Coxiella burnetii in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius): A Possible Threat for Humans and Livestock in North Africa and the Near and Middle East?

Seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii and potential tick vectors infesting domestic ruminants and community perception of the disease in pastoral areas of south Omo zone, southern Ethiopia

Background

Q fever is a worldwide occurring neglected zoonotic disease with great economic importance. The etiological agent, Coxiella burnetii, is a bacterium usually associated with subclinical infections in livestock, but may also cause reproductive pathology and spontaneous abortions in artiodactyl species including goats, sheep and cattle which are deemed to be the primary reservoirs of this disease.

Aims

The present cross-sectional and questionnaire survey was undertaken in three districts of the South Omo zone with the aims to comprehend the community perception of livestock keepers and professionals about the disease, estimate the seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii) in cattle and small ruminants and to determine the species of potential tick vectors of C. burnetii infesting cattle, sheep and goats.

Methods

A standard questionnaire was used to assess the community perception of livestock keepers and animal health professionals in the area about Q fever. Sera samples were collected from 1350 ruminants comprising 450 cattle, 450 goats and 450 sheep to detect C. burnetii antibodies using the ELISA technique. Furthermore, a total of 279 cattle, 197 goats and 73 sheep were examined for the presence of ticks, and overall, 2720 ticks were collected (1299 from cattle, 1020 from goats and 401 from sheep) and identified to the species level using morphologically identification keys.

Results

Findings of the study indicated that 43% of animal owners were aware of the main symptoms of the disease while the remaining 57% did not notice these symptoms in their animals. Additionally, majority of animal health professionals 76.2% in the area reported they were familiar with the causative agent of Q fever, while 23.8% expressed uncertainty regarding the cause of coxiellosis. An overall seroprevalence of C. burnetii of 37.6% in cattle (37.4% in female and 37.8% in male cattle) and 28.7% in small ruminants was recorded (which is significantly higher in goats than in sheep). The study indicated statistically significantly higher seroprevalence of C. burnetii (49.8%) in cattle infested with ticks than in those cattle free of ticks (24.2%), with three times higher seropositivity (OR = 2.97, p = 0.000) as compared to those cattle free of ticks (24.2%). Similarly, statistically significantly higher seroprevalence of C. burnetii was recorded in both sheep and goats infested with ticks (43.6%) as compared to those animals without ticks (22.9%), with the former being twice as likely to test seropositive (OR = 2.15, p = 0.000). A total of nine different tick species were identified, namely Amblyomma variegatum (Am. variegatum) with 26.3% (342; 217 males, 101 females and 24 nymphs), Amblyomma cohaerens (Am. cohaerens) with 47.96% (370 males, 253 females), Amblyomma gemma (Am. gemma) with 4.00% (52; 29 males, 23 female), Rhipicephalus pulchellus (Rh. pulchellus) with 10.6% (138; 87 males, 51 females), Rhipicephalus pravus (Rh. pravus) with 0.2% (3; 2 males, 1 females), Rhipicephalus evertsi (Rh. evertsi) with 4.7% (61; 39 males, 22 females), Rhipicephalus praetextatus (Rh. praetextatus) with 0.8% (10; 7 males, 3 females), Rhipicephalus decoloratus (Rh decoloratus) with 2.9% (38; 4 males, 34 females) and Hyalomma truncatum (Hy. truncatum) with 2.5% (32 females).

Conclusion

The present study highlighted the significance of Q fever in ruminants and compiled information about the community perception of livestock keepers and veterinary professionals of the study areas. The role of ruminants and their ticks in the epidemiology of C. burnetii requires further research using molecular tools to better understand appropriate method of intervention that will help to reduce negative impacts on the productivities of livestock and the health of humans in Ethiopia.

The one-humped camel: The animal of future, potential alternative red meat, technological suitability and future perspectives

The 2020 world population data sheet indicates that world population is projected to increase from 7.8 billion in 2020 to 9.9 billion by 2050 (Increase of more than 25%). Due to the expected growth in human population, the demand for meats that could improve health status and provide therapeutic benefits is also projected to rise. The dromedary also known as the Arabian camel, or one-humped camel ( Camelus dromedarius), a pseudo ruminant adapted to arid climates, has physiological, biological and metabolic characteristics which give it a legendary reputation for surviving in the extreme conditions of desert environments considered restrictive for other ruminants. Camel meat is an ethnic food consumed across the arid regions of Middle East, North-East Africa, Australia and China. For these medicinal and nutritional benefits, camel meat can be a great option for sustainable meat worldwide supply. A considerable amount of literature has been published on technological aspects and quality properties of beef, lamb and pork but the information available on the technological aspects of the meat of the one humped camel is very limited. Camels are usually raised in less developed countries and their meat is as nutritionally good as any other traditional meat source. Its quality also depends on the breed, sex, age, breeding conditions and type of muscle consumed. A compilation of existing literature related to new technological advances in packaging, shelf-life and quality of camel meat has not been reviewed to the best of our knowledge. Therefore, this review attempts to explore the nutritional composition, health benefits of camel meat, as well as various technological and processing interventions to improve its quality and consumer acceptance. This review will be helpful for camel sector and highlight the potential for global marketability of camel meat and to generate value added products.

Serological investigation of Coxiella burnetii infection (Query fever) in livestock in Makkah Province, Saudi Arabia

Background and Aim

Query fever (Q fever) is an endemic zoonotic disease and ruminants are considered to be the primary source of infection in humans. It is caused by Coxiella burnetii which is an obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen with a worldwide distribution. This study estimated the prevalence of Q fever in livestock with a history of abortion in Makkah Province, Saudi Arabia.

Material and Methods

Sera from 341 camels, 326 sheep, and 121 goats of either sex from various locations (Makkah, Jeddah, AL-Taif, AL-Qunfudah, AL-Laith, and AL-Kamil) were examined using a Q fever indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

Results

Among the 788 serum samples, 356 animals had anti-Coxiella burnetii immunoglobulin G antibodies with an overall seroprevalence of 45.4%. Significant differences were observed in seroprevalence between species and locations. Camels had the highest percentage of Q fever-positive sera, with a prevalence of 50.4%, followed by goats (44.6%) and sheep (36.8%), with a high significant difference between animals (p = 0.000). The prevalence was significantly higher in Makkah (65.4%) than in Jeddah (28.8%).

Conclusion

C. burnetii infection is prevalent in agricultural animals, especially camels maintained at livestock farms in Makkah province. Therefore, these animals considered as the main source of Q fever infections in Saudi Arabia, which is also a reason for the abortion in these animals. Therefore, there is an urgent need for further studies on Q fever infection with interventional approaches for prevention and control.

Molecular detection and MST genotyping of Coxiella burnetii in ruminants and stray dogs and cats in Northern Algeria

Aiming at identifying the reservoir and contamination sources of Coxiella burnetii in Northern Algeria, we investigated the molecular presence of the bacterium in 599 samples (blood, placenta, liver, spleen, and uterus) collected from cattle, sheep, dogs and cats. Our qPCR results showed that 15/344 (4.36%) blood samples and six/255 (2.35%) organ specimens were positive for C. burnetii. In cattle, three (4%) blood and liver samples were positive. In sheep, one blood (1.19%) and 3 (8.57%) placenta samples were positive. At the Algiers dog pound, 8 (10%) and 3 (5%) blood samples were qPCR positivein dogs and cats, respectively. In addition, MST genotyping showed that MST 33 was present in cattle and sheep, MST 20 in cattle,andMST 21 in dogs and cats.

Exposure to Brucella Species, Coxiella burnetii, and Trichinella Species in Recently Imported Camels from Sudan to Egypt: Possible Threats to Animal and Human Health

Brucellosis and coxiellosis/Q fever are bacterial infections caused by Brucella species and Coxiella burnetii, respectively; camels are highly susceptible to both pathogens. Trichinellosis is a parasitic infection caused by various Trichinella nematode species. Reportedly, camels are susceptible to experimental infection with Trichinella spp., but information on this potential host species is scarce. All three infections are of zoonotic nature and thus of great public health concern. The current study aimed to determine antibodies against the three pathogens in recently imported camels (n = 491) from Sudan at the two main ports for the entrance of camels into southern Egypt using commercial indirect ELISAs. Samples were collected in two sampling periods. The seropositivity rates of Brucella spp., C. burnetii, and Trichinella spp. were 3.5%, 4.3%, and 2.4%, respectively. Mixed seropositivity was found in 1% for Brucella spp. and C. burnetii. Marked differences were found between the two study sites and the two sampling periods for Brucella. A higher rate of seropositivity was recorded in the Red Sea/older samples that were collected between 2015 and 2016 (4.3%, 17/391; odds ratio = 9.4; p < 0.030) than in those collected in Aswan/recent samples that were collected between 2018 and 2021 (0/100). Concerning C. burnetii, samples collected during November and December 2015 had a significantly higher positivity rate than the other samples (13%, 13/100; OD = 4.8; p < 0.016). The same effect was observed for antibodies to Trichinella spp., with samples collected during November and December 2015 showing a higher positivity rate than the other samples (7%, 7/100; OD = 10.9; p < 0.001). This study provides valuable information on the seroprevalence of Brucella spp. and additional novel information on C. burnetii and Trichinella spp. in recently imported camels kept in quarantine before delivery to other Egyptian regions. This knowledge can be utilized to reduce health hazards and financial burdens attributable to brucellosis, Q fever, and trichinellosis in animals and humans in Egypt.

Emerging bacterial infectious diseases/pathogens vectored by human lice

Human lice have always been a major public health concern due to their vector capacity for louse-borne infectious diseases, like trench fever, louse-borne relapsing fever, and epidemic fever, which are caused by Bartonella quintana, Borrelia recurrentis, and Rickettsia prowazekii, respectively. Those diseases are currently re-emerging in the regions of poor hygiene, social poverty, or wars with life-threatening consequences. These louse-borne diseases have also caused outbreaks among populations in jails and refugee camps. In addition, antibodies and DNAs to those pathogens have been steadily detected in homeless populations. Importantly, more bacterial pathogens have been detected in human lice, and some have been transmitted by human lice in laboratories. Here, we provide a comprehensive review and update on louse-borne infectious diseases/bacterial pathogens.

Microorganisms associated with hedgehog arthropods

Hedgehogs are small synanthropic mammals that live in rural areas as well as in urban and suburban areas. They can be reservoirs of several microorganisms, including certain pathogenic agents that cause human and animal public health issues. Hedgehogs are often parasitized by blood-sucking arthropods, mainly hard ticks and fleas, which in turn can also carry various vector-born microorganisms of zoonotic importance. Many biotic factors, such as urbanization and agricultural mechanization, have resulted in the destruction of the hedgehog's natural habitats, leading these animals to take refuge near human dwellings, seeking food and shelter in parks and gardens and exposing humans to zoonotic agents that can be transmitted either directly by them or indirectly by their ectoparasites. In this review, we focus on the microorganisms detected in arthropods sampled from hedgehogs worldwide. Several microorganisms have been reported in ticks collected from these animals, including various Borrelia spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., and Rickettsia spp. species as well as Coxiella burnetii and Leptospira spp. As for fleas, C. burnetii, Rickettsia spp., Wolbachia spp., Mycobacterium spp. and various Bartonella species have been reported. The detection of these microorganisms in arthropods does not necessarily mean that they can be transmitted to humans and animals. While the vector capacity and competence of fleas and ticks for some of these microorganisms has been proven, in other cases the microorganisms may have simply been ingested with blood taken from an infected host. Further investigations are needed to clarify this issue. As hedgehogs are protected animals, handling them is highly regulated, making it difficult to conduct epidemiological studies on them. Their ectoparasites represent a very interesting source of information on microorganisms circulating in populations of these animals, especially vector-born ones.

A cross-sectional study of Q fever in Camels: Risk factors for infection, the role of small ruminants and public health implications for desert-dwelling pastoral communities

Q fever represents an important 'neglected zoonosis', with high prevalences recorded across the Middle East region. Among rural desert-dwelling communities in the region, camel milk is largely consumed raw, due to perceptions of dromedaries as a uniquely clean livestock species mentioned in the Qur'an and Islamic hadith, while milk from other livestock species is usually boiled. As a result, camels present a unique public health threat among such communities from milk-borne pathogens, including Coxiella burnetii. In view of this, a cross-sectional study was conducted among dromedary herds in southern Jordan between September 2017 and October 2018, including 404 camels from 121 randomly selected herds. In addition, 510 household members associated with these herds were interviewed regarding potential high-risk practices for zoonotic transmission. Weight adjusted camel population seroprevalence for C. burnetii was 49.6% (95% CI: 44.7-54.5), with evidence of maternally derived immunity in calves ≤6 months old. Adjusted herd-level prevalence was 76.0% (95% CI 72.7-80.2). It was estimated 30.4% (144/477) of individuals consumed raw milk from infected herds monthly or more. Following multivariable logistic regression analysis, seropositive status in camels was found to be associated with increasing age, high herd tick burdens, keeping the herd together throughout the year including when calving, and owning larger (>50) sheep and goat flocks, with goats presenting a higher risk than sheep. Racing camel status was found to be protective. Socioculturally appropriate interventions aimed at raising awareness of potential risks associated with drinking raw camel milk, alongside appropriate livestock management interventions, should be considered.

Delayed Diagnosis of Acute Q Fever, China

We report a patient in China with fever of unknown origin who visited 3 hospitals in 3 weeks and was finally given a diagnosis of acute Q fever, determined by metagenomics next-generation sequencing. Our results indicate that physicians are unfamiliar with Q fever and the disease is neglected in China.

Coxiella burnetii in ticks, livestock, pets and wildlife: A mini-review

Coxiella burnetii is a zoonotic bacterium with an obligatory intracellular lifestyle and has a worldwide distribution. Coxiella burnetii is the causative agent of Q fever in humans and coxiellosis in animals. Since its discovery in 1935, it has been shown to infect a wide range of animal species including mammals, birds, reptiles, and arthropods. Coxiella burnetii infection is of public and veterinary health and economic concern due to its potential for rapid spread and highly infectious nature. Livestock are the primary source of C. burnetii infection in most Q fever outbreaks which occurs mainly through inhalation of contaminated particles. Aside from livestock, many cases of Q fever linked to exposure to wildlife. Changes in the dynamics of human-wildlife interactions may lead to an increased potential risk of interspecies transmission and contribute to the emergence/re-emergence of Q fever. Although C. burnetii transmission is mainly airborne, ticks may act as vectors and play an important role in the natural cycle of transmission of coxiellosis among wild vertebrates and livestock. In this review, we aim to compile available information on vectors, domestic, and wild hosts of C. burnetii, and to highlight their potential role as bacterial reservoirs in the transmission of C. burnetii.

MALDI-TOF MS Identification of Dromedary Camel Ticks and Detection of Associated Microorganisms, Southern Algeria

This study used MALDI-TOF MS and molecular tools to identify tick species infesting camels from Tamanrasset in southern Algeria and to investigate their associated microorganisms. Ninety-one adult ticks were collected from nine camels and were morphologically identified as Hyalomma spp., Hyalomma dromedarii, Hyalomma excavatum, Hyalomma impeltatum and Hyalomma anatolicum. Next, the legs of all ticks were subjected to MALDI-TOF MS, and 88/91 specimens provided good-quality MS spectra. Our homemade MALDI-TOF MS arthropod spectra database was then updated with the new MS spectra of 14 specimens of molecularly confirmed species in this study. The spectra of the remaining tick specimens not included in the MS database were queried against the upgraded database. All 74 specimens were correctly identified by MALDI-TOF MS, with logarithmic score values ranging from 1.701 to 2.507, with median and mean values of 2.199 and 2.172 ± 0.169, respectively. One H. impeltatum and one H. dromedarii (2/91; 2.20%) tested positive by qPCR for Coxiella burnetii, the agent of Q fever. We also report the first detection of an Anaplasma sp. close to A. platys in H. dromedarii in Algeria and a potentially new Ehrlichia sp. in H. impeltatum.

The Saharan antelope addax (Addax nasomaculatus) as a host for Hyalomma marginatum, tick vector of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus

Tick infestation and pathogen prevalence in ticks infesting the Saharan antelope addax (Addax nasomaculatus) are factors that may constitute a risk for both human and animal health. In this study we describe season distribution of adult Hyalomma marginatum and analyzed the tick-borne pathogens and their seroprevalence in natural-living addax in Morocco. The results showed that addax is an important host species for H. marginatum adults. The seroprevalence of Bluetongue virus (BTV; 61.5-92.3%, n = 8/13-84/91), Coxiella burnetii (36.3-69.2%, n = 33/91-9/13) and Brucella spp. (0.0-4.8%, n = 0/50-2/42) was characterized in addax during various years (sampled animals per year, n = 13-91). Presence of Aigai virus (AIGV), a recent taxonomic differentiation of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) of 100% (4/4, years 2016 and 2017) together with Babesia ovis (75%, 3/4, year 2014), Anaplasma spp. (75%, 3/4, year 2014), Rickettsia spp. (50%, 2/4, year 2014) and Theileria spp. (25%, 1/4, year 2014) was observed in H. marginatum collected from the addax (4 pools of 10 adult ticks each). The results support the role of addax host in H. marginatum life cycle and exposure to AIGV and other tick-borne pathogens. The development of control interventions including anti-tick vaccines for wildlife species will contribute to the implementation of effective measures for the prevention and control of tick-borne diseases and might be relevant for the preservation of this threatened species and others such as Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) and African elk (Taurotragus oryx) that share habitat.

The First Report of Coxiella burnetii as a Potential Neglected Pathogen of Acute Hepatitis of Unknown Causes in Egypt

The World Health Organization (WHO) recently alerted the emergence of new pathogens causing acute hepatitis in children across several countries. This new situation directs us to the screening of neglected pathogens that cause acute hepatitis. Q-fever is a zoonotic disease, caused by Coxiella burnetii. Although a high seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii was recorded in animals present in Egypt, Q-fever is still a neglected disease, and the diagnosis of Q-fever is not routinely performed in Egyptian hospitals. In this study, we performed a retrospective assessment for Coxiella burnetii in cases of hepatitis of unknown causes (HUC) enrolled in Assiut University hospitals, in Egypt. Out of 64 samples of HUC, 54 samples were negative for all hepatitis markers, labeled as acute hepatitis of unknown etiology (AHUE), and 10 samples tested positive for adenovirus and Hepatitis E virus (HEV). Q-fever was detected in 3 out of 54 (5.6%) of AHUE, and one sample was confirmed as coinfection of HEV/Q-fever. Jaundice was the most common clinical symptom developed in the patients. In conclusion, Coxiella burnetii was found to be a potential cause of acute hepatitis in HUC. The diagnosis of Q-fever should be considered in acute hepatitis cases in Egyptian hospitals.

Case Report: Diagnosis of Acute Q Fever With Aseptic Meningitis in a Patient by Using Metagenomic Next-Generation Sequencing

Query fever (Q fever) is a widespread zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium of Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii). Its neurological complications are rarely reported. But they may lead to severe consequences. It needs a rapid and accurate detective method to diagnose acute Q fever with neurological presentations in non-epidemic areas urgently. Here, we report an acute Q fever case with aseptic meningitis. The male patient, without any contact history in the epidemic area or with animals, was indicated to exhibit fever and headache symptoms. The cultures of blood, stool, urine, and sputum were all negative. But C. burnetii was repeatedly detected in blood by metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS). He received Doxycycline therapy and quickly returned to normal. Therefore, for the diagnosis and identification of Q fever in non-reporting regions, mNGS has comparative advantages. Secondly, aseptic meningitis may be a direct infection of C. burnetii to central nervous system (CNS) or inflammatory reactions to systemic infection, we recommend detecting mNGS both in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Viral and Bacterial Zoonotic Agents in Dromedary Camels from Southern Tunisia: A Seroprevalence Study

The rapid spread of SARS-CoV-2 clearly demonstrated the potential of zoonotic diseases to cause severe harm to public health. Having limited access to medical care combined with severe underreporting and a lack of active surveillance, Africa carries a high burden of neglected zoonotic diseases. Therefore, the epidemiological monitoring of pathogen circulation is essential. Recently, we found extensive Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) prevalence in free-roaming dromedary camels from southern Tunisia. In this study, we aimed to investigate the seroprevalence, and thus the risk posed to public health, of two additional viral and two bacterial pathogens in Tunisian dromedaries: Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), Coxiella burnetii and Brucella spp. via ELISA. With 73.6% seropositivity, most animals had previously been exposed to the causative agent of Q fever, C. burnetii. Additionally, 7.4% and 1.0% of the dromedaries had antibodies against Brucella and RVFV, respectively, while no evidence was found for the occurrence of FMDV. Our studies revealed considerable immunological evidence of various pathogens within Tunisian dromedary camels. Since these animals have intense contact with humans, they pose a high risk of transmitting serious zoonotic diseases during active infection. The identification of appropriate countermeasures is therefore highly desirable.

Microorganisms associated with the North African hedgehog Atelerix algirus and its parasitizing arthropods in Algeria

Hedgehogs are small mammals. They are potential reservoirs of various zoonotic agents. This study was conducted in Bouira, a north-central region of Algeria. A total of 21 Atelerix algirus corpses were picked up on roadsides and gardens. Hedgehog kidneys, spleens and ectoparasites were collected. Twelve hedgehogs were infested with ectoparasites, including Archaeopsylla erinacei, Rhipicephalus sanguineus s.l. and Haemaphysalis erinacei. Hedgehog organs and randomly selected arthropods were screened for microorganisms using molecular methods. Coxiella burnetii was detected in kidneys, spleens, A. erinacei, Hae. erinacei and Rh. sanguineus s.l. Leptospira interrogans was detected in kidneys. Rickettsia felis and Rickettsia massiliae were detected respectively in A. erinacei and in Rh. sanguineus s.l. DNA of an uncultivated Rickettsia spp. was found in Hae. erinacei. Wolbachia spp. DNA was detected in fleas. The DNA of potential new Bartonella and Ehrlichia species were found respectively in fleas and ticks. This study highlights the presence of DNA from a broad range of microorganisms in hedgehogs and their ectoparasites that may be responsible for zoonoses in Algeria.

Molecular Detection of Zoonotic Pathogens in the Blood and Tissues of Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Central Desert of Iran

Dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) play a major economic role in many countries in Africa and Asia. Although they are resistant to harsh environmental conditions, they are susceptible to a wide range of zoonotic agents. This study aimed to provide an overview on the prevalence of selected zoonotic pathogens in blood and tissues of camels in central Iran. Blood, liver, portal lymph node, and brain were collected from 100 apparently healthy camels at a slaughterhouse in Qom city to assess the presence of DNA of Brucella spp., Trypanosoma spp., Coxiellaburnetii, and Bartonella spp. PCR products were sequenced bidirectionally and phylogenetic analyses were performed. Eleven percent of camels tested positive for Brucellaabortus (3%) and Trypanosomaevansi (8%). Coxiellaburnetii and Bartonella spp. DNA was not detected. Our data demonstrate that camels from Iran contribute to the epidemiology of some zoonotic pathogens. Performing proper control strategies, such as vaccination of camels and humans in contact with them, test-and-slaughter policy, and education of the general population is necessary for minimizing the risk of zoonotic infection.

Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens Associated with Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Northern Kenya

Ticks and tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) are major constraints to camel health and production, yet epidemiological data on their diversity and impact on dromedary camels remain limited. We surveyed the diversity of ticks and TBPs associated with camels and co-grazing sheep at 12 sites in Marsabit County, northern Kenya. We screened blood and ticks (858 pools) from 296 camels and 77 sheep for bacterial and protozoan TBPs by high-resolution melting analysis and sequencing of PCR products. Hyalomma (75.7%), Amblyomma (17.6%) and Rhipicephalus (6.7%) spp. ticks were morphologically identified and confirmed by molecular analyses. We detected TBP DNA in 80.1% of blood samples from 296 healthy camels. "Candidatus Anaplasma camelii", "Candidatus Ehrlichia regneryi" and Coxiella burnetii were detected in both camels and associated ticks, and Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Rickettsia africae, Rickettsia aeschlimannii and Coxiella endosymbionts were detected in camel ticks. We also detected Ehrlichia ruminantium, which is responsible for heartwater disease in ruminants, in Amblyomma ticks infesting camels and sheep and in sheep blood, indicating its endemicity in Marsabit. Our findings also suggest that camels and/or the ticks infesting them are disease reservoirs of zoonotic Q fever (C. burnetii), ehrlichiosis (E. chaffeensis) and rickettsiosis (R. africae), which pose public health threats to pastoralist communities.

High Prevalence and New Genotype of Coxiella burnetii in Ticks Infesting Camels in Somalia

Coxiella burnetii is the causative agent of Q fever. It can infect animals, humans, and birds, as well as ticks, and it has a worldwide geographical distribution. To better understand the epidemiology of C. burnetii in Somalia, ticks infesting camels were collected from five different regions, including Bari, Nugaal, Mudug, Sool, and Sanaag, between January and March 2018. Collected ticks were tested for C. burnetii and Coxiella-like endosymbiont DNA by using IS1111, icd, and Com1-target PCR assays. Moreover, sequencing of the 16S-rRNA was conducted. Molecular characterization and typing were done by adaA-gene analysis and plasmid-type identification. Further typing was carried out by 14-marker Multi-Locus Variable-Number Tandem Repeats (MLVA/VNTR) analysis. The investigated ticks (n = 237) were identified as Hyalomma spp. (n = 227, 95.8%), Amblyomma spp. (n = 8, 3.4%), and Ripicephalus spp. (n = 2, 0.8%), and 59.1% (140/237) of them were positive for Coxiella spp. While Sanger sequencing and plasmid-type identification revealed a C. burnetii that harbours the QpRS-plasmid, MLVA/VNTR genotyping showed a new genotype which was initially named D21. In conclusion, this is the first report of C. burnetii in ticks in Somalia. The findings denote the possibility that C. burnetii is endemic in Somalia. Further epidemiological studies investigating samples from humans, animals, and ticks within the context of "One Health" are warranted.

Serological evidence of single and mixed infections of Rift Valley fever virus, Brucella spp. and Coxiella burnetii in dromedary camels in Kenya

Camels are increasingly becoming the livestock of choice for pastoralists reeling from effects of climate change in semi-arid and arid parts of Kenya. As the population of camels rises, better understanding of their role in the epidemiology of zoonotic diseases in Kenya is a public health priority. Rift Valley fever (RVF), brucellosis and Q fever are three of the top priority diseases in the country but the involvement of camels in the transmission dynamics of these diseases is poorly understood. We analyzed 120 camel serum samples from northern Kenya to establish seropositivity rates of the three pathogens and to characterize the infecting Brucella species using molecular assays. We found seropositivity of 24.2% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 16.5–31.8%) for Brucella, 20.8% (95% CI: 13.6–28.1%) and 14.2% (95% CI: 7.9–20.4%) for Coxiella burnetii and Rift valley fever virus respectively. We found 27.5% (95% CI: 19.5–35.5%) of the animals were seropositive for at least one pathogen and 13.3% (95% CI: 7.2–19.4%) were seropositive for at least two pathogens. B. melitensis was the only Brucella spp. detected. The high sero-positivity rates are indicative of the endemicity of these pathogens among camel populations and the possible role the species has in the epidemiology of zoonotic diseases. Considering the strong association between human infection and contact with livestock for most zoonotic infections in Kenya, there is immediate need to conduct further research to determine the role of camels in transmission of these zoonoses to other livestock species and humans. This information will be useful for designing more effective surveillance systems and intervention measures.

Dromedary camels are well adapted to the arid and semi-arid environment that makes up about 80% of Kenya’s landmass. As such, camels play an important role in the socio-economic wellbeing and food security of pastoralists in the country. However, the species remains relatively neglected in scientific research, one of the main reasons being camels are mostly found in remote, low-income, arid regions of Africa and Asia. We carried out a study to determine the levels of exposure of camels in northern Kenya to Brucella spp., Coxiella burnetii and Rift Valley fever virus, three priority zoonotic pathogens in the country. We found high levels of exposure to the three pathogens, indicating the important role camels might play in the epidemiology of the zoonotic diseases in humans and other livestock. Based on the study findings, we argue for the immediate need for investments in disease surveillance and control strategies for priority zoonotic disease in camels in Kenya.

Emergence of Bat-Related Betacoronaviruses: Hazard and Risks

The current Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, with more than 111 million reported cases and 2,500,000 deaths worldwide (mortality rate currently estimated at 2.2%), is a stark reminder that coronaviruses (CoV)-induced diseases remain a major threat to humanity. COVID-19 is only the latest case of betacoronavirus (β-CoV) epidemics/pandemics. In the last 20 years, two deadly CoV epidemics, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS; fatality rate 9.6%) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS; fatality rate 34.7%), plus the emergence of HCoV-HKU1 which causes the winter common cold (fatality rate 0.5%), were already a source of public health concern. Betacoronaviruses can also be a threat for livestock, as evidenced by the Swine Acute Diarrhea Syndrome (SADS) epizootic in pigs. These repeated outbreaks of β-CoV-induced diseases raise the question of the dynamic of propagation of this group of viruses in wildlife and human ecosystems. SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and HCoV-HKU1 emerged in Asia, strongly suggesting the existence of a regional hot spot for emergence. However, there might be other regional hot spots, as seen with MERS-CoV, which emerged in the Arabian Peninsula. β-CoVs responsible for human respiratory infections are closely related to bat-borne viruses. Bats are present worldwide and their level of infection with CoVs is very high on all continents. However, there is as yet no evidence of direct bat-to-human coronavirus infection. Transmission of β-CoV to humans is considered to occur accidentally through contact with susceptible intermediate animal species. This zoonotic emergence is a complex process involving not only bats, wildlife and natural ecosystems, but also many anthropogenic and societal aspects. Here, we try to understand why only few hot spots of β-CoV emergence have been identified despite worldwide bats and bat-borne β-CoV distribution. In this work, we analyze and compare the natural and anthropogenic environments associated with the emergence of β-CoV and outline conserved features likely to create favorable conditions for a new epidemic. We suggest monitoring South and East Africa as well as South America as these regions bring together many of the conditions that could make them future hot spots.

Q fever: a rare but potentially life-threatening zoonotic disease

Q fever can present as a fever of unknown aetiology and can be challenging to diagnose because of the rare incidence. It can present as an acute illness with manifestations, including influenza-like symptoms, hepatitis, pneumonia or chronic disease involving the cardiovascular system. We present a case of a 39-year-old woman in the USA, who developed acute Q fever with associated sepsis and severe hepatitis. She received treatment with recovery from acute infection but currently has symptoms of post Q fever syndrome.