Development and Plasticity of Cognitive Flexibility in Early and Middle Childhood

The role of axon guidance molecules in the pathogenesis of epilepsy

Current treatments for epilepsy can only manage the symptoms of the condition but cannot alter the initial onset or halt the progression of the disease. Consequently, it is crucial to identify drugs that can target novel cellular and molecular mechanisms and mechanisms of action. Increasing evidence suggests that axon guidance molecules play a role in the structural and functional modifications of neural networks and that the dysregulation of these molecules is associated with epilepsy susceptibility. In this review, we discuss the essential role of axon guidance molecules in neuronal activity in patients with epilepsy as well as the impact of these molecules on synaptic plasticity and brain tissue remodeling. Furthermore, we examine the relationship between axon guidance molecules and neuroinflammation, as well as the structural changes in specific brain regions that contribute to the development of epilepsy. Ample evidence indicates that axon guidance molecules, including semaphorins and ephrins, play a fundamental role in guiding axon growth and the establishment of synaptic connections. Deviations in their expression or function can disrupt neuronal connections, ultimately leading to epileptic seizures. The remodeling of neural networks is a significant characteristic of epilepsy, with axon guidance molecules playing a role in the dynamic reorganization of neural circuits. This, in turn, affects synapse formation and elimination. Dysregulation of these molecules can upset the delicate balance between excitation and inhibition within a neural network, thereby increasing the risk of overexcitation and the development of epilepsy. Inflammatory signals can regulate the expression and function of axon guidance molecules, thus influencing axonal growth, axon orientation, and synaptic plasticity. The dysregulation of neuroinflammation can intensify neuronal dysfunction and contribute to the occurrence of epilepsy. This review delves into the mechanisms associated with the pathogenicity of axon guidance molecules in epilepsy, offering a valuable reference for the exploration of therapeutic targets and presenting a fresh perspective on treatment strategies for this condition.

Effects of aerobic exercise on executive function of healthy middle-aged and older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The deterioration of executive function is a hallmark of cognitive aging. Reports indicate that signs of decline in executive function begin to emerge as early as middle age. Aerobic exercise improves executive function in healthy middle-aged and older adults, but the optimal exercise prescription variables are still unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of aerobic exercise on executive function of healthy middle-aged and older adults and explore the dose-response relationship and moderators.

METHODS

We conducted comprehensive searches of PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus for English literature, and CNKI, WanFang, and VIP for Chinese literature, covering the period from inception until April 25, 2024. Randomized controlled trials examining the effect of aerobic exercise on executive function in healthy middle-aged and older adults aged 45 or older were included. The Cochrane Collaboration's RoB2 tool was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. And subgroup analyses and meta-regressions were conducted to elucidate the impact of aerobic exercise on executive function.

RESULTS

Forty-two eligible randomized controlled trials, involving a total of 2881 participants, met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review and meta-analysis. The pooled results showed that aerobic exercise had positive effects on improving cognitive flexibility (Hedge's g = 0.343, p < 0.001), working memory (Hedge's g = 0.392, p < 0.001), and inhibitory control (Hedge's g = 0.229, p < 0.001) in healthy middle-aged and older adults. However, it did not demonstrate an improvement in planning (Hedge's g = 0.094, p = 0.440). The dose-response relationships between different exercise parameters and subdomains of executive functions revealed that the largest effects on cognitive flexibility were observed after 13-24 weeks of progression-intensity mind-body exercise, 46-60 min per session, and 5-7 days per week. Regarding working memory, the largest effects were observed after 13-24 weeks of progression-intensity general aerobic exercise, 20-45 min per session, and 5-7 days per week. For inhibitory control, the greatest effects were noted after 13-24 weeks of low-intensity general aerobic exercise, 20-45 min per session, and 3-4 days per week.

CONCLUSION

Aerobic exercise can significantly improve cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control in healthy middle-aged and older adults. The effect of aerobic exercise on different aspects of executive function is influenced by specific exercise parameters, suggesting that personalized aerobic exercise programs may be more effective for enhancing executive function of healthy middle-aged and older adults.

A study on the correlation between physical fitness index and executive function in Chinese adolescents

OBJECTIVE

To explore the relationship between physical fitness index and executive function in Chinese adolescents, and to provide a reference for improving the development of executive function in Chinese adolescents.

METHODS

From September to December 2023, 5336 adolescents aged 13 to 18 years were selected by stratified whole cluster random sampling method in six regions of China for physical fitness and executive function tests. The relationship between adolescent physical fitness index and executive function was analyzed using t-test, ANOVA, Pearson's correlation, and logistic regression.

RESULTS

The correlation coefficients between adolescents' physical fitness index and inhibitory control reaction time were all 0.00094, p > 0.05; the correlation coefficients between adolescents' physical fitness index and working memory (1-back, 2-back) reaction time were -0.13 and -0.093, respectively, p < .05; the correlation coefficients between adolescents' physical fitness index and cognitive flexibility reaction time were -0.17 and -0.18, p < .05. Logistic regression analyses showed that 1-back, 2-back, and cognitive flexibility were significantly and positively correlated with physical fitness index in Models 1, 2, and 3 (all p values less than.01). The coefficients of inhibitory control were not significant in all three models (p > .05), and there was no significant relationship with physical fitness index.

CONCLUSION

The physical fitness index of Chinese adolescents has a significant positive correlation with working memory and cognitive flexibility, but not with inhibitory control, i.e. the higher the physical fitness index, the better the working memory and cognitive flexibility.

Lavender Essential Oil Inhalation Improves Attentional Shifting and Accuracy: Evidence from Dynamic Changes of Cognitive Flexibility and Power Spectral Density of Electroencephalogram Signals

Background

Cognitive flexibility, a vital component of executive function, entails the utilization of extended brain networks. Olfactory stimulation has been shown to influence various brain functions, particularly cognitive performance.

Method

To investigate aroma inhalation's effects on brain activity dynamics associated with cognitive flexibility, 20 healthy adults were recruited to complete a set-shifting task during two experimental conditions: no aroma stimuli vs. lavender essential oil inhalation. Using Thomson's multitaper approach, the normalized power spectral density (NPSD) was assessed for five frequency bands.

Results

Findings confirm that aroma inhalation significantly affects behavioral indices (i.e., reaction time (RT) and response accuracy) and electroencephalogram (EEG) signatures, especially in the frontal lobe. Participants showed a tremendous increase in theta and alpha NPSD, associated with relaxation, along with beta NPSD, associated with clear and fast thinking after inhaling the aroma. NPSD of the delta band, an indicator of the unconscious mind, significantly decreased when stimulated with lavender essential oil. Further, participants exhibited shorter RT and more accurate responses following aroma inhalation.

Conclusion

Our findings revealed significant changes in oscillatory power and behavioral performance after aroma inhalation, providing neural evidence that olfactory stimulation with lavender essential oil may facilitate cognitive flexibility.

Executive Function in Preschool Children with Congenital Heart Disease and Controls: The Role of a Cognitively Stimulating Home Environment

OBJECTIVE

To assess the relationships between (1) environmental and demographic factors and executive function (EF) in preschool children with congenital heart disease (CHD) and controls and (2) clinical and surgical risk factors and EF in preschool children with CHD.

STUDY DESIGN

At 4-6 years of age, parents of children with CHD (n = 51) and controls (n = 124) completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Preschool Version questionnaire and the Cognitively Stimulating Parenting Scale (CSPS). Multivariable general linear modeling assessed the relationship between Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Preschool Version composite scores (Inhibitory Self-Control Index [ISCI], Flexibility Index [FI], and Emergent Metacognition Index [EMI]) and group (CHD/control), sex, age at assessment, gestational age, Index of Multiple Deprivation, and CSPS scores. The relationships between CHD type, surgical factors, and brain magnetic resonance imaging injury rating and ISCI, FI, and EMI scores were assessed.

RESULTS

The presence of CHD, age at assessment, sex, and Index of Multiple Deprivation were not associated with EF scores. Lower gestational age was associated with greater ISCI and FI scores, and age at assessment was associated with lower FI scores. Group significantly moderated the relationship between CSPS and EF, such that CSPS significantly predicted EF in children with CHD (ISCI: P = .0004; FI: P = .0015; EMI: P = .0004) but not controls (ISCI: P = .2727; FI: P = .6185; EMI: P = .3332). There were no significant relationships between EF scores and surgical factors, CHD type, or brain magnetic resonance imaging injury rating.

CONCLUSIONS

Supporting parents to provide a cognitively stimulating home environment may improve EF in children with CHD. The home and parenting environment should be considered when designing intervention studies aimed at improving EF in this patient group.

Measuring cognitive flexibility: A brief review of neuropsychological, self-report, and neuroscientific approaches

Cognitive flexibility involves dynamic processes that allow adaptation of our thinking and behavior in response to changing contextual demands. Despite a large consensus about its beneficial effects, cognitive flexibility is still poorly understood. In this mini review, we examined the main conceptualizations and approaches for assessing cognitive flexibility: (1) neuropsychological tasks, (2) self-report questionnaires, and (3) neuroscientific approaches. The reviewed evidence shows that the definition and assessment of cognitive flexibility are not unified within the field and suggests that a more consensual and consistent conceptualization and operationalization of this important concept is needed. We propose that an integrative behavior-brain-context approach can help advance our understanding of cognitive flexibility.

A meta-analysis of cognitive flexibility in autism spectrum disorder

Cognitive flexibility is a fundamental process that underlies adaptive behaviour in response to environmental change. Studies examining the profile of cognitive flexibility in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have reported inconsistent findings. To address whether difficulties with cognitive flexibility are characteristic of autism, we conducted a random-effects meta-analysis and employed subgroup analyses and meta-regression to assess the impact of relevant moderator variables such as task, outcomes, and age. Fifty-nine studies were included and comprised of 2122 autistic individuals without intellectual disabilities and 2036 neurotypical controls, with an age range of 4 to 85 years. The results showed that autistic individuals have greater difficulties with cognitive flexibility, with an overall statistically significant small to moderate effect size. Subgroup analyses revealed a significant difference between task outcomes, with perseverative errors obtaining the largest effect size. In summary, the present meta-analysis highlights the existence of cognitive flexibility difficulties in autistic people, in the absence of learning disabilities, but also that this profile is characterised by substantial heterogeneity. Potential contributing factors are discussed.

A moderated mediation analysis on the influence of social support and cognitive flexibility in predicting mental wellbeing in elite sport

The purpose of this study was to examine the mechanism by which social support influences mental wellbeing. Using the thriving through relationships model to provide a theoretical underpinning, cognitive flexibility was hypothesised as a mediator. Additionally, the research examined the consistency of this pathway between elite athletes, retired athletes, and non-athletes. Survey responses from a sample of 247 participants (n = 49 elite athletes, n = 61 retired athletes, n = 137 convenience sample; of which 127 (51.4%) were males were included in the analysis. Initial mediation analysis revealed a significant indirect pathway from social support to mental wellbeing through cognitive flexibility. Moderated mediation analysis revealed this pathway was significant for retired athletes and the convenience sample, but not for elite athletes. Results provide additional insight into the mechanisms by which social support influences wellbeing. Cognitive flexibility interventions may not be as effective for elite athletes.

Individual and context-evoked antecedents of exploration-exploitation performance

A central issue within the Carnegie approach is the exploration-exploitation tension that lies behind organizational adaptation. After decades of research, there is still little understanding of how the combination of individual and context-evoked differences affects exploration-exploitation performance. To address that issue, we build on recent psychological and neuroscientific studies to develop and test an integrative model. The model considers two individual antecedents (personality and cognitive flexibility) and three context-evoked antecedents that take place along different time horizons (recent stress, present emotional states, and present task motivation). We rely on a lab-in-the-field study of 282 leaders within the Swiss Armed Forces-an organization that exhibits the exploration-exploitation tension in an accentuated form. Using structural equation modeling, we conduct a multiple-mediation path analysis aimed at testing complex interactions between multiple variables. Our findings highlight the need to take an integrative approach; cognitive flexibility mediates the positive effect of the personality trait of emotional stability on exploration-exploitation performance, however, both cognitive flexibility and emotional stability play unique, underlying roles in explaining how organizational leaders interpret the context. Emotional stability decreases the negative effect of recent stress on a leader's cognitive flexibility. Cognitive flexibility, in turn, mediates the effect of the present positive affective signals of task motivation on exploration-exploitation performance. These findings shed new light on our understanding of how adaptive leaders leverage positive and negative context-evoked antecedents that, in turn, affect cognitive flexibility and exploration-exploitation.

Relations between Video Game Engagement and Social Development in Children: The Mediating Role of Executive Function and Age-Related Moderation

The global proliferation of video games, particularly among children, has led to growing concerns about the potential impact on children's social development. Executive function is a cognitive ability that plays a crucial role in children's social development, but a child's age constrains its development. To examine the association between video game engagement and children's social development while considering the mediating role of executive function and the moderating role of age, a questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 431 parents. The results revealed a negative relation between video game engagement and social development in children, with executive function found to mediate this relation fully. Additionally, the negative association between video game engagement and executive function became more pronounced as children grew older. In light of these findings, it is advisable to adopt proactive strategies to limit excessive video game use, consider the developmental characteristics of children at different ages, and prioritize the promotion of executive function to facilitate social development among children.

The interconnection between obesity and executive function in adolescence: The role of the gut microbiome

In the United States, adolescent obesity is a growing epidemic associated with maladaptive executive functioning. Likewise, data link the microbiome to obesity. Emerging microbiome research has demonstrated an interconnection between the gut microbiome and the brain, indicating a bidirectional communication system within the gut-microbiome-brain axis in the pathophysiology of obesity. This narrative review identifies and summarizes relevant research connecting adolescent obesity as it relates to three core domains of executive functioning and the contribution of the gut microbiome in the relationship between obesity and executive functions in adolescence. The review suggests that (1) the interconnection between obesity, executive function, and the gut microbiome is a bidirectional connection, and (2) the gut microbiome may mediate the neurobiological pathways between obesity and executive function deficits. The findings of this review provide valuable insights into obesity-associated executive function deficits and elucidate the possible mediation role of the gut microbiome.

Higher education level as a protective factor against executive dysfunction in patients with epilepsy in Mataram, Indonesia

OBJECTIVE

Since the concept of cognitive reserve is applicable in epilepsy-associated cognitive impairment, the role of cognitive reserve components as a protective factor against epilepsy-associated executive dysfunction needs further investigation. This study aimed at investigating the association between cognitive reserve components and the frequency of epilepsy-associated executive dysfunction in Mataram, Indonesia.

METHODS

This case-control study involved both epilepsy outpatient and healthy participants recruited consecutively in 5 hospitals in Mataram, between October 2021 and September 2022. Data on sociodemographic, cognitive reserve components, and executive function status were collected from both groups, while data on seizure were collected only from epilepsy participants. The association between cognitive reserve components and the frequency of epilepsy-associated executive dysfunction was tested using logistic regression.

RESULTS

A total of 119 epilepsy patients and 93 healthy participants were recruited. The frequency of epilepsy-associated executive dysfunction was 50.4%. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that higher education level was the only cognitive reserve component protective against epilepsy-associated executive dysfunction (odds ratio [OR]: 3.36; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.33 - 8.50).

CONCLUSION

A high frequency of epilepsy-associated executive dysfunction was observed in Mataram. Higher education level was a cognitive reserve component protective against executive dysfunction in these patients.

Potential cognitive and neural benefits of a computerised cognitive training programme based on Structure Learning in healthy adults: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Cognitive flexibility refers to the capacity to shift between conceptual representations particularly in response to changes in instruction and feedback. It enables individuals to swiftly adapt to changes in their environment and has significant implications for learning. The present study focuses on investigating changes in cognitive flexibility following an intervention programme-Structure Learning training.

METHODS

Participants are pseudo-randomised to either the Training or Control group, while matched on age, sex, intelligence and cognitive flexibility performance. In the Training group, participants undergo around 2 weeks of training (at least 13 sessions) on Structure Learning. In the Control group, participants do not have to undergo any training and are never exposed to the Structure Learning task. The effects of Structure Learning training are investigated at both the behavioural and neural level. We measured covariates that can influence an individual's training performance before the training phase and outcome measures that can potentially show training benefits after the training phase. At the behavioural level, we investigated outcomes in both cognitive and social aspects with a primary focus on executive functions. At the neural level, we employed a multimodality approach and investigated potential changes to functional connectivity patterns, neurometabolite concentration in the frontal brain regions, and brain microstructure and myelination.

DISCUSSION

We reported the development of a novel training programme based on Structure Learning that aims to hone a general learning ability to potentially achieve extensive transfer benefits across various cognitive constructs. Potential transfer benefits can be exhibited through better performance in outcome measures between Training and Control participants, and positive associations between training performance and outcomes after the training in Training participants. Moreover, we attempt to substantiate behavioural findings with evidence of neural changes across different imaging modalities by the Structure Learning training.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

National Institutes of Health U.S. National Library of Medicine ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05611788. Registered on 7 November 2022.

PROTOCOL VERSION

11 May 2023.

Decision Making in Moral Judgment Context is Modulated by Individual Metacognition

Metacognition refers to the human capacity to access and monitor one's own mental states. Recent research suggests that this capacity expands to the social world, e.g., when individuals explicitly share their cognitive processes with others. Additionally, metacognition is also linked to cognitive flexibility, and the latter to ideologically radical behaviors. Indeed, the absence of control over one's own mental activity could be at the base of different phenomena linked to social cognition. We investigate the metacognitive capacity of individuals in relation to the radicality with which they make a moral choice (utilitarian vs. deontological). For this purpose, 76 participants were submitted to 24 hypothetical situations, with the aim of evaluating the consistency (i.e., the radicality) of their moral choices. Then, in an independent experimental session, we evaluated the participants' metacognitive efficiency. We managed to demonstrate that individual metacognition scores are correlated with the radicality of a moral choice. We discussed the impact and relevance of metacognition in ecological contexts, particularly where subjective evaluation of the environment involves individual choices with social consequences.

Study protocol: How does cognitive flexibility relate to other executive functions and learning in healthy young adults?

BACKGROUND

Cognitive flexibility (CF) enables individuals to readily shift from one concept or mode of practice/thoughts to another in response to changes in the environment and feedback, making CF vital to optimise success in obtaining goals. However, how CF relates to other executive functions (e.g., working memory, response inhibition), mental abilities (e.g., creativity, literacy, numeracy, intelligence, structure learning), and social factors (e.g., multilingualism, tolerance of uncertainty, perceived social support, social decision-making) is less well understood. The current study aims to (1) establish the construct validity of CF in relation to other executive function skills and intelligence, and (2) elucidate specific relationships between CF, structure learning, creativity, career decision making and planning, and other life skills.

METHODS

This study will recruit up to 400 healthy Singaporean young adults (age 18-30) to complete a wide range of cognitive tasks and social questionnaires/tasks. The richness of the task/questionnaire battery and within-participant administration enables us to use computational modelling and structural equation modelling to examine connections between the latent constructs of interest.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT

The current study is the first systematic investigation into the construct validity of CF and its interrelationship with other important cognitive skills such as learning and creativity, within an Asian context. The study will further explore the concept of CF as a non-unitary construct, a novel theoretical proposition in the field. The inclusion of a structure learning paradigm is intended to inform future development of a novel intervention paradigm to enhance CF. Finally, the results of the study will be useful for informing classroom pedagogy and the design of lifelong learning policies and curricula, as part of the wider remit of the Cambridge-NTU Centre for Lifelong Learning and Individualised Cognition (CLIC).

Cognitive flexibility in schizophrenia: A confirmatory factor analysis of neuropsychological measures

Cognitive flexibility (CF) is the ability to adapt cognitive strategies according to the changing environment. The deficit in CF has often been linked to various neurological and psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia. However, the operationalization and assessment of CF have not been unified and the current research suggests that the available instruments measure different aspects of CF. The main objective of the present study was to compare three frequently used neuropsychological measures of CF-Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), Trail Making Test (TMT) and Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) in a population of patients (N = 220) with first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders in order to evaluate their convergent validity. The hypothesis of an underlying latent construct was tested via a confirmatory factor analysis. We used a one-factor CF model with scores from WCST, SCWT and TMT as observed variables. The established model showed a good fit to the data (χ² = 1.67, p = 0.43, SRMR = 0.02, RMSEA = 0.0, CFI = 1.00). The highest factor loading was found in WCST as CF explained most of the variance in this neuropsychological measure compared to the other instruments. On the other hand, a TMT ratio index and a SCWT interference demonstrated lowest loadings in the model. The findings suggest that not all the frequently used measures share an underlying factor of CF or may capture different aspects of this construct.

The effects of height-for-age and HIV on cognitive development of school-aged children in Nairobi, Kenya: a structural equation modelling analysis

Background

Empirical evidence indicates that both HIV infection and stunting impede cognitive functions of school-going children. However, there is less evidence on how these two risk factors amplify each other's negative effects. This study aimed to examine the direct effects of stunting on cognitive outcomes and the extent to which stunting (partially) mediates the effects of HIV, age, and gender on cognitive outcomes.

Methodology

We applied structural equation modelling to cross-sectional data from 328 children living with HIV and 260 children living without HIV aged 6-14 years from Nairobi, Kenya to test the mediating effect of stunting and predictive effects of HIV, age, and gender on cognitive latent variables flexibility, fluency, reasoning, and verbal memory.

Results

The model predicting the cognitive outcomes fitted well (RMSEA = 0.041, CFI = 0.966, χ2 = 154.29, DF = 77, p < 0.001). Height-for-age (a continuous indicator of stunting) predicted fluency (β = 0.14) and reasoning (β = 0.16). HIV predicted height-for-age (β = -0.24) and showed direct effects on reasoning (β = -0.66), fluency (β = -0.34), flexibility (β = 0.26), and verbal memory (β = -0.22), highlighting that the effect of HIV on cognitive variables was partly mediated by height-for-age.

Conclusion

In this study, we found evidence that stunting partly explains the effects of HIV on cognitive outcomes. The model suggests there is urgency to develop targeted preventative and rehabilitative nutritional interventions for school children with HIV as part of a comprehensive set of interventions to improve cognitive functioning in this high-risk group of children. Being infected or having been born to a mother who is HIV positive poses a risk to normal child development.

Psychometric evaluation of the computerized battery for neuropsychological evaluation of children (BENCI) among school aged children in the context of HIV in an urban Kenyan setting

INTRODUCTION

Culturally validated neurocognitive measures for children in Low- and Middle-Income Countries are important in the timely and correct identification of neurocognitive impairments. Such measures can inform development of interventions for children exposed to additional vulnerabilities like HIV infection. The Battery for Neuropsychological Evaluation of Children (BENCI) is an openly available, computerized neuropsychological battery specifically developed to evaluate neurocognitive impairment. This study adapted the BENCI and evaluated its reliability and validity in Kenya.

METHODOLOGY

The BENCI was adapted using translation and back-translation from Spanish to English. The psychometric properties were evaluated in a case-control study of 328 children (aged 6 - 14 years) living with HIV and 260 children not living with HIV in Kenya. We assessed reliability, factor structure, and measurement invariance with respect to HIV. Additionally, we examined convergent validity of the BENCI using tests from the Kilifi Toolkit.

RESULTS

Internal consistencies (0.49 < α < 0.97) and test-retest reliabilities (-.34 to .81) were sufficient-to-good for most of the subtests. Convergent validity was supported by significant correlations between the BENCI's Verbal memory and Kilifi's Verbal List Learning (r = .41), the BENCI's Visual memory and Kilifi's Verbal List Learning (r = .32) and the BENCI's Planning total time test and Kilifi's Tower Test (r = -.21) and the BENCI's Abstract Reasoning test and Kilifi's Raven's Progressive Matrix (r = .21). The BENCI subtests highlighted meaningful differences between children living with HIV and those not living with HIV. After some minor adaptions, a confirmatory four-factor model consisting of flexibility, fluency, reasoning and working memory fitted well (χ² = 135.57, DF = 51, N = 604, p < .001, RMSEA = .052, CFI = .944, TLI = .914) and was partially scalar invariant between HIV positive and negative groups.

CONCLUSION

The English version of the BENCI formally translated for use in Kenya can be further adapted and integrated in clinical and research settings as a valid and reliable cognitive test battery.

Cognitive flexibility: neurobehavioral correlates of changing one's mind

Behavioral and cognitive flexibility allow adaptation to a changing environment. Most tasks used to investigate flexibility require switching reactively in response to deterministic task-response rules. In daily life, flexibility often involves a volitional decision to change behavior. This can be instigated by environmental signals, but these are frequently unreliable. We report results from a novel "change your mind" task, which assesses volitional switching under uncertainty without the need for rule-based learning. Participants completed a two-alternative choice task, and following spurious feedback, were presented with the same stimulus again. Subjects had the opportunity to repeat or change their response. Forty healthy participants completed the task while undergoing a functional magnetic resonance imaging scan. Participants predominantly repeated their choice but changed more when their first response was incorrect or when the feedback was negative. Greater activations for changing were found in the inferior frontal junction, anterior insula (AI), anterior cingulate, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Changing responses were also accompanied by reduced connectivity from the AI and orbitofrontal cortices to the occipital cortex. Using multivariate pattern analysis of brain activity, we predicted with 77% reliability whether participants would change their mind. These findings extend our understanding of cognitive flexibility in daily life by assessing volitional decision-making.

Development of intraindividual value structures in middle childhood: A multicultural and longitudinal investigation

OBJECTIVE

We examined changes in value interrelations during middle childhood. In line with the Personal Values Theory, we expected a value system, with individuals similarly valuing related motivations, and setting priorities between conflicting motivations. We hypothesized this system to develop dynamically during middle childhood as children deepen their understanding of their own values.

METHOD

Using unfolding analysis, we estimated intraindividual value structure coherence, that is, the extent to which the interrelations among a child's values are similar to the hypothesized interrelations. Cross-Cultural Study 1 (N = 4615, 6-12-year-old children) included children from 12 countries. Cross-Sequential Study 2 (N = 629, 6-10-year-old children at Time 1) included three annual measurements.

RESULTS

In Study 1, we found a curvilinear association between age and intraindividual value structure coherence: Children's values were more coherent at ages 9-10 than before or after. Study 2 confirmed this pattern of within-individual development.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that development in coherence with the theoretical value structure offers insight into children's understanding of values as well as changes in value priorities.

The Design and Development of Instrumented Toys for the Assessment of Infant Cognitive Flexibility

The first years of an infant's life represent a sensitive period for neurodevelopment where one can see the emergence of nascent forms of executive function (EF), which are required to support complex cognition. Few tests exist for measuring EF during infancy, and the available tests require painstaking manual coding of infant behaviour. In modern clinical and research practice, human coders collect data on EF performance by manually labelling video recordings of infant behaviour during toy or social interaction. Besides being extremely time-consuming, video annotation is known to be rater-dependent and subjective. To address these issues, starting from existing cognitive flexibility research protocols, we developed a set of instrumented toys to serve as a new type of task instrumentation and data collection tool suitable for infant use. A commercially available device comprising a barometer and an inertial measurement unit (IMU) embedded in a 3D-printed lattice structure was used to detect when and how the infant interacts with the toy. The data collected using the instrumented toys provided a rich dataset that described the sequence of toy interaction and individual toy interaction patterns, from which EF-relevant aspects of infant cognition can be inferred. Such a tool could provide an objective, reliable, and scalable method of collecting early developmental data in socially interactive contexts.

Contextual adaptation of cognitive flexibility in kindergartners and fourth graders

This study investigated the development of children's ability to find the optimal balance between flexibility and stability as a function of the frequency of required task switches. This question was addressed in two situations contrasting the dynamics of engagement of reconfiguration processes (reactive vs. proactive). A cued task-switching paradigm was presented to kindergartners and fourth graders, who are known to differ in their preferential mode of control engagement. Flexibility adaptation was examined through the modulation of switching costs by switch proportion, the so-called list-wide switch proportion (LWSP) effect. When the situation forced the use of reactive control (Experiment 1: simultaneous presentation of the cue and the stimulus), we found the LWSP effect with a greater magnitude in kindergartners than in fourth graders. In the situation inducing proactive control (Experiment 2: task cue presented before and until the stimulus), flexibility adaptation was obtained when error rates were considered but not response times. By demonstrating that even young children are capable of flexibility adaptation to contextual demands, these findings support the hypothesis that implicitly triggered adaptation of control may develop as early as the end of the preschool years despite the immaturity of cognitive control during this period.

Reconceptualizing mind wandering from a switching perspective

Mind wandering is a universal phenomenon in which our attention shifts away from the task at hand toward task-unrelated thoughts. Despite it inherently involving a shift in mental set, little is known about the role of cognitive flexibility in mind wandering. In this article we consider the potential of cognitive flexibility as a mechanism for mediating and/or regulating the occurrence of mind wandering. Our review begins with a brief introduction to the prominent theories of mind wandering-the executive failure hypothesis, the decoupling hypothesis, the process-occurrence framework, and the resource-control account of sustained attention. Then, after discussing their respective merits and weaknesses, we put forward a new perspective of mind wandering focused on cognitive flexibility, which provides an account more in line with the data to date, including why older populations experience a reduction in mind wandering. After summarizing initial evidence prompting this new perspective, drawn from several mind-wandering and task-switching studies, we recommend avenues for future research aimed at further understanding the importance of cognitive flexibility in mind wandering.

Cognitive flexibility assessment in youth with Down syndrome: Reliability, practice effects, and validity

BACKGROUND

Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch between different mental sets, tasks, or strategies and is challenging for some individuals with Down syndrome (DS). The lack of reliable and valid cognitive flexibility measures for individuals with DS is a major barrier to clinical trials and intervention studies designed to address cognitive challenges specific to DS. To avoid measurement limitations that could confound interpretations of performance in clinical trials in children with DS, it is critical to use phenotype-sensitive and psychometrically sound measures of cognitive flexibility.

AIM

This study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of three measures of cognitive flexibility including Rule-Shift, Weigl Sorting, and KiTAP Flexibility in a sample of 97 youth with DS aged 6-17 years old.

METHOD

Data were collected at two time points with a two-week interval. Parents also completed adaptive behavior and cognitive flexibility questionnaires. Child cognitive and language abilities were also assessed.

RESULTS

The Weigl Sorting met the most psychometric criteria, with adequate feasibility (≥ 80 %) and significant correlations with most of the broader developmental domains; however, the levels of test-retest reliability, practice effects, and convergent validity did not meet a priori criteria. Rule-Shift and KiTAP Flexibility measures did not have acceptable feasibility; although sensitivity and specificity analyses revealed that Rule-Shift may be appropriate for a subgroup of the participants.

CONCLUSION

No evaluated measures met all psychometric study criteria and, therefore, additional evaluation of cognitive flexibility measures is needed for use among individuals with DS.

The shifting shelf task: a new, non-verbal measure for attentional set shifting

Attentional set shifting is a core ingredient of cognition, allowing for fast adaptation to changes in the environment. How this skill compares between humans and other primates is not well known. We examined performance of 3- to 5-year-old children and chimpanzees on a new attentional set shifting task. We presented participants with two shelves holding the same set of four boxes. To choose the correct box on each shelf, one has to switch attention depending on which shelf one is currently presented with. Experiment 1 (forty-six 3- to 5-year olds, predominantly European White) established content validity, showing that the majority of errors were specific switching mistakes indicating failure to shift attention. Experiment 2 (one hundred and seventy-eight 3- to 6-year olds, predominantly European White) showed that older children made fewer mistakes, but if mistakes were made, a larger proportion were switching mistakes rather than 'random' errors. Experiment 3 (52 chimpanzees) established suitability of the task for non-human great apes and showed that chimpanzees' performance was comparable to the performance of 3- and 4-year olds, but worse than 5-year olds. These results suggest that chimpanzees and young children share attentional set shifting capacities, but that there are unique changes in the human lineage from 5 years of age.

Cognitive flexibility as a protective factor for empathy

Although cognitive flexibility has always been considered essential to empathy, the relevant findings have been inconsistent. Inconsistent results may be because cognitive flexibility is a multi-level structure, while empathy is also a multilayer structure, and there are differences in how researchers define and measure cognitive flexibility. Therefore, the study explores the relationship between cognitive flexibility and empathy from a multi-dimensional perspective. This study involved 105 China students aged between 18 and 22 (M age = 20.26, SD = 2.00) who completed the Cognitive Flexibility Scale (cognitive flexibility trait, cognitive flexibility at the individual level), perspective-switching flexibility task (perspective-switching flexibility, cognitive flexibility at the cognitive level), the Interpersonal Reactivity Index scale (IRI, traits empathy), Multi-dimensional Empathy Test (state empathy), 2-back task (inhibitory control), and Stroop task (working memory). After controlling for additional variables, the results showed that: (1) Cognitive flexibility traits negatively predicted trait cognitive (IRI-PT) and affective empathy (IRI-EC). (2) The Other/Self perspective-switching flexibility negatively predicted the affective component of state empathy. (3) Cognitive flexibility traits and Other/Self perspective-switching flexibility negatively predicted empathy even after controlling for one of these. The study's results suggested that cognitive flexibility negatively predicts empathy and is a protective factor for reducing the cost of empathy and promoting emotion regulation.

Community Violence Exposure and Generalized Anxiety Symptoms: Do Callous-Unemotional Behaviors Moderate this Relation Among Urban Youth?

Community violence exposure (CVE; i.e., direct victimization and witnessed violence) is a major public health concern among youth who reside in low income, urban neighborhoods, who tend to experience CVE chronically and disproportionately. Frequent CVE is associated with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) symptoms, such as persistent or excessive worry and difficulty concentrating. However, not all youth experiencing CVE exhibit such symptoms. One understudied factor that may moderate this relation is callous-unemotional (CU) behaviors (e.g., behaviors consistent with lack of guilt, low levels of empathy). CU behaviors are associated with lower levels of responsiveness to contextual processes; as such, CU behaviors may be associated with lower levels of GAD symptoms in the context of CVE. However, little research considers CU behaviors and GAD symptoms concurrently. To address this gap, the present study examined associations among witnessed and direct CVE, CU behaviors, and GAD symptoms among low-income, urban youth (N = 104, 50% male, Mage = 9.93 ± 1.22 years old, 95% African-American/Black). Multiple regression analyses indicated teacher-reported CU behaviors moderated the relations between CVE and caregiver-reported GAD symptoms. Post-hoc probing revealed that among youth with higher levels of CVE, higher levels of CU behaviors were associated with elevated GAD symptoms compared to their peers with lower levels of CU behaviors. Youth with lower levels of CU behaviors evidenced moderate levels of GAD symptoms regardless of their levels of CVE. Thus, low-income, urban youth who experience elevated levels of CVE may be at increased risk for co-occurring GAD and CU symptoms.

Children's perspectives on being absorbed when reading fiction: A Q methodology study

Research in the intersections of literature, media, and psychology increasingly examines the absorbing story experiences of adult readers, typically relying on quantitative self-report questionnaires. Meanwhile, little work has been done to explore how being "lost in a book" is experienced by children, despite the phenomenon's importance for literacy education. Such work requires tools that are more inductive and child-centered than questionnaires. We have conducted a Q methodology study with participants aged 9-12 (n = 28), exploring how it feels for them when the mind and body are attuned to a story and how different facets of absorption (e.g., mental imagery, emotional engagement) inform the experience. Participants numerically sorted 24 cards expressing inner states and expectations relating to book-length fiction reading and were subsequently interviewed regarding their sorting choices. The cards were generated inductively based on preliminary research (focus groups, individual interviews, observations). By-person factor analysis of the sortings combined with reflective thematic analysis of the post-sorting interviews revealed four distinct reader subjectivities, or perspectives: Growth, Confirmation, Attachment and Mental Shift. Crucially, the children in these groups differed as to prominent dimensions of absorption but also as to the overall place of reading in their inner and everyday lives. Based on the four perspectives, we demonstrate that children have varied ways of being absorbed when reading fiction, and reflect on the affordances of Q methodology as a suitable child-centered approach to studying the subjective experiences of reading.

The effectiveness of child-centered play therapy for executive functions in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

INTRODUCTION

Child-centered play therapy (CCPT) is a practical and recommended non-medication intervention for children with Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) but the mechanism in between is unclear.

AIM

This study proposed to examine the effectiveness of CCPT on neuropsychological deficits and behavioral symptoms in ADHD.

METHODS

Participants with ADHD diagnosis were referred from senior child and adolescent psychiatrists, and typical developmental children (TD) were recruited from community as a control group. All participants' executive functions were evaluated using Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. First of all, the participants were evaluated using Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) by their parents. The ADHD participants were assigned into CCPT (ADHDc) and waitlist (ADHDw) group; and the ADHDc group then received CCPT weekly for 12 sessions, while the ADHDw continuously received their regular treatment (i.e., medication treatment or other alternative treatments) as usual.

RESULTS

Total 52 participants were recruited (17 with ADHD and 35 typically developed children, TD). The results showed that overall the ADHD groups had worse neuropsychological performance and more behavioural disturbance than did the TD (ps < .05). After receiving the CCPT, the results showed that the ADHDc group had significant improvement in the cognitive flexibility (p < .05); while the ADHDw group had no changes.

Association between executive functions and gross motor skills in overweight/obese and eutrophic preschoolers: cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Preschool age (3-5 years old) is a crucial period for children to acquire gross motor skills and develop executive functions (EFs). However, the association between the qualitative gross motor skills and EFs remains unknown in preschoolers, especially among overweight and obese children.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional, exploratory, and quantitative study carried out on 49 preschool children, divided into two subgroups according to their body mass index (overweight/obese: 24; eutrophic [normal weight]: 25). The mean age was 4.59 years. More than half of the sample were boys (55%) and most of the mothers had completed high school (67%) and were class C socioeconomic level (63%). Gross motor skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2, while EFs were evaluated using Semantic verbal fluency (SVF), Tower of Hanoi (TH), Day/Night Stroop, and Delayed Gratification tests. Multiple linear regression models adjusted for sex, age, maternal education, socioeconomic status, quality of the home environment, and quality of the school environment using the stepwise method were executed, considering the cognitive tasks as independent variables and gross motor skills as dependent variable.

RESULTS

The overweight/obese preschoolers showed worse locomotor skills than their eutrophic peers and below average gross motor quotient (GMQ). Overweight/obese girls performed worse in OC skills than boys with excess weight. SVF (number of errors) and TH (rule breaks) explained 57.8% of the variance in object control (OC) skills and 40.5% of the variance in GMQ (p < .05) in the overweight/obese children. Surprisingly, there was no significant association between any of the EF tasks and gross motor skills in the eutrophic children.

CONCLUSION

A relationship between EF tasks (number of errors in SVF and rule breaks in TH) and gross motor skills (OC and GMQ) was demonstrated in the overweight/obese preschoolers, indicating that worse cognitive flexibility, working memory, planning, and problem solving are associated with worse gross motor skills in this population when compared to eutrophic children.

Cognitive flexibility supports the development of cumulative cultural learning in children

The scale of cumulative cultural evolution (CCE) is a defining characteristic of humans. Despite marked scientific interest in CCE, the cognitive underpinnings supporting its development remain understudied. We examined the role cognitive flexibility plays in CCE by studying U.S. children's (N = 167, 3-5-year-olds) propensity to relinquish an inefficient solution to a problem in favor of a more efficient alternative, and whether they would resist reverting to earlier versions. In contrast to previous work with chimpanzees, most children who first learned to solve a puzzlebox in an inefficient way switched to an observed, more efficient alternative. However, over multiple task interactions, 85% of children who switched reverted to the inefficient method. Moreover, almost all children in a control condition (who first learned the efficient method) switched to the inefficient method. Thus, children were keen to explore an alternative solution but, like chimpanzees, are overall conservative in reverting to their first-learned one.

Individual Differences in Germ Spreading Behaviors Among Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: The Role of Executive Functioning

OBJECTIVE

Infectious diseases, such as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), are commonly transmitted by respiratory droplets and contact with contaminated surfaces. Individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are more likely to be infected with COVID-19 and experience more hospitalizations than individuals without ADHD. The current study investigated the role of ADHD symptomatology and executive functioning (EF) in germ spreading behavior frequency among young children with and without ADHD and parenting responses to these behaviors.

METHODS

Participants included 53 children diagnosed with ADHD and 47 typically developing (TD) children between the ages of 4-5 years (76% male; Mage = 4.62; 86% Hispanic/Latinx). Parents and teachers reported on children's ADHD symptomatology and children completed three EF tasks. Germ spreading behavior frequency (direct contact of hand to face and toy in mouth) and parenting responses (verbal and nonverbal behaviors) were observed during a 5-min parent-child play situation.

RESULTS

Negative binomial regression analyses indicated that both ADHD diagnostic status and poor metacognition predicted both higher rates of toy to mouth (β = 1.94, p < .001; β = 0.03, p = .004) and face touching frequency (β = 0.60, p = .03; β = 0.03, p = .004), respectively. Additionally, poor attention and worse cognitive flexibility only predicted higher rates of toy to mouth frequency (β = 0.09, p < .001; β = -0.04, p = .001), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Young children with ADHD are at high risk for spreading germs via putting toys in their mouth and touching their face. Particularly, high levels of inattention and poor EF appear to be associated with higher rates of germ spreading behaviors.

Set-shifting and inhibition interplay affect the rule-matching bias occurrence during conditional reasoning task

The rule-matching bias is a common error during conditional reasoning tasks, which refers to a tendency to match responses with the lexical context in the conditional rule and leads to incorrect responses. Conditional reasoning is one of the higher-level cognitive abilities affected by many cognitive skills. We aimed to determine whether inhibition and set-shifting skills with rule-matching bias occurrence could be related and, if so, to what quantitative, at a statistically significant level. A total of 30 healthy university students aged 18 to 30 participated in this study. We used the Wason's Selection Task (WST) to measure conditional reasoning and investigated their inhibition and set-shifting skills with the Stroop and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, respectively. Results showed a significant positive correlation between the number of correct responses to the Stroop test and the Wason Selection Card Test (p=0.614). There was a positive correlation between the number of correct responses to the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the Wason Selection Card Test (p=0.423). Participants with higher inhibition and set-shifting abilities showed better performance in the conditional reasoning test and lower rule-matching bias errors.

Associations between neighborhood built, social, or toxicant conditions and child externalizing behaviors in the Detroit metro area: a cross-sectional study of the neighborhood ‘exposome’

Background

The specific ‘active ingredients’ through which neighborhood disadvantage increases risk for child psychopathology remains unclear, in large part because research to date has nearly always focused on poverty to the exclusion of other neighborhood domains. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether currently assessed neighborhood built, social, or toxicant conditions were associated with child externalizing psychopathology outcomes separately, and in a combined model, using data from the Detroit-metro county area.

Methods

We conducted principal components analyses for built, social, or toxicant conditions. Next, we fitted separate multiple regression models for each of the child externalizing psychopathology measures (oppositional defiant and conduct problems) as a function of built, social, or toxicant components.

Results

We found that built features (more non-profits, churches, and alcohol outlets, and less agriculture and vacant properties) were associated with conduct problems, while toxicant conditions (high percent industrial, toxins released and number of pre-1978 structures) were associated with oppositional defiance problems. There was no significant association between greenspace or social conditions and child externalizing outcomes. When examined simultaneously, only the significant independent association between built conditions and conduct problems remained.

Conclusions

Built, social, and toxicant neighborhood conditions are not interchangeable aspects of a given neighborhood. What’s more, built features are uniquely associated with child externalizing outcomes independently of other neighborhood characteristics. Future research should consider how changes in the built conditions of the neighborhood (e.g., development, decay) serve to shape child externalizing behaviors, with a focus on identifying potentially actionable elements.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-022-13442-z.

Higher-Order Executive Function in Middle School: Training Teachers to Enhance Cognition in Young Adolescents

The epoch of adolescent brain development is an ideal time to train complex thinking skills, and middle schools provide an ideal environment to train and foster this acquisition. Unfortunately, few teachers are equipped with enough knowledge of the science of learning and evidence-based methodology, to ensure all students are given sufficient opportunity to develop their cognitive capacity to the fullest. Using our evidenced-based higher-order executive function training program, we trained current teachers to provide cognitive training to their students. The results of this study demonstrate the efficacy of teacher-implemented intervention for immediate improvement in high-level executive function capacities such as gist-reasoning and interpretive statement production. More importantly, we found evidence of far transfer via students' improved academic performance in all standardized test content areas (Reading, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies) when compared to their untrained peers. Our findings support the importance of providing intensive professional development that afford educators with a greater understanding of the brain, how we learn, and the importance of evidence-based programs to advance and instill high-level executive function in all students.

Maternal Responsive Parenting Trajectories From Birth to Age 3 and Children's Self-Esteem at First Grade

This paper examines the quality and stability of the responsive parenting practices of mothers with infants and the longitudinal links between these practices and children’s self-esteem. Using data presented by the Panel Study on Korean Children, this study identified Korean mothers’ responsive parenting trajectories from birth to age three and examined their associations with children’s self-esteem at first grade. Korean mothers developed one of three responsive parenting patterns from birth to age three: low (19.0%), moderate (66.0%), or high (15.0%). Children’s self-esteem differed according to their mother’s responsive parenting trajectory. First-graders with mothers displaying the low responsive parenting trajectory were more likely to have lower self-esteem than children of mothers with the moderate responsive parenting trajectory and children of mothers with the high responsive parenting trajectory. The longitudinal link between mother-reported responsive parenting patterns during infancy and child-reported self-esteem at first grade was verified. This finding highlights the significance of early responsive parenting from mothers as a predictor of the self-esteem of children in later developmental stages.

Cognitive outcome is related to functional thalamo-cortical connectivity after pediatric stroke

The thalamus has complex connections with the cortex and is involved in various cognitive processes. Despite increasing interest in the thalamus and the underlying thalamo-cortical interaction, little is known about thalamo-cortical connections after pediatric arterial ischemic stroke. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate thalamo-cortical connections and their association with cognitive performance after arterial ischemic stroke.

Twenty patients in the chronic phase after pediatric arterial ischemic stroke (≥ 2 years after diagnosis, diagnosed &lt;16 years; aged 5–23 years, mean 15.1 years) and twenty healthy controls matched for age and sex were examined in a cross-sectional study design. Cognitive performance (selective attention, inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) was evaluated using standardized neuropsychological tests. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to examine functional thalamo-cortical connectivity. Lesion masks were integrated in the preprocessing pipeline to ensure that structurally damaged voxels did not influence functional connectivity analyses.

Cognitive performance (selective attention, inhibition and working memory) was significantly reduced in patients compared to controls. Network analyses revealed significantly lower thalamo-cortical connectivity for the motor, auditory, visual, default mode network, salience, left/right executive and dorsal attention network in patients compared to controls. Interestingly, analyses revealed as well higher thalamo-cortical connectivity in some subdivisions of the thalamus for the default mode network (medial nuclei), motor (lateral nuclei), dorsal attention (anterior nuclei), and the left executive network (posterior nuclei) in patients compared to controls. Increased and decreased thalamo-cortical connectivity strength within the same networks was, however, found in different thalamic sub-divisions. Thus, alterations in thalamo-cortical connectivity strength after pediatric stroke seem to point in both directions, with stronger as well as weaker thalamo-cortical connectivity in patients compared to controls. Multivariate linear regression, with lesion size and age as covariates, revealed significant correlations between cognitive performance (selective attention, inhibition, and working memory) and the strength of thalamo-cortical connectivity in the motor, auditory, visual, default mode network, posterior default mode network, salience, left/right executive, and dorsal attention network after childhood stroke.

Our data suggest that the interaction between different sub-nuclei of the thalamus and several cortical networks relates to post-stroke cognition. The variability in cognitive outcomes after pediatric stroke might partly be explained by functional thalamo-cortical connectivity strength.

Effects of cognitive-motor dual task training on cognitive and physical performance in healthy children and adolescents: A scoping review

Simultaneous dual- or multitasking training has been used in manifold ways to improve cognitive-motor performance in different age groups. Dual task (DT) training is assumed to improve both, single task (ST) motor and cognitive performance, but particularly, performance under dual tasking conditions. Further, DT interventions have been shown to be beneficial for motor skill learning and cognitive performance as well as academic achievements in children and adolescents. The aim of this scoping review was to summarize current evidence on different cognitive-motor interventions that practice motor and cognitive performance simultaneously in children and adolescents and to identify training regimes that are most effective to improve cognitive or motor performance in this target group.

METHODS

Four electronic databases were searched (Pubmed, MEDLINE, Web of Science and APA Psycinfo) until May 2021. Following the PRISMA guidelines, title, abstract, and full-text screening as well as quality assessment was done by two independent reviewers. Studies were eligible if they (1) were published in English or German language, (2) accessible as a full-text version, (3) included at least one group of children or adolescents with a mean age of 4 to 21 years, (4) used dual-tasks as part of the intervention, (5) conducted one or more training sessions, and (6) reported at least one cognitive or motor outcome. The main outcome measures were cognitive and motor as well as cognitive-motor DT performance. Due to the heterogeneity in the characteristics of the included studies, we designed this review as a scoping review.

RESULTS

Seven studies met the inclusion criteria (n = 543, age four to 14 years, 47.1% female). One study reported two intervention experiments. Studies differed in sample size (20-189) as well as in type of training (specific or general DT training) and dose (frequency: one session/week to 110 sessions within 22 weeks). Overall, task-specific improvements in physical and cognitive functions were found, but not consistently across all interventions. Two interventions out of five interventions that measured motor performance demonstrated improvement in that domain, especially in balance. Three out of five interventions that measured cognitive functions found improved cognition. Only one study examined DT performance post training but failed to gain significant improvements in comparison to a control group. Studies only occasionally integrated training principles like individualization or progression in the design of their intervention.

DISCUSSION

The results indicate that DT training interventions may improve physical and/or cognitive functions in children and adolescents. Best practice recommendations for training regimes cannot be derived as outcomes differed a lot and were not systematically assessed across studies. Future studies should integrate more principles of training monitoring and aspects like individualization and progression to provide ideal training control and achieve better DT training results. Further, more high-quality trials are needed that adhere to the previous concepts.

PSYCINFO CLASSIFICATION

2340 Cognitive Processes 2820 Cognitive & Perceptual Development. 3720 Sports.

A Machine Learning Approach to Personalize Computerized Cognitive Training Interventions

Executive functions are a class of cognitive processes critical for purposeful goal-directed behavior. Cognitive training is the adequate stimulation of executive functions and has been extensively studied and applied for more than 20 years. However, there is still a lack of solid consensus in the scientific community about its potential to elicit consistent improvements in untrained domains. Individual differences are considered one of the most important factors of inconsistent reports on cognitive training benefits, as differences in cognitive functioning are both genetic and context-dependent, and might be affected by age and socioeconomic status. We here present a proof of concept based on the hypothesis that baseline individual differences among subjects would provide valuable information to predict the individual effectiveness of a cognitive training intervention. With a dataset from an investigation in which 73 6-year-olds trained their executive functions using an online software with a fixed protocol, freely available at www.matemarote.org.ar, we trained a support vector classifier that successfully predicted (average accuracy = 0.67, AUC = 0.707) whether a child would improve, or not, after the cognitive stimulation, using baseline individual differences as features. We also performed a permutation feature importance analysis that suggested that all features contribute equally to the model's performance. In the long term, this results might allow us to design better training strategies for those players who are less likely to benefit from the current training protocols in order to maximize the stimulation for each child.

The Etiology of Resilience to Disadvantage

Background

Although early-life exposure to chronic disadvantage is associated with deleterious outcomes, 40-60% of exposed youth continue to thrive. To date, little is known about the etiology of these resilient outcomes.

Methods

The current study examined child twin families living in disadvantaged contexts (N=417 pairs) to elucidate the etiology of resilience. We evaluated maternal reports of the Child Behavior Checklist to examine three domains of resilience and general resilience.

Results

Genetic, shared, and nonshared environmental influences significantly contributed to social resilience (22%, 61%, 17%, respectively) and psychiatric resilience (40%, 28%, 32%, respectively), but academic resilience was influenced only by genetic and nonshared environmental influences (65% and 35%, respectively). These three domains loaded significantly onto a latent resilience factor, with factor loadings ranging from .60 to .34. A common pathway model revealed that the variance common to all three forms of resilience was predominantly explained by genetic and non-shared environmental influences (50% and 35%, respectively).

Conclusions

These results support recent conceptualizations of resilience as a multifaceted construct influenced by both genetic and environmental influences, only some of which overlap across the various domains of resilience.

The association between the health-related physical fitness and inhibitory control in preschool children

Background

Inhibitory control develops rapidly during the preschool stage, and development of inhibitory control in this period is significant for the healthy growth of the future. However, most studies paid more attention to children and adolescents in recent years, but less focus on preschool children. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the association between the health-related physical fitness and inhibitory control in preschool children.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was based on a baseline data from randomized controlled trial by cluster sampling(including 128 preschoolers, 70 boys, 58girls).The health-related physical fitness T-score (HPFT) was obtained by adding standard scores of six indicators: body mass index, handgrip strength, standing long jump, one-leg balance, 2 × 10 m shuttle run test, and 20 m shuttle run test. Inhibitory control was assessed using the flanker task and reflected by reaction time and accuracy.

Results

A total of 120 preschoolers were included in the final statistical analysis. After adjusting the confounders, HPFT was associated with reaction time (β=-2.49 ms, 95%CI: -4.22, -0.75). Similarly, a negative association was observed between one-leg balance and reaction time (β=-12.04 ms, 95%CI: -18.94, -5.15), and between 20 m shuttle run test and reaction time (β=-23.28 ms, 95%CI: -37.00, -9.56). Compared with the participants in the lowest tertile, HPFT (β=-158.74, 95%CI: -309.63, -7.84), one-leg balance (β=-267.25 ms, 95%CI: -420.71, -113.79) and 20 m shuttle run test (β=-215.58 ms, 95%CI: -374.67, -56.49) were all negatively associated with reaction time of those in the highest tertile.

Conclusions

Negative relationships between HPFT and RT of the inhibitory control were observed in preschoolers. To have better inhibitory control, it’s suggested that HPFT of preschoolers should be at least 249. These findings are of great significance for the early improvement of HPFT and the development of inhibitory control in preschool children.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12887-022-03163-y.

Relating mathematical abilities to numerical skills and executive functions in informal and formal schooling

Background

The current evidence on an integrative role of the domain-specific early mathematical skills and number-specific executive functions (EFs) from informal to formal schooling and their effect on mathematical abilities is so far unclear. The main objectives of this study were to (i) compare the domain-specific early mathematics, the number-specific EFs, and the mathematical abilities between preschool and primary school children, and (ii) examine the relationship among the domain-specific early mathematics, the number-specific EFs, and the mathematical abilities among preschool and primary school children.

Methods

The current study recruited 6- and 7-year-old children (N_total = 505, n_6yrs = 238, and n_7yrs = 267). The domain-specific early mathematics as measured by symbolic and nonsymbolic tasks, number-specific EFs tasks, and mathematics tasks between these preschool and primary school children were compared. The relationship among domain-specific early mathematics, number-specific EFs, and mathematical abilities among preschool and primary school children was examined. MANOVA and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used to test research hypotheses.

Results

The current results showed using MANOVA that primary school children were superior to preschool children over more complex tests of the domain-specific early mathematics; number-specific EFs; mathematical abilities, particularly for more sophisticated numerical knowledge; and number-specific EF components. The SEM revealed that both the domain-specific early numerical and the number-specific EFs significantly related to the mathematical abilities across age groups. Nevertheless, the number comparison test and mental number line of the domain-specific early mathematics significantly correlated with the mathematical abilities of formal school children. These results show the benefits of both the domain-specific early mathematics and the number-specific EFs in mathematical development, especially at the key stages of formal schooling. Understanding the relationship between EFs and early mathematics in improving mathematical achievements could allow a more powerful approach in improving mathematical education at this developmental stage.

Overcoming cognitive set bias requires more than seeing an alternative strategy

Determining when to switch from one strategy to another is at the heart of adaptive decision-making. Previous research shows that humans exhibit a 'cognitive set' bias, which occurs when a familiar strategy occludes-even much better-alternatives. Here we examined the mechanisms underlying cognitive set by investigating whether better solutions are visually overlooked, or fixated on but disregarded. We analyzed gaze data from 67 American undergraduates (91% female) while they completed the learned strategy-direct strategy (LS-DS) task, which measures their ability to switch from a learned strategy (LS) to a more efficient direct strategy (DS or shortcut). We found that, in the first trial block, participants fixated on the location of the shortcut more when it was available but most (89.6%) did not adopt it. Next, participants watched a video demonstrating either the DS (N = 34 Informed participants) or the familiar LS (N = 33 Controls). In post-video trials, Informed participants used the DS more than pre-video trials and compared to Controls. Notably, 29.4% of Informed participants continued to use the LS despite watching the DS video. We suggest that cognitive set in the LS-DS task does not stem from an inability to see the shortcut but rather a failure to try it.