPSI scores were uniquely related to greater EMA-measured eagerness and urge to eat, and expectancies that eating would improve mood. No interaction effects were significant. These results highlight potential distinctions between phenomena captured by FA and other measures of binge eating, in that FA symptoms may be a marker of heightened binge-eating severity, emotional arousal, and impulsivity.

The Psychological Impact of the Widespread Availability of Palatable Foods Predicts Uncontrolled and Emotional Eating in Adults

This study aimed to investigate the role of the psychological impact of environments rich in palatable foods on three aspects of eating behavior: cognitive restraint (CR), uncontrolled eating (UE), and emotional eating (EE). The hypotheses were as follows: (a) The psychological impact (i.e., motivation to eat) of an environment rich in palatable foods will positively predict CR, UE, and EE; (b) dieting will predict CR, UE, and EE; and (c) CR, UE, and EE will positively predict body mass index (BMI). This study had a cross-sectional design in which data were collected online from 413 subjects. The psychological impact of food-rich environments (food available, food present, and food tasted) was assessed using the Power of Food Scale (PFS), and CR, UE, and EE were assessed using the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-R18). Both instruments were tested for confirmatory factor analysis. The relationship between constructs was measured using partial least-square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). "Food available" positively predicted all TFEQ-R18 factors (p < 0.01). "Food present" positively predicted UE (p < 0.001) and EE (p = 0.01). People currently on a diet showed higher levels of CR (p < 0.001) and EE (p = 0.02). UE and EE positively predicted BMI. Thus, CR, UE, and EE were positively predicted by the motivation to consume palatable foods in varying proximity, suggesting that the presence of food and, more importantly, its general availability may be important determinants of eating behavior, particularly UE and EE. Health strategies should consider the influence of the food environment to prevent and better manage impairments in eating behavior. Sex differences suggest that special attention should be paid to women. Furthermore, dieting was associated with higher levels of EE, which in turn was associated with higher BMI. Weight loss interventions should consider this vulnerability.

Exploring the association between self-compassion, mindfulness and mindful eating with eating behaviours amongst patients with obesity

Background: People who have obesity often experience problematic eating behaviours, contributing towards their excessive weight gain. Aims: Understanding problematic eating behaviours and their association to self-compassion, mindfulness and mindful eating is important for the development of future interventions that improve weight-loss and weight-regulation. Methods: One hundred and one participants attending their first session of a 6-session dietetic programme within a Tier 3 medical weight management service in the West Midlands, UK were recruited to complete questionnaires on self-compassion, mindfulness, mindful eating and eating behaviours, such as, emotional, restrained, external, fat and sugar consumption and grazing. Results: The findings suggested all three constructs, self-compassion, mindfulness and mindful eating were significantly and negatively associated with grazing and emotional eating, but mindful eating was the only construct that also displayed a significant and negative association with other eating behaviours that are often barriers to successful weight regulation, such as external eating and fat consumption. Further investigation suggested mindful eating had an indirect effect on fat consumption and grazing via external eating. Conclusion: Whilst, self-compassion, mindfulness and mindful eating displayed a negative relationship with grazing and emotional eating, mindful eating also displayed a negative relationship with fat consumption and external eating. Possible explanations and directions for future work are discussed with an emphasis on the need for more empirical work.

Stability and longitudinal association between Body Mass Index and maladaptive eating behaviors in older adults: Results from the NutriAct Family Study (NFS)

PURPOSE

Due to the increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity with age and associated health risks, older adults are an important target group to promote healthy weight. Evidence indicates that maladaptive eating behaviors are associated with higher BMI. However, older adults are often neglected in this research field. This prospective study aims to clarify the temporal relationship between BMI and maladaptive eating behaviors among older adults.

METHODS

In total, 964 participants of the NutriAct Family Study (Mage = 63.34 years) completed web-based questionnaires two times (M = 3.33 years apart). BMI was assessed via self-reported height and weight, and maladaptive eating behaviors with the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ). The stability and longitudinal associations were analyzed using cross-lagged models.

RESULTS

Cross-sectional analysis showed positive correlations between BMI and emotional (r = 0.218), external (r = 0.101), as well as restrictive eating (r = 0.160). All maladaptive eating behaviors (β > 0.684) and BMI (β > 0.922) were longitudinally stable. No significant bidirectional relationships were found between BMI and maladaptive eating behaviors over time, except for BMI predicting restrictive eating (β = 0.133).

CONCLUSION

The observed cross-sectional, but not longitudinal associations between BMI and maladaptive eating behaviors underline the need for prospective study designs to deepen the understanding of the role of maladaptive eating behaviors in weight management among the general population. Maladaptive eating behaviors among older adults may have already consolidated and play a smaller role in explaining weight course, compared to early life like childhood.

Evaluating Bidirectional Predictive Pathways between Dietary Restraint and Food Addiction in Adolescents

The relationship between food addiction, an important emerging construct of excessive eating pathology, and dietary restraint has yet to be fully understood. Eating disorder models commonly posit that dietary restraint exacerbates loss of control eating (e.g., binge episodes) and may also play a causal role in the development of food addiction. However, dietary restraint as a reaction to consequences of food addiction (e.g., uncontrollable eating or weight gain) represents another plausible pathway. Existing studies indicate that the association between food addiction and dietary restraint may be more significant during adolescence than adulthood, but are limited by cross-sectional study designs. A longitudinal study using an adolescent sample is ideal for investigating potential pathways underlying links between food addiction and dietary restraint. This study examined temporal pathways between food addiction and dietary restraint in a sample of one hundred twenty-seven adolescents (M = 14.8, SD = 1.1) at three timepoints spanning two years. This is the first study to examine longitudinal cross-lagged panel associations between food addiction and dietary restraint. In this adolescent sample, food addiction significantly predicted future dietary restraint (b = 0.25, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001), but dietary restraint did not significantly predict future food addiction (b = 0.06, SE = 0.05, p > 0.05). These findings support the theory that dietary restraint may be a reaction to deleterious effects of food addiction during adolescence.

Eating Behaviours of Polish and Portuguese Adults-Cross-Sectional Surveys

Eating behaviours affect energy intake through the types and amounts of foods chosen and decisions about the beginning and ending of the eating process. This study aims to determine and compare the eating behaviours of Polish and Portuguese adults and, in addition, to establish the correlations between daily behaviours, food-approaches and food-avoidance behaviours, and BMI in both populations. The study was conducted between January 2023 and March 2023. Participants from Poland and Portugal responded to the AEBQ questionnaire and questions on eating habits and body-image self-perception. The research tool was a website-based survey questionnaire with single-choice questions. No significant differences related to BMI levels were found between the Polish and Portuguese adults in terms of their eating behaviours. Both groups were characterised by the increased intensity of their food-approach behaviours, which was directly correlated with increases in BMI. Greater snacking intensity and binge drinking were associated with higher BMI. The study revealed an increased prevalence of binge drinking in the Polish sample. The study also confirmed a higher frequency of food-approach behaviours in overweight and/or obese individuals and uncontrolled calorie intake in participants imposing dietary restrictions for weight loss. Nutrition education is needed to improve eating habits and food choices, as well as to prevent overweight and obesity in adults.

Testing a Biobehavioral Model of Food Insecurity and Chronic Disease in Hispanic Older Adolescents

The biobehavioral model of food insecurity and chronic disease posits that stress perpetuates the cycle of food insecurity and chronic disease, in part, through changes in eating behaviors and weight gain. The current study conducted a preliminary test of the biobehavioral model in a sample of Hispanic older adolescents. It was hypothesized that older adolescents experiencing food insecurity would report greater depressive symptoms, which would be associated with more disordered eating, which would be associated with worse cardiometabolic indicators. Hispanic older adolescents (N = 113; 60% female; 15-21 years with mean age of 19.1; BMImean = 24.4) completed self-report baseline measures of food insecurity, depression, and disordered eating behaviors as part of a larger experimental study. Anthropometrics and body composition, blood pressure, heart rate, and resting metabolic rate were objectively measured. Hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling. Experiencing food insecurity was associated with more disordered eating (b = 2.20, p = 0.032). Greater depressive symptoms were associated with more disordered eating (b = 0.28, p = 0.025) and worse cardiometabolic indicators (b = 0.15, p = 0.017). The full biobehavioral model, however, was not supported. Findings underscore the complex interaction of social and psychological functioning and physical health.

Mindful eating for weight loss in women with obesity: a randomised controlled trial

Mindful eating (ME) has been linked to improvement in binge eating disorder, but this approach in obesity management has shown conflicting results. Our aim was to assess the effect of ME associated with moderate energy restriction (MER) on weight loss in women with obesity. Metabolic parameters, dietary assessment, eating behaviour, depression, anxiety and stress were also evaluated. A total of 138 women with obesity were randomly assigned to three intervention groups: ME associated with MER (ME + MER), MER and ME, and they were followed up monthly for 6 months. ME + MER joined seven monthly mindfulness-based intervention group sessions each lasting 90 min and received an individualised food plan with MER (deficit of 2092 kJ/d - 500 kcal/d). MER received an individualised food plan with MER (deficit of 2092 kJ/d - 500 kcal/d), and ME joined seven monthly mindfulness-based intervention group sessions each lasting 90 min. Seventy patients completed the intervention. Weight loss was significant, but no statistically significant difference was found between the groups. There was a greater reduction in uncontrolled eating in the ME group than in the MER group and a greater reduction in emotional eating in the ME group than in both the MER and the ME + MER groups. No statistically significant differences were found in the other variables evaluated between groups. The association between ME with energy restriction did not promote greater weight loss than ME or MER.

Perceived stress as a predictor of eating behavior during the 3-year PREVIEW lifestyle intervention

Background

To better support participants to achieve long-lasting results within interventions aiming for weight loss and maintenance, more information is needed about the maintenance of behavioral changes. Therefore, we examined whether perceived stress predicts the maintenance of changes in eating behavior (flexible and rigid restraint of eating, disinhibition, and hunger).

Methods

The present study was a secondary analysis of the PREVIEW intervention including participants with overweight (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m²) at baseline and high risk of type 2 diabetes (n = 1311). Intervention included a 2-month low-energy diet phase and a 34-month subsequent weight maintenance phase. The first 6 months were considered an active behavior change stage and the remaining 2.5 years were considered a behavior maintenance stage. Eating behavior was measured using the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire and stress using the Perceived Stress Scale. The associations between stress and eating behavior were analyzed using linear mixed effects models for repeated measurements.

Results

Perceived stress measured after the active behavior change stage (at 6 months) did not predict changes in eating behavior during the behavior maintenance stage. However, frequent high stress during this period was associated with greater lapse of improved flexible restraint (p = 0.026). The mean (SD) change in flexible restraint from 6 to 36 months was −1.1 (2.1) in participants with frequent stress and −0.7 (1.8) in participants without frequent stress (Cohen’s d_s (95% CI) = 0.24 (0.04–0.43)). Higher perceived stress at 6 months was associated with less flexible restraint and more disinhibition and hunger throughout the behavior maintenance stage (all p < 0.001).

Conclusions

Perceived stress was associated with features of eating behavior that may impair successful weight loss maintenance. Future interventions should investigate, whether incorporating stress reduction techniques results in more effective treatment, particularly for participants experiencing a high stress level.

Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on diet and physical activity and the possible influence factors among Saudi in Riyadh

Background/Aim

The COVID-19 pandemic has been spreading throughout the world, having a significant impact on people’s lifestyles and health through social isolation and home confinement. The purpose of this study is to look into the impact of COVID-19 on diet and physical activity, as well as the possible influence factors, among ≥ 13-year-olds in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Materials and methods

In the present study data were collected from 2,649 participants via an online survey. The Google online questionnaire was available from April 23 to May 6, 2020. During the COVID-19 lockdown, the survey asked respondents about their demographic characteristics (gender, age, education, economic income, and occupation), anthropometric data, physical activity, and diet habits.

Results

The study included 2,649 respondents, with 23.3% being male and 76.7% female. The majority of them were in good health and ranged in age from 21 to 29 years. 31% of those polled were overweight, and 14.3% were obese. The majority of respondents have a bachelor’s degree, diploma, or the equivalent, and a monthly family income of ≤ 25.000 SR. Those who were following a healthy diet (32.3%) were unable to maintain it during confinement, with males being affected more than females (42.7%, 29.3%, respectively, P = 0.004), and those most impacted were aged 21–29 years (38.0%, P = 0.046). Furthermore, 59.5% of males significantly failed to continue exercising during confinement compared to females who exercised consistently (P = 0.01). In terms of age, females aged less than 40 increased their exercise rate by about 23.4%, while males aged 40 and up decreased their exercise rate by 25.7% (P = 0.000). Moreover, 40.5% of the subjects’ weight increased, according to the findings. However, there was no significant effect on body mass index, despite the fact that 51% of participants were overweight or obese.

Conclusion

The data showed that the COVID-19 lockdown had a negative impact on maintaining a healthy diet (p = 0.023*) and physical activity (p = 0.000^**).

Decreased excitability of leptin-sensitive anterior insula pyramidal neurons in a rat model of compulsive food demand

Compulsive eating is an overlapping construct with binge eating that shares many characteristics with substance use disorders. Compulsive eating may impact millions of Americans; presenting in some cases of binge eating disorders, overweight/obesity, and among individuals who have not yet been diagnosed with a recognized eating disorder. To study the behavioral and neurobiological underpinnings of compulsive eating, we employ a published rodent model using cyclic intermittent access to a palatable diet to develop a self-imposed binge-withdrawal cycle. Here, we further validated this model of compulsive eating in female Wistar rats, through the lens of behavioral economic analyses and observed heightened demand intensity, inelasticity and essential value as well as increased food-seeking during extinction. Using electrophysiological recordings in the anterior insular cortex, a region previously implicated in modulating compulsive-like eating in intermittent access models, we observed functional adaptations of pyramidal neurons. Within the same neurons, application of leptin led to further functional adaptations, suggesting a previously understudied, extrahypothalamic role of leptin in modulating feeding-related cortical circuits. Collectively, the findings suggest that leptin may modulate food-related motivation or decision-making via a plastic cortical circuit that is influenced by intermittent access to a preferred diet. These findings warrant further study of whether behavioral economics analysis of compulsive eating can impact disordered eating outcomes in humans and of the translational relevance of a leptin-sensitive anterior insular circuit implicated in these behaviors.

Examination of three-factor eating questionnaire subscale scores on weight loss and weight loss maintenance in a clinical intervention

Background

The purpose of this study is to examine three-factor eating questionnaire (TFEQ) scores at baseline and post-intervention (6 months) on successful weight loss and weight maintenance in an 18-month behavioral weight management intervention for adults with overweight and obesity.

Methods

TFEQ and weight were assessed at baseline, 6, and 18 months. Logistic regression models were used to examine scores at baseline on disinhibition, restraint, and perceived hunger factors in the TFEQ on 5% body weight loss at 6 months and 6-month scores to predict 5% weight maintenance at 18 months while controlling for age, sex, and baseline weight.

Results

Participants (n = 287; age = 43.8 ± 10.36 years; female = 64.1%; weight = 222.5 ± 39.02 pounds; BMI = 34.73 ± 4.56) were included for analysis. Dietary restraint at baseline was the only significant predictor of 5% weight loss at 6 months. None of the TFEQ subscale scores at 6 months predicted 5% weight maintenance at 18 months. The model examining weight loss at 6 months accounted for 7% of the variance of the outcome and 11% of the variance of weight maintenance at 18 months.

Conclusion

Dietary restraint is a unique eating behavior associated with weight loss at 6 months beyond other eating behaviors measured by the TFEQ in an adult sample enrolled in a weight loss intervention. No other subscale scores were significant at 6 months or at 18 months. Future research should consider how to promote flexible control and discourage adoption of rigid restraint behaviors since the latter is associated with disordered eating patterns.

The Prevalence of Overweight Status among Early Adolescents from Private Schools in Indonesia: Sex-Specific Patterns Determined by School Urbanization Level

(1) Background: Few studies have investigated (demographic) correlates of (prevalent) overweight rates among early adolescents, especially from higher socioeconomic positions (SEP) in developing countries, such as Indonesia. The current study aims to fill this gap. (2) Methods: Participants included 411 adolescents from five private schools in Indonesia. Adolescents’ weight and height were measured, and adolescents completed questionnaires on demographic factors (i.e., sex, school area, ethnicity, pocket money) and previous year dieting. (3) Results: Results showed that more than one-third of the sample was overweight, with higher rates among adolescent males (47%) than females (24%). Moreover, adolescents attending schools in urban areas (compared with suburban areas), and those reporting past dieting (compared with those reporting no dieting) had higher overweight rates. Ethnicity and the amount of pocket money were not related to overweight status. Finally, a clear sex-specific interaction was found involving school area, showing that males in urban areas had a significantly higher risk to be overweight, whereas this did not apply to females. (4) Conclusions: males from urban area private schools in Indonesia may be an important target group for future preventive overweight interventions.

The Complicated Relationship between Dieting, Dietary Restraint, Caloric Restriction, and Eating Disorders: Is a Shift in Public Health Messaging Warranted?

The origins of theories specifying dietary restraint as a cause of eating disorders can be traced to the 1970s. This paper will present an overview of the origins of dietary restraint theories and a brief historical review of evidence will be summarized. Recent research will be presented, including the results from the CALERIE Phase 1 study, as well as CALERIE Phase 2, which were NIH-sponsored randomized controlled trials. CALERIE 2 provided a test of the effect of two years of caloric restriction (CR) on the development of eating disorder syndromes and symptoms in comparison to a control group that did not alter eating behavior or body weight. The intervention was effective for inducing a chronic (two-year) reduction in total energy expenditure and increased dietary restraint but did not increase symptoms of eating disorders. The results of this recent investigation and other studies have not provided experimental support for conventional dietary restraint theories of eating disorders. These findings are discussed in terms of potential revisions of dietary restraint theory, as well as the implications for a paradigm shift in public health messaging related to dieting.

Translation of the Chinese version of the modified Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0 and its validation among college students

BACKGROUND

Obesity prevalence has substantially increased in China over the past decade. In China, over 1 in 7 individuals meet the criteria for overall obesity, and 1 in 3 meet the criteria for abdominal obesity, obesity has become a significant problem. Studies have shown that food addiction and obesity are inextricably linked. The modified Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0 (mYFAS 2.0) is a brief measurement for assessing food addiction. This study aimed to explore the structure of the Chinese version of the mYFAS 2.0 and assess the occurrence of food addiction in a sample of college students in Northeast China.

METHODS

A cross-sectional design was conducted in a sample of 1099 undergraduate students in Northeast China. Participants completed the sociodemographic questionnaire, the Chinese version of the mYFAS 2.0, the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-8), and the Self-Esteem Scale (SES) to test the hypothesis. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were performed to examine the underlying factor structure of the mYFAS 2.0. Two weeks later, 62 students who participated in the first test were recruited to evaluate the test-retest reliability.

RESULTS

The Chinese version of the mYFAS 2.0 demonstrated adequate internal consistency, good test-retest reliability and satisfactory construct validity. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis found that the Chinese version of the mYFAS 2.0 demonstrated a good fit to the two-factor solution identified by the exploratory factor analysis and showed superior fit indices compared to the one-factor model. The prevalence of food addiction in our sample was found to be in line with rates observed in other Asian and Western samples. The mYFAS 2.0 symptom count scores were correlated with BMI, the idea of dieting to lose weight, the desire to overeat, low self-esteem, and impulsivity.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that the Chinese version of the mYFAS 2.0 has good reliability and validity, and that it can be considered a tool to evaluate the addictive eating behaviours of undergraduate students.

The food restriction wars: Proposed resolution of a primary battle

Research regarding the definition and consequences of dieting has generated controversy for years. This controversy has spilled over into the public domain, especially as eating disorders and obesity have become more prevalent. One of the earliest and longest-lasting controversies involves the restrained eating framework, which was originally developed by Herman and Polivy and also strongly influenced the development of the cognitive-behavioral model of bulimia nervosa. An alternative framework for understanding the role of dieting in nonclinical and clinical groups, called the Three-Factor Model of Dieting, took a sharply different approach to defining, and understanding the impact of, dieting. This paper provides a brief historical review of the development of these divergent perspectives and updates the Three Factor Model's critical distinction between restraining eating to prevent over-consumption and dieting to lose weight. We suggest that three historical trends impacted the development of Restraint Theory in ways that unfairly impugned dieting for weight control: the emergence of the new eating disorders of bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder, a population-based increase in loss of control eating and a population-based increase in obesity. This update is aimed in part at encouraging new research to reconcile ongoing, unresolved issues between Herman and Polivy's restrained eating model and the Three-Factor model of Dieting model. Such research might also contribute to the public's understanding of the pros and cons of dieting and to new approaches to treating eating disorders and obesity.

Dietary Restraint Related to Body Weight Maintenance and Neural Processing in Value-Coding Areas in Adolescents

BACKGROUND

There is an alarming increase in the obesity prevalence among children in an environment of increasing availability of preprocessed high-calorie foods. However, some people maintain a healthy weight even in such obesogenic environments. This difference in body weight management could be attributed to individual differences in dietary restraint; however, its underlying neurocognitive mechanisms in adolescents remain unclear.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to elucidate these neurocognitive mechanisms in adolescents by examining the relationships between dietary restraint and the food-related value-coding region located in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC).

METHODS

The association between dietary restraint and BMI was tested using a multilinear regression analysis in a large early adolescent cohort (n = 2554; age, 12.2 ± 0.3 years; BMI, 17.9 ± 2.5 kg/m2; 1354 boys). Further, an fMRI experiment was designed to assess the association between the vmPFC response to food images and dietary restraint in 30 adolescents (age, 17.6 ± 1.9 years; BMI, 20.7 ± 2.2 kg/m2; 13 boys). Additionally, using 54 individuals from the cohort (age, 14.5 ± 0.6 years; BMI, 18.8 ± 2.6 kg/m2; 31 boys), we assessed the association between dietary restraint and intrinsic vmPFC-related functional connectivity.

RESULTS

In the cohort, adolescents with increased dietary restraint showed a lower BMI (β = -0.38; P < 0.001; B = -0.06; SE = 0.003). The fMRI results showed a decreased vmPFC response to high-calorie food were correlated with greater dietary restraint. Moreover, there was an association of attenuated intrinsic vmPFC-related functional connectivity in the superior and middle frontal gyrus and the middle temporal gyrus with greater dietary restraint.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that dietary restraint in adolescents could be a preventive factor for weight gain; its effect involves modulating the vmPFC, which is associated with food value coding.

Food & meal decision making in lockdown: How and who has Covid-19 affected?

The Covid-19 lockdown resulted in all but essential shops closing in many countries, with inevitable and immediate impact on food availability and choice. Reasons for specific food choices influence diet and mealtimes and can affect psychological and physical well-being. The current study aimed first to investigate whether individuals and families in the UK have changed their food choice motivations over lockdown and second to identify sub-groups in particular need of support in the event of future lockdowns. Two hundred and forty adult participants from the UK completed an online survey, consisting of a series of demographic questions, the Food Choice Questionnaire, the Family Mealtime Goals Questionnaire and some short open-ended questions. They were asked to consider their goals and motivations around food and mealtimes at two timepoints: before lockdown and Summer 2020. Results indicated that the sample placed more importance on health, weight control and mood when choosing their food after lockdown than they had before, and less importance on familiarity. A number of sub-groups were identified who may be particularly vulnerable to food-related challenges in future lockdowns including younger adults, parents and carers of children, those self-isolating and individuals who do not live within close proximity to food shops. These results are preliminary and larger sub-group sample sizes will be necessary to draw firm conclusions. Future research should consider the nature and impact of these challenges in more detail across a more varied population.

Dysfunctional Eating Behaviour and Leptin in Middle-Aged Women: Role of Menopause and a History of Anorexia Nervosa

BACKGROUND

Weight gain is common as women approach mid-life. Reduced levels of leptin, an anorexigenic hormone, may facilitate this. Studies in middle-aged women with obesity have shown that dysfunctional eating behaviour, such as restrained eating, is linked to lower leptin. Furthermore, states of low oestradiol signalling, as are found in post-menopause or anorexia nervosa, have been found to impact leptin levels. The aim of this study was to investigate, for the first time, how different aspects of dysfunctional eating, menopausal status, and a history of anorexia nervosa relate to leptin levels in normal-weight middle-aged women.

METHODS

A total of N = 57 women were recruited. Thirty-one were post-menopausal, and 27 had a history of anorexia nervosa. Dysfunctional eating behaviour was measured by the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire, which contains three subscales: susceptibility/responsiveness to hunger, restraint, and disinhibition. Body composition was assessed by bioelectrical impedance analysis. A fasting blood sample was obtained to determine leptin.

RESULTS

Controlling for age, body mass index, and fat mass, susceptibility/responsiveness to hunger was positively associated with leptin (β = 0.267, p = 0.031), whereas restrained eating (β = - 0.183, p = 0.079) and a history of anorexia nervosa (β = - 0.221, p = 0.059) were, by trend, negatively associated with leptin. Neither disinhibited eating nor menopausal status was related to leptin.

CONCLUSIONS

Leptin may decline as a response to repeated states of a negative energy balance. A possible implication is that mid-life weight management should avoid extreme changes in eating behaviour and instead focus on the macronutrient composition of diet and physical activity. Further, longitudinal enquiries are warranted to investigate these relationships.

Dual-targeting Approach on Histamine H3 and Sigma-1 Receptor Ligands as Promising Pharmacological Tools in the Treatment of CNS-linked Disorders

With the recent market approval of Pitolisant (Wakix®), the interest in clinical application for novel multifunctional histamine H3 receptor antagonists has clearly increased. Several combinations of different H3R pharmacophores with pharmacophoric elements of other G-protein coupled receptors, transporters, or enzymes have been synthesized by numerous pharmaceutical companies and academic institutions. Since central nervous system disorders are characterized by diverse physiological dysfunctions and deregulations of a complex network of signaling pathways, optimal multipotent drugs should simultaneously and peculiarly modulate selected groups of biological targets. Interestingly, very recent studies have shown that some clinically evaluated histamine H3 receptor antagonists possess a nanomolar affinity for sigma-1 receptor binding sites, suggesting that this property might play a role in their overall efficacy. The sigma-1 receptor, unusual and yet obscure protein, is supposed to be involved in numerous CNS pathologies through neuroprotection and neuroplasticity. These two different biological structures, histamine H3 and sigma-1 receptors, combined, can represent a potential fruitful target for therapeutic developments in tackling numerous human diseases.

Affect and engagement in healthy and unhealthy weight control behaviors in college women: An ecological momentary assessment study

PURPOSE

The relationships between momentary affect and weight control behaviors have been extensively studied in samples of individuals with eating disorders, but we do not know that the established relationships translate to healthy college women. The current study examined the relationship between affect and weight control behaviors in healthy college women.

METHOD

Female college students (N = 67) completed measures of negative affect, positive affect, healthy weight control behaviors, and unhealthy weight control behaviors across fourteen days using ecological momentary assessment.

RESULTS

Average daily negative affect was inversely associated with daily engagement in unhealthy weight control behaviors, but was not associated with healthy weight control behaviors. Average daily positive affect was not associated with daily engagement in healthy or unhealthy weight control behaviors.

CONCLUSION

Negative affect was inversely associated with engagement in unhealthy weight control behaviors in this female undergraduate sample. Future studies should continue to elucidate the differences in the relationships in samples of individuals with ED psychopathology vs. healthy samples.

Mediating role of disordered eating in the relationship between screen time and BMI in adolescents: longitudinal findings from the Research on Eating and Adolescent Lifestyles (REAL) study

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated whether the duration and type of screen time (ST) (TV viewing, recreational computer use, video gaming) is longitudinally associated with z-BMI and if these relationships are mediated by disordered eating (emotional, restrained).

DESIGN

At baseline, participants were n 1197 (T1; 60 % female) adolescents (mean age = 13·51 years) who completed surveys over 2 years. ST was assessed by a self-reported measure created by the investigative team, while emotional and restrained eating was measured by the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEB-Q). Height and weight were objectively measured to quantify z-BMI.

SETTING

Thirty-one public and two private schools from the region of Ottawa, Canada.

PARTICIPANTS

Students in grades 7-12.

RESULTS

Parallel multiple mediation analyses revealed that more time spent watching TV at baseline is associated with higher z-BMI at T3 (total effect; B = 0·19, se = 0·07, P = 0·01, 95 % CI 0·05, 0·34), but no relationships were observed for total ST exposure or other types of ST and z-BMI. Disordered eating did not mediate the positive association between baseline TV viewing and z-BMI at T3.

CONCLUSIONS

TV viewing was longitudinally associated with higher z-BMI in a community-based sample of adolescents, but disordered eating behaviours did not mediate this relationship. However, other non-pathological eating behaviours may mediate the association between ST and obesity and warrant further investigation. Finding suggests that targeting reduction in youth's TV viewing may be an effective component in the prevention of childhood obesity.

Preference for Intuition and Deliberation in Eating Decision-making: Scale validation and associations with eating behaviour and health

OBJECTIVES

Two distinct lines of research separately regard either deliberately regulated eating or intuitive eating as most beneficial for health. The present research aims to integrate these seemingly contradictory findings by investigating the relationships between Preference for Intuition and Deliberation in Eating Decision-making (E-PID) and subjective and objective health-related parameters using a newly developed scale.

DESIGN

Study 1: online survey; Study 2: cross-sectional community cohort sample.

METHODS

Study 1 (N = 699) assessed E-PID, intuitive, restrained, and external eating, motivation to eat healthily, domain-unspecific Preference for Intuition and Deliberation, and general self-control. Study 2 (N = 1,212) assessed E-PID, positive eating, intention to eat healthily, eating behaviour, and objective health risk factors (BMI, waist circumference, blood pressure, fasting serum glucose, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides).

RESULTS

Study 1 confirmed a two-factor structure and provided evidence for construct validity: A higher preference for intuition was positively related to intuitive eating, while a higher preference for deliberation was associated with increased dietary restraint. In Study 2, preference for deliberation was positively related to the intention to eat healthy, healthy eating behaviour, and health parameters. Preference for intuition was generally unrelated to health parameters, although a higher preference for intuition was related to a somewhat unhealthier eating pattern.

CONCLUSIONS

Preference for intuition and deliberation when making food choices are two distinct decision-making styles: The former focuses on internal cues, while the latter focuses on cognitive regulation of food intake. Despite these differences, neither decision-making style was shown to be detrimental.

Association Between Dieting Failure and Unconscious Hedonic Responses to Food

Dieting is a popular but difficult strategy for reducing weight. Previous studies have revealed several psychological characteristics associated with dieting failure. Here, the hypothesis that dieting failure is associated with unconscious hedonic responses to food was tested with a subliminal affective priming task. Food image primes or their scrambled mosaic primes were subliminally presented. Participants scored their liking of the subsequent target ideographs. The participants’ subjective dieting success was additionally assessed using questionnaires. Differences in liking scores of target ideographs between the food and mosaic conditions, as well as liking scores of target ideographs under the food condition by partialing-out other effects, were negatively associated with dieting success scores. These results suggest that dieting failure is associated with the strength of unconscious hedonic responses to food and that environmental controls to reduce food cues may be needed for dieting success.

Eating behavior and metabolic syndrome over time

PURPOSE

We evaluated the longitudinal associations between eating behaviors (EB) and risk of metabolic syndrome (MetS).

METHODS

We obtained complete data on EB, assessed using the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire, and MetS components at baseline and follow-up. Participants included 1876 individuals (704 men, 1172 women; mean age, 45.0 ± 12.8 years) from those participating in the Korean Healthy Twin study. A generalized estimating equation model was applied, with sociodemographic factors, health-related factors, follow-up interval, and EB (baseline and changes over time) as independent factors.

RESULTS

MetS at baseline was 21.5%, while incident MetS and persistent MetS were 12.0% and 66.6%, respectively, at the 3.13 ± 1.38 years follow-up period. In men, baseline restrained EB had positive associations with concurrent MetS (odds ratio [95% confidence interval] per 1 point increase in the score, 1.55 [1.33-1.81]) and persistent MetS (1.53 [1.16-2.01]); baseline external EB and change in external EB had positive associations with persistent MetS (1.56 [1.04-2.33], 1.37 [1.01-2.22], respectively). In women, baseline restrained EB had a positive association with concurrent MetS (1.14 [1.01-1.30]); baseline external EB had an inverse association with persistent MetS (0.71[0.52-0.98]); baseline emotional EB had positive associations with concurrent, incident, and persistent MetS (1.23 [1.01-1.50], 2.14 [1.50-3.06], and 1.92 [1.40-2.64], respectively); and change in emotional EB had positive associations with incident and persistent MetS (1.50 [1.05-2.15], 1.62 [1.14-2.29], respectively).

CONCLUSION

Higher restrained and external EB, and an increase in external EB in men; and higher restrained and emotional EB, and an increase in emotional EB in women may be associated with increased risk of concurrent, incident, or persistent MetS.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

III, cohort study.

Predicting Weight Loss Using Psychological and Behavioral Factors: The POUNDS LOST Trial

CONTEXT

Eating habits and food craving are strongly correlated with weight status. It is currently not well understood how psychological and behavioral factors influence both weight loss and weight regain.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the associations between psychological and behavioral predictors with weight changes and energy intake in a randomized controlled trial on weight loss.

DESIGN AND SETTING

The Prevention of Obesity Using Novel Dietary Strategies is a dietary intervention trial that examined the efficacy of 4 diets on weight loss over 2 years. Participants were 811 overweight (body mass index, 25-40.9 kg/m2; age, 30-70 years) otherwise healthy adults.

RESULTS

Every 1-point increase in craving score for high-fat foods at baseline was associated with greater weight loss (-1.62 kg, P = .0004) and a decrease in energy intake (r = -0.10, P = .01) and fat intake (r = -0.16, P < .0001) during the weight loss period. In contrast, craving for carbohydrates/starches was associated with both less weight loss (P < .0001) and more weight regain (P = .04). Greater cognitive restraint of eating at baseline was associated with both less weight loss (0.23 kg, P < .0001) and more weight regain (0.14 kg, P = .0027), whereas greater disinhibition of eating was only associated with more weight regain (0.12 kg, P = .01).

CONCLUSIONS

Craving for high-fat foods is predictive of greater weight loss, whereas craving for carbohydrates is predictive of less weight loss. Cognitive restraint is predictive of less weight loss and more weight regain. Interventions targeting different psychological and behavioral factors can lead to greater success in weight loss.

Psychological and weight history variables as predictors of short-term weight and body fat mass loss

OBJECTIVE

Identifying predictors of early weight loss may have value in predicting longer-term success in weight loss programmes. This study examined if weight history variables (ie, weight cycling history [WCH], age of onset of obesity [AOO]), and preintervention Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ) and Power of Food Scale (PFS) scores predicted weight loss (WL) and fat mass loss (FML) following a 3-week calorie restriction intervention.

METHODS

Thirty-two participants (19-60 y; body mass index [BMI] 30-39.9 kg/m2) participated in a 3-week calorie restriction intervention (1120 kcal/d) as part of a larger clinical trial with 28 completers included in the current analyses. Preintervention WCH, AOO, TFEQ, and PFS subscale scores were collected, and WL and FML were measured. Multiple linear regression analyses were performed to predict WL and FML for relevant covariates in this study.

RESULTS

WCH, AOO, preintervention TFEQ subscale scores, and PFS subscale scores did not predict WL (all Ps > .08) or FML (Ps > .06) except, PFS-food tasted scores significantly predicted WL (r = -0.40, P = .03).

CONCLUSION

Although these variables were not robust predictors, results for at least the PFS suggest there may be value in further exploring this measure using larger sample sizes.

Dieting, body weight concerns and health: trends and associations in Swedish schoolchildren

Background

Dieting is a risk factor of both eating disorders and obesity. The aim was to examine time trends of dieting in Swedish adolescents, and explore how dieting and body weight dissatisfaction are related to self-reported health, wellbeing and health behaviours.

Methods

Analyses of cross-sectional Swedish data from HBSC (Health Behaviour in School-aged Children) surveys 1994–2014. In total, about 30,000 girls and boys in the age of 11, 13 and 15 years participated. Data was collected by using classroom administered questionnaires in 5th, 7th and 9th grade. Logistic regressions was used to analyse secular trends of dieting, and how dieting and body dissatisfaction were associated with self-reported overall health, health behaviours, BMI and various physical, psychological and social aspects of health in 2014.

Results

Dieting increased from 1994 to 2014 in both girls and boys in all age groups, and in 2014, the prevalence was 14% in girls and 8% in boys. The prevalence of body satisfaction was 65% respectively 69%. Body weight dissatisfaction and dieting were present in all body weight classes and were associated with self-reported poor health and many other negative health aspects. In comparison with the participants that were satisfied with their body weight the odds ratio (95% CI) for self-reported poor health was 3.4 (2.6–4.4) in dieters, 4.9 (3.8–6.4) in participants who perceived a need to lose weight and 2.1 (1.5–2.8) in those who perceived a need to gain weight, when adjusting for age, sex and body weight class.

Conclusions

When promoting health among school age children body weight dissatisfaction and dieting ought to be considered. Furthermore, it is important to support girls and boys in all weight classes to reach and maintain a healthy body image and weight.

Emotional eating is more frequent in obese rheumatoid arthritis patients

BACKGROUND & AIM

Obesity is a risk factor for both cardiovascular mortality and poor disease control. Unfavourable eating behaviours may have a role in obesity and increase the risk for obesity. In this study, we evaluated the eating behaviours of the patients with rheumatoid arthritis and compare these with controls. Also, we assessed the eating behaviour differences between obese and non-obese rheumatoid arthritis patients.

METHODS

It was a cross sectional case control study. We enrolled 157 rheumatoid arthritis patients and 60 controls to the study in one year period. We evaluated the eating behaviours of the patients with Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire R-18. Firstly, we compared eating behaviours of the rheumatoid arthritis patients with controls, and then we evaluated the differences in eating features between obese rheumatoid arthritis patients with non-obese rheumatoid arthritis patients. We compared the continuous variables with Mann-Whitney u test. Furthermore, categorical variables were compared with Chi-square test.

RESULTS

Sixty-three (40.2%) of the rheumatoid arthritis patients were obese. Eating behaviours of rheumatoid arthritis patients and controls were similar, out of uncontrolled eating score. This score was found higher in control group than rheumatoid arthritis patients (p = 0.01). Moreover, emotional eating domain scores were higher in obese RA patients (p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Even though there were no negative eating features in general rheumatoid arthritis population, obese rheumatoid arthritis patients may have an emotional eating problem. Herein, treatments that address psychosomatic sides of eating may be effective for treatment of obesity in rheumatoid arthritis.

Weight variability during self-monitored weight loss predicts future weight loss outcome

BACKGROUND

Obesity treatments often do not produce long-term results. It is therefore critical to better understand biological and behavioral correlates or predictors of future weight change.

OBJECTIVE

We tested the hypothesis that greater weight variability, independent of total body weight change, during early weight loss would predict degree of long-term success.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

We included 24,009 American users of the Withings smart scale with over a year's worth of self-monitored weight data. Multilevel modeling was used to calculate weight variability as the root mean square error around participants' weight trajectory regression line, using weekly average weights from the first 12 weeks of weight loss. Linear regressions were then used to examine whether weight variability predicted weight change from week 12 to week 48, 72, and 96.

RESULTS

Greater weight variability predicted less weight loss/more weight regain at week 48 (b ± SE: 1.18 ± 0.17, p < 0.001), week 72 (b ± SE: 1.45 ± 0.21, p < 0.001), and week 96 (b ± SE: 1.45 ± 0.23, p < 0.001), controlling for baseline BMI and overall weight change during the first 12 weeks. An interaction effect was found between weight variability and baseline BMI such that the relationship between weight variability and later weight change was stronger in individuals with lower baseline BMI.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found that in a large population sample, weight variability early on during weight loss significantly predicted longer term weight loss outcomes. The results provide further support that weight variability be considered an important predictor of future weight change. Research is needed to understand the mechanisms underlying this effect.

Change in self-efficacy, eating behaviors and food cravings during two years of calorie restriction in humans without obesity

Calorie restriction (CR) enhances longevity in humans who are normal weight, overweight and obese. While dietary regimens can change self-efficacy, eating behaviors, and food cravings in individuals with obesity, the responses of these measures to prolonged CR in individuals who are exclusively not obese is unknown. The aim of this analysis was to test the effects of a two-year CR intervention on self-efficacy and eating attitudes and behaviors in humans without obesity by analyzing data from the Comprehensive Assessment of Long-term Effects of Reducing Intake of Energy Phase 2 (CALERIE 2) study. Participants (n = 218, BMI range = 21.3-29.0 kg/m2) were randomized to a 25% CR group or an ad libitum (AL) group. Eating attitudes and behaviors and self-efficacy were assessed using validated questionnaires at baseline, month 12, and month 24. Dietary restraint and self-efficacy increased in the CR compared to the AL group (ES ≥ 0.32). Increased self-efficacy was negatively related to weight change (ρ < -0.24). In the CR group, males showed a reduction in cravings for carbohydrates and fats at month 24, whereas females did not. The CR group showed elevations in state hunger, which were transient, and disinhibited eating (ES ≥ 0.37). In individuals without obesity, dietary restraint and self-efficacy could be important in promoting long-term CR for individuals looking to use CR as a tool to improve longevity.

Cognitive Restraint and History of Dieting Are Negatively Associated with Organic Food Consumption in a Large Population-Based Sample of Organic Food Consumers

Organic food consumption has risen in many countries during the past decades, but individual motives leading to these choices remain unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the associations between cognitive restraint (CR), history of dieting and organic food intake. This cross-sectional analysis included 20,085 organic food consumers from the NutriNet-Santé cohort. CR (range score 1-4) was evaluated by the Three-Factor-Eating-Questionnaire and practice of dieting (never vs. past/current) was assessed by an ad hoc questionnaire. Frequencies of organic food intake overall and in 16 food groups were assessed by the Organic Food Frequency Questionnaire. Linear regression and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were performed to investigate the association between CR score, history of dieting and contribution of organic food intake to the total food intake. A lower overall contribution of organic options in the diet was observed in women with higher levels of CR (β = -3.61%, 95% CI: -4.32; -2.91 for 1 point of CR, p < 0.001) and with a history of dieting (31.1 ± 0.4% in past/current vs. 32.6 ± 0.3% in never dieters; p = 0.001). Consistent associations were observed in men with a history of dieting (26.4 ± 0.8% in past/current vs. 28.7 ± 0.4% in never dieters; p = 0.012). Overall, individuals-in particular women-with higher CR scores or with a history of dieting selected fewer organic food options. Our findings illustrate the complexity of potentially concurrent motives to food choices, in a context of increasing interest in organic food consumption.

Eating Occasions, Obesity and Related Behaviors in Working Adults: Does it Matter When You Snack?

Reported relationships between frequency, type, and timing of eating occasions and obesity-risk among adults are mixed while associations with obesogenic eating behaviors remain unexplored. The Physical Activity and Changes in Eating (PACE) study was a group-randomized controlled trial to prevent weight gain among 34 small worksites in Seattle from 2005-2009. Baseline surveys assessed body mass index (BMI), obesogenic eating behaviors (e.g., fast food and distracted-eating), and eating occasions (i.e., snacks and meals) among 2265 employees. BMI and waist circumference were measured on a subset (n = 567). Time-periods for analyses included: morning (12:00 a.m. to 10:59 a.m.), mid-day (11:00 a.m. to 4:29 p.m.), and evening (4:30 p.m. to 11:59 p.m.). Multilevel linear models estimated associations between snack timing, obesity, and related behaviors while adjusting for meal timing, gender, and worksite random effects. Greater morning snacking was associated with increased fruit and vegetable consumption, while greater evening snacking was associated with higher BMI, higher obesogenic dietary index (intake of fast food, French fries, and soft drinks), and higher percent time eating while distracted. Associations with mid-day snacking were mixed. Patterns of association were consistent across repeated and objective measures. Findings suggest that evening snacking is more detrimental to healthy weight compared to snacking at other times of day. Reducing evening snacks may be an important and simple message for population-level obesity prevention efforts.

Brain structures associated with eating behaviors in normal-weight young females

Eating behaviors play an important role in individuals' development, and restrained eaters have a higher risk of obesity in the future. In the present study, we used the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire to measure restrained eating, uncontrolled eating, and emotional eating in 158 young, normal-weight, Chinese women. We developed a multiple linear regression model to identify significant structural brain changes associated with the above-mentioned eating behaviors. Uncontrolled eating scores were positively associated with the gray matter volume (GMV) of the cerebellum, and negatively associated with the GMV on the left side of the anterior cingulate cortex, middle cingulate cortex, and supplementary motor areas, indicating that uncontrolled eating behaviors not only are less inhibitory but also appear to be associated with the low-level processing of appetite. Increased GMV on the right side of the precuneus was associated with a higher level of restrained eating, which might be thus related to a lower sensitivity to behavioral inhibition in young females who follow a diet. In addition, we did not find a relationship between emotional eating behavior and GMV. Our findings show that eating-behavior-related structural brain changes may lead to a decrease in inhibition and an increase in food sensitivity.

Self-report dieting and long-term changes in body mass index and waist circumference

OBJECTIVE

This prospective study explores whether dieting attempts and previous changes in weight predict changes in body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC).

METHODS

The study was based on the representative Finnish Health 2000 Survey and on its follow-up examination 11 years later. The sample included 2,785 participants, aged 30-69. BMI and WC were determined at health examinations. Information on dieting attempts and previous changes in weight was collected using a questionnaire including questions on whether participant had tried to lose weight (no/yes), gained weight (no/yes) or lost weight (no/yes) during the previous year.

RESULTS

At baseline, 32.8% were dieters. Of these, 28.4% had lost weight during the previous year. Dieters had higher BMI and WC than non-dieters. During the follow-up, the measures increased more in dieters and in persons with previous weight loss. The mean BMI changes in non-dieters versus dieters were 0.74 (standard deviation [SD] 2.13) kg/m2 and 1.06 (SD 2.77) kg/m2 (P = 0.002), respectively. The corresponding numbers for those with no previous weight change versus those who had lost weight were 0.65 (SD 2.07) kg/m2 and 1.52 (SD 2.61) kg/m2. The increases in BMI and WC were most notable in dieters with initially normal weight.

CONCLUSIONS

The increases in BMI and WC were greater in dieters than in non-dieters, suggesting dieting attempts to be non-functional in the long term in the general population.

Disentangling relations between the desirability of the thin-ideal, body checking, and worry on college women's weight-loss dieting: A self-regulation perspective

The study used self-regulation theory to elucidate the relationships between the desirability of the thin-ideal goal, dispositional worry, body checking and weight-loss dieting (WLD) in college women. We hypothesized that body checking would mediate the relationship between the desirability of the thin-ideal goal and WLD: the desire to be thin would be associated with more WLD through more frequent body checking. We also hypothesized that dispositional worry would moderate this mediation pathway, such that the mediation pathway would be stronger for those higher in worry. Finally, all effects were expected to occur when controlling for self-reported body size. A paper and pencil survey was conducted on a convenience sample of 237 college women who completed measures of: thin-ideal desirability, dispositional worry, body checking, WLD, as well as providing height and weight. A bootstrap analysis using PROCESS (Hayes, 2013) supported the hypothesized moderated mediation model. Findings add to current knowledge by elucidating the nature and function of body checking, and by so doing may provide insight into the prevention and treatment of disordered eating.

The Role of Self-Control and the Presence of Enactment Models on Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption: A Pilot Study

The objective of the present research was to investigate associations of dispositional and momentary self-control and the presence of other individuals consuming SSBs with the consumption frequency of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) in a multi-country pilot study. We conducted an Ambulatory Assessment in which 75 university students (52 females) from four study sites carried smartphones and received prompts six times a day in their everyday environments to capture information regarding momentary self-control and the presence of other individuals consuming SSBs. Multilevel models revealed a statistically significant negative association between dispositional self-control and SSB consumption. Moreover, having more self-control than usual was only beneficial in regard to lower SSB consumption frequency, when other individuals consuming SSBs were not present but not when they were present. The findings support the hypothesis that self-control is an important factor regarding SSB consumption. This early evidence highlights self-control as a candidate to design interventions to promote healthier drinking through improved self-control.

Effects of Palatable Food Versus Thin Figure Conflicts on Responses of Young Dieting Women

Many young women use dieting to achieve a thinner figure yet most tend to fail as a result of heightened responsiveness to palatable food environments and increases in hedonic cravings. In this preliminary study, we developed a novel palatable food vs. thin figure conflict task to assess conflicting motives associated with eating among young women. Forty young dieting women [mean body mass index (BMI) = 22.98 kg/m², SD = 3.81] completed a food vs. figure conflict task within a 2 (distractor image: food vs. figure) × 2 (word-image congruence: congruent vs. incongruent) within-subjects design. Results supported the view that this new task could effectively capture conflict costs. Dieting young women displayed stronger food conflicts than figure conflicts based on having longer response delays and higher error rates in the food conflict condition than the figure conflict condition. Although young women often proclaimed "dieting" to achieve or maintain a good figure, dieters appeared to exhibit stronger preferences for palatable food cues relative to thin figure cues. These results provide important information for understanding automatic processing biases toward palatable foods and underscore the need for research extensions in other cultural contexts to determine whether such biases are universal in nature.

Associations between Weight Loss, Food Likes, Dietary Behaviors, and Chemosensory Function in Bariatric Surgery: A Case-Control Analysis in Women

We tested the hypothesis that successful weight loss post-bariatric surgery would be associated with healthier chemosensory function, food likes, and dietary behaviors than either unsuccessful weight loss or pre-surgery morbid obesity. In a case-control design, pre-surgical women with morbid obesity (n = 49) were compared with those 1-year post-surgery (24 Roux-en-Y Bypass, 24 Sleeve Gastrectomy) and defined by excess or percent weight loss as successful/unsuccessful. For self-reported smell/taste perception, more post-surgery than pre-surgery reported improved/distorted perception, especially if weight loss successful. Measured taste function (perceived quinine and NaCl intensity) was lower among weight loss unsuccessful versus pre-surgery patients, yet a genetic variation in taste probe (propylthiouracil bitterness) matched expected frequencies without significant pre/post-surgery difference. Regarding survey-reported liking, higher diet quality was seen in the weight loss successful (independent of surgery type) versus pre-surgical patients, with differences driven by lower sweet and refined carbohydrate liking. The post versus pre-surgical patients had greater restraint but less hunger and disinhibition. Patients reporting both higher diet quality and lower hunger showed greater % weight loss, independent of surgery type. Thus, successful weight loss 1-year post-bariatric surgery was associated with improved or distorted chemosensation and patterns of liking associated with healthier diets, especially if coupled with less hunger.

Changing from the inside out? Examining relationships between overweight identification, dieting behaviours, and body measurements over time

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether changes in overweight identification were associated with dieting behaviours and body measurements over time.

DESIGN

Longitudinal study with assessments at three time points: before and twice during (i.e., baseline, 6 months, 12 months) a 1-year self-directed weight loss attempt.

METHOD

Eighty individuals with overweight or obesity (classified by BMI ≥ 25) reported their personal (i.e., I see myself as overweight), social (i.e., I identify/feel strong ties with other overweight people), and affective (i.e., I am pleased to be overweight) overweight identification; dieting behaviours (e.g., eat less, exercise, eat more fruit and vegetables); and had their body measurements taken (i.e., weight, height, body fat, waist circumference).

RESULTS

Linear mixed modelling was used to examine between-person differences and within-person changes in overweight identification on dieting behaviours and body measurements over time. Between-person differences mattered for measurements: Higher personal overweight identification was associated with higher BMI, body fat, and waist circumference over time. Higher social overweight identification was associated with higher BMI over time. Within-person changes mattered for behaviours over time: At 12 months, decreases in social overweight identification were associated with increases in a subset of 'Eat Less, Move More' dieting behaviours, but not a subset of 'Healthy' dieting behaviours. At 12 months, decreases in affective overweight identification were also associated with increases in 'Eat Less, Move More' dieting behaviours.

CONCLUSION

Addressing different aspects of overweight identification and how they change over time, may harness an important psychological pathway to support behavioural change and health irrespective of weight loss. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Psychological factors, such as self-concept clarity and weight stigma, are associated with dieting behaviours and body measurements. Qualitative data suggest that identity change may be tied to dieting behaviours and weight loss. What does this study add? New insights into the nature of another psychological factor, overweight identification, among individuals with overweight and obesity attempting to lose weight. The first quantitative evidence that different aspects of overweight identification, and changes in these aspects of overweight identification over time, influence body measurements and dieting behaviours.