Coupling Plant Biomass Derived from Phytoremediation of Potential Toxic-Metal-Polluted Soils to Bioenergy Production and High-Value by-Products—A Review

Phytomanagement of a metal-contaminated agricultural soil with Sorghum bicolor, humic / fulvic acids and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi near the former Pb/Zn metaleurop Nord smelter

As many contaminated agricultural soils can no longer be used for food crops, lignocellulosic energy crops matter due to their ability to grow on such soils and to produce biomass for biosourced materials and biofuels, thereby reducing the pressure on the limited arable lands. Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench, can potentially produce a high biomass suitable for producing bioethanol, renewable gasoline, diesel, and sustainable aircraft fuel, despite adverse environmental conditions (e.g. drought, contaminated soils). A 2-year field trial was carried out for the first time in the northern France for assessing sorghum growth on a Cd, Pb and Zn-contaminated agricultural soil amended with humic/fulvic acid, alone and paired with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Sorghum produced on average (in t DW ha-1): 12.4 in year 1 despite experiencing a severe drought season and 15.3 in year 2. Humic/fulvic acids (Lonite 80SP®) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi did not significantly act as biostimulants regarding the shoot DW yield and metal uptake of sorghum. The annual shoot Cd, Pb and Zn removals averaged 0.14, 0.20 and 1.97 kg ha-1, respectively. Sorghum cultivation and its metal uptake induced a significant decrease in 0.01 M Ca(NO3)2-extractable soil Cd, Pb and Zn concentrations by 95%, 73% and 95%, respectively, in year 2. Soluble and exchangeable soil Cd, Pb and Zn would be progressively depleted in subsequent crops, which should result in lower pollutant linkages and enhanced ecosystem services. This evidenced sorghum as a relevant plant species for phytomanaging the large area (750 ha) with metal-contaminated soil near the former Pb/Zn Metaleurop Nord smelter, amidst ongoing climate change. The potential bioethanol yield of the harvested sorghum biomass was 5589 L ha-1. Thus sorghum would be a promising candidate for bioethanol production, even in this northern French region.

Synergistic effect by Sorghum bicolor L., citric acid, biochar, and vermiwash amendment for the remediation of a mine-contaminated soil

Phytoremediation is an in situ remediation and eco-friendly technique employing accumulator plant species to remove trace elements (TEs) from contaminated sites. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that both natural and synthetic amendments can enhance trace elements (TEs) phytoremediation from polluted soils through bioenergy crops. This work assessed the synergistic impact of two tested biochar (BC) from data palm (B1) and Prosopis (B2) (1.5%/ kg), citric acid (CA, 1.5 mmol/kg) and vermiwash (VW, 20 ml/kg) to enhance the remediation of tested TEs (Mn, Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni, Cu, and Fe) from Mahad AD'Dahab mine-contaminated soil by sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.). The BC and CA amendments alone and combined with VW significantly augmented the proliferation and survival of sorghum grown in mine-contaminated soil. Considering the individual and combined applications of VW and BC, the influence on plant growth followed this order: K < VW < B2 < B1 < B1 + VW < B2 + VW < CA < CA + VW. Applying tested BC/CA and VW significantly increased chlorophyll compared to unamended soil. The outcomes revealed a substantial elevation in TE absorption in both shoot and root (p ≤ 0.05) with all tested treatments compared to the untreated soil (K). The combined application of CA and VW resulted in the most significant TE uptake of TEs at both the root and the shoot. Furthermore, adding CA or VW as a foliar spray enhanced the bioaccumulation factor (BCF) and translocation factor (TF) of studied metals. The combined addition of CA and foliar spraying of VW was more effective than the sole addition of CA or VW. Such increase reached 20.0%, 15.6%, 19.4%, 14.3%, 14.0%, and 25.6% of TF, and 13.7%, 11.9%, 8.3%, 20.9%, 20.5%,18.7%, and 19.8% of BCE for Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn, respectively. This study highlights the efficiency of combining CA/BC with VW as a more viable option for remediating mine-contaminated soil than individual amendments. However, future research should prioritize long-term field trials to assess the efficiency of using citric acid and vermiwash for restoring contaminated mining soils.

Potential strategies for phytoremediation of heavy metals from wastewater with circular bioeconomy approach

Water pollution is an inextricable problem that stems from natural and human-related factors. Unfortunately, with rapid industrialization, the problem has escalated to alarming levels. The pollutants that contribute to water pollution include heavy metals (HMs), chemicals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and other industrial byproducts. Numerous methods are used for treating HMs in wastewater, like ion exchange, membrane filtration, chemical precipitation, adsorption, and electrochemical treatment. But the remediation through the plant, i.e., phytoremediation is the most sustainable approach to remove the contaminants from wastewater. Aquatic plants illustrate the capacity to absorb excess pollutants including organic and inorganic compounds, HMs, and pharmaceutical residues present in agricultural, residential, and industrial discharges. The extensive exploitation of these hyperaccumulator plants can be attributed to their abundance, invasive mechanisms, potential for bioaccumulation, and biomass production. Post-phytoremediation, plant biomass can be toxic to both water bodies and soil. Therefore, the circular bioeconomy approach can be applied to reuse and repurpose the toxic plant biomass into different circular bioeconomy byproducts such as biochar, biogas, bioethanol, and biodiesel is essential. In this regard, the current review highlights the potential strategies for the phytoremediation of HMs in wastewater and various strategies to efficiently reuse metal-enriched biomass material and produce commercially valuable products. The implementation of circular bioeconomy practices can help overcome significant obstacles and build a new platform for an eco-friendlier lifestyle.

Biochar applications for treating potentially toxic elements (PTEs) contaminated soils and water: a review

Environmental pollution with potentially toxic elements (PTEs) has become one of the critical and pressing issues worldwide. Although these pollutants occur naturally in the environment, their concentrations are continuously increasing, probably as a consequence of anthropic activities. They are very toxic even at very low concentrations and hence cause undesirable ecological impacts. Thus, the cleanup of polluted soils and water has become an obligation to ensure the safe handling of the available natural resources. Several remediation technologies can be followed to attain successful remediation, i.e., chemical, physical, and biological procedures; yet many of these techniques are expensive and/or may have negative impacts on the surroundings. Recycling agricultural wastes still represents the most promising economical, safe, and successful approach to achieving a healthy and sustainable environment. Briefly, biochar acts as an efficient biosorbent for many PTEs in soils and waters. Furthermore, biochar can considerably reduce concentrations of herbicides in solutions. This review article explains the main reasons for the increasing levels of potentially toxic elements in the environment and their negative impacts on the ecosystem. Moreover, it briefly describes the advantages and disadvantages of using conventional methods for soil and water remediation then clarifies the reasons for using biochar in the clean-up practice of polluted soils and waters, either solely or in combination with other methods such as phytoremediation and soil washing technologies to attain more efficient remediation protocols for the removal of some PTEs, e.g., Cr and As from soils and water.

Copper-uptake mediated by an ecofriendly zwitterionic ionic liquid: A new challenge for a cleaner bioeconomy

This study aims to investigate the ability of an imidazolium biobased Zwitterionic Ionic Liquids (ZILs) in enhancing the phytoavailability of copper from garden (G) and vineyard (V) soils using the model plant ryegrass. Uncontaminated and artificially contaminated CuSO₄ soils, unamended and ZIL-amended soil modalities were designed. The copper/ZIL molar ratio (1/4) introduced was rationally established based on molecular modeling and on the maximal copper concentration in artificially contaminated soil. Higher accumulation of copper in the shoots was detected for the uncontaminated and copper contaminated ZIL amended V soils (18.9 and 23.3 mg/kg, respectively) contrary to G soils together with a ZIL concentration of around 3% (W/W) detected by LC-MS analyses. These data evidenced a Cu-accumulation improvement of 38% and 66% compared to non-amended V soils (13.6 and 13.9 mg/kg respectively). ZIL would be mainly present under Cu(II)-ZIL₄ complexes in the shoots. The impact on the chemical composition of shoot was also studied. The results show that depending on the soils modalitity, the presence of free copper and/or ZIL led to different chemical compositions in lignin and monomeric sugar contents. In the biorefinery context, performances of enzymatic hydrolysis of shoots were also related to the presence of both ZIL and copper under free or complex forms. Ecotoxicity assessment of the vineyard soil samples indicated that the quantity of copper and ZIL remaining in the soils had no significant toxicity. ZIL amendment in a copper-contaminated soil was demonstrated as being a promising way to promote the valorization of phytoremediation plants.

Improving capacity for phytoremediation of Vetiver grass and Indian mustard in heavy metal (Al and Mn) contaminated water through the application of clay minerals

One of the consequences of mining is the release of heavy metals into the environment, especially water bodies. Phytoremediation of areas contaminated by heavy metals using Vetiver grass and Indian mustard is cost-effective and environmentally friendly. This study aimed at enhancing remediation of heavy metal contaminated water through the simultaneous hybrid application of clay minerals (attapulgite and bentonite) and Vetiver grass or Indian mustard. A 21-day greenhouse experiment was carried out to investigate the effectiveness of the clay minerals to improve heavy metal phytoremediation. The highest accumulation of aluminium (Al) by Vetiver grass was 371.8 mg/kg in the BT2.5VT treatment, while for Mn, the highest accumulation of 34.71 mg/kg was observed in the AT1VT treatment. However, Indian mustard showed no significant uptake of heavy metals, but suffered heavy metal toxicity despite the addition of clay minerals. From this study, it was evident that bentonite added at 2.5% (w/v) could improve the phytoremediation capacity of Vetiver grass for Al and Mn polluted water. The current laboratory-scale findings provided a basis for field trials earmarked for remediation in a post-mining coal environment in South Africa. This remediation approach can also be adopted in other places.

Beyond Cleansing: Ecosystem Services Related to Phytoremediation

Phytotechnologies used for cleaning up urban and suburban polluted soils (i.e., brownfields) have shown some weakness in the excessive extent of the timeframe required for them to be effectively operating. This bottleneck is due to technical constraints, mainly related to both the nature of the pollutant itself (e.g., low bio-availability, high recalcitrance, etc.) and the plant (e.g., low pollution tolerance, low pollutant uptake rates, etc.). Despite the great efforts made in the last few decades to overcome these limitations, the technology is in many cases barely competitive compared with conventional remediation techniques. Here, we propose a new outlook on phytoremediation, where the main goal of decontaminating should be re-evaluated, considering additional ecosystem services (ESs) related to the establishment of a new vegetation cover on the site. The aim of this review is to raise awareness and stress the knowledge gap on the importance of ES associated with this technique, which can make phytoremediation a valuable tool to boost an actual green transition process in planning urban green spaces, thereby offering improved resilience to global climate change and a higher quality of life in cities. This review highlights that the reclamation of urban brownfields through phytoremediation may provide several regulating (i.e., urban hydrology, heat mitigation, noise reduction, biodiversity, and CO₂ sequestration), provisional (i.e., bioenergy and added-value chemicals), and cultural (i.e., aesthetic, social cohesion, and health) ESs. Although future research should specifically be addressed to better support these findings, acknowledging ES is crucial for an exhaustive evaluation of phytoremediation as a sustainable and resilient technology.

Promising strategies of circular bioeconomy using heavy metal phytoremediated plants - A critical review

Phytoremediation is an excellent method for removing harmful heavy metals from the environment since it is eco-friendly, uses little energy, and is inexpensive. However, as phytoremediated plants can turn into secondary sources for heavy metals, complete heavy metal removal from phytoremediated plants is necessary. Elimination of toxic heavy metals from phytoremediated plants should be considered with foremost care. This review highlights about important sources of heavy metal contamination, health effects caused by heavy metal contamination and technological breakthroughs of phytoremediation. This review critically emphasis about promising strategies to be engaged for absolute reutilization of heavy metals and spectacular approaches of production of commercially imperative products from phytoremediated plants through circular bioeconomy with key barriers. Thus, phytoremediation combined with circular bioeconomy can create a new platform for the eco-friendly life.

Genetic variation and molecular characterization of Zygophyllum coccineum L. ecotypes of the iron mining area of El-Wahat El-Bahariya in Egypt

Remediation and mitigation processes can recover the ecosystems affected by mining operations. Zygophyllum coccineum L. is a native indigenous xerophyte that grows in Egypt's Western Desert, particularly around the iron mining ore deposits, and accumulates high rates of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in its succulent leaves. The present study evaluated the genetic variation and molecular responses of Z. coccineum to heavy metal stressful conditions in three sites. Results revealed that Z. coccineum bioaccumulation capacity was greater than unity and varied amongst the three locations. In response to heavy metal toxicity, Z. coccineum plants boosted their antioxidative enzymes activity and glutathione levels as a tolerance strategy. Anatomically, a compact epidermis, a thick spongy mesophyll with water storage cells, and a thicker vascular system were observed. Protein electrophoretic analysis yielded 20 fragments with a polymorphism rate of 85%. The antioxidant genes (CAT: catalase, POD: peroxidase and GST: polyphenol oxidase) showed greater levels of expression. In addition, DNA-based molecular genetic diversity analyses using Start Codon Targeted (SCoT) and Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers yielded 54 amplified fragments (i.e. 24 monomorphic and 30 polymorphic), with 12 unique fragments and a polymorphism rate of 55.5%. The greatest PIC values were recorded for SCoT-6 (0.36) and for both of the 14 A and 44 B ISSR primers (0.25). Diversity index (DI) of all SCoT and ISSR amplified primers was 0.23. The present findings reveal the distinct heavy metal's adaption attributes of Z. coccineum, indicating its improved survival in severely arid mining environments.

Evaluation of Chemical Composition of Miscanthus × giganteus Raised in Different Climate Regions in Russia

Lignocellulosic biomass is of great interest as an alternative energy resource because it offers a range of merits. Miscanthus × giganteus is a lignocellulosic feedstock of special interest, as it combines a high biomass productivity with a low environmental impact, including CO₂ emission control. The chemical composition of lignocellulose determines the application potential for efficient industrial processing. Here, we compiled a sample collection of Miscanthus × giganteus that had been cultivated in different climate regions between 2019 and 2021. The chemical composition was quantified by the conventional wet methods. The findings were compared with each other and with the known data. Starting as soon as the first vegetation year, Miscanthus was shown to feature the following chemical composition: 43.2-55.5% cellulose content, 17.1-25.1% acid-insoluble lignin content, 17.9-22.9% pentosan content, 0.90-2.95% ash content, and 0.3-1.2% extractives. The habitat and the surrounding environment were discovered herein to affect the chemical composition of Miscanthus. The stem part of Miscanthus was found to be richer in cellulose than the leaf (48.4-54.9% vs. 47.2-48.9%, respectively), regardless of the planation age and habitat. The obtained findings broaden the investigative geography of the chemical composition of Miscanthus and corroborate the high value of Miscanthus for industrial conversion thereof into cellulosic products worldwide.

Plants to mine metals and remediate land

Engineered plants can clean up pollution and recover technology-critical metals.

Low Indirect Land Use Change (ILUC) Energy Crops to Bioenergy and Biofuels—A Review

Energy crops are dedicated cultures directed for biofuels, electricity, and heat production. Due to their tolerance to contaminated lands, they can alleviate and remediate land pollution by the disposal of toxic elements and polymetallic agents. Moreover, these crops are suitable to be exploited in marginal soils (e.g., saline), and, therefore, the risk of land-use conflicts due to competition for food, feed, and fuel is reduced, contributing positively to economic growth, and bringing additional revenue to landowners. Therefore, further study and investment in R&D is required to link energy crops to the implementation of biorefineries. The main objective of this study is to present a review of the potential of selected energy crops for bioenergy and biofuels production, when cultivated in marginal/degraded/contaminated (MDC) soils (not competing with agriculture), contributing to avoiding Indirect Land Use Change (ILUC) burdens. The selected energy crops are Cynara cardunculus, Arundo donax, Cannabis sativa, Helianthus tuberosus, Linum usitatissimum, Miscanthus × giganteus, Sorghum bicolor, Panicum virgatum, Acacia dealbata, Pinus pinaster, Paulownia tomentosa, Populus alba, Populus nigra, Salix viminalis, and microalgae cultures. This article is useful for researchers or entrepreneurs who want to know what kind of crops can produce which biofuels in MDC soils.

Phytoremediation of nitrate contamination using two halophytic species, Portulaca oleracea and Salicornia europaea

Nitrate is a common form of nitrogen fertilizer, and its excess application combined with easy leaching from agricultural fields causes water and soil contamination, hazards on human health, and eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems. Compared to other pollutants, the application of phytoremediation technology for nitrate-contaminated sites has received less attention. Nitrophilous halophyte species are suitable candidates for this purpose particularly by application of additional treatments for assisting nitrate accumulation. In this work, two annual halophyte species, Portulaca oleracea and Salicornia europaea were studied for their phytoremediation capacity of nitrate-contaminated water and soils. Plants were treated with three nitrate levels (2, 14, and 50 mM) combined with either selenium (10 µM as Na₂SeO₄) or salt (100 mM NaCl) in the hydroponics and sand culture medium, respectively. A fast growth and production of higher biomass enables P. oleracea for higher nitrate removal compared with S. europaea in both experiments. In S. europaea, both selenium and salt treatments enhanced nitrate removal competence through increasing the biomass and nitrate uptake or assimilation capacity. Salt treatment, however, reduced these parameters in P. oleracea. Based on data, selenium-assisted phytoremediation of nitrate contamination is a feasible strategy for both species and S. europaea is better suited to nitrate-contaminated saline water and soils. Nitrate accumulation in both species, however, exceeds that of the permitted nitrate level in the forage crops suggesting that the phytoremediation byproducts could not be consumed and other management strategies should be applied to the residual biomass.

An Overview of the Valorization of Aquatic Plants in Effluent Depuration through Phytoremediation Processes

Environmental biotechnologies are a popular choice for using efficient, low-cost, low-waste, and environmentally friendly methods to clean up and restore polluted sites. In these technologies, plants (terrestrial and aquatic) and their associated micro-organisms are used to eliminate pollutants that threaten the health of humans and animals. They have emerged as alternative methods to conventional techniques that have become increasingly aggressive to the environment. Currently, all actors of the environment, whether governors, industrialists, or citizen associations are more interested in the application and development of these technologies. The present overview provides available information about recent developments in phytoremediation processes using specifically aquatic plants. The main goal is to highlight the key role of this technology in combating the drastic organic and inorganic pollution that threatens our planet daily. Furthermore, this study presents the valorization of aquatic plant after phytoremediation process in energy. In particular, this article tries to identify gaps that are necessary to propose future developments and prospects that could guarantee sustainable development aspired by all generations.

Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties of Mung Bean Phyto-Film Combined with Longkong Pericarp Extract and Sonication

Mung bean (Vigna radiata) flour serves as an excellent biopolymer and a potential material for producing antioxidant and antimicrobial phyto-films. In addition to mung bean flour, this study also combined the longkong (Aglaia dookkoo Griff.) pericarp extract (LPE, 1.5%) and ultrasonication process (0 (C1), 2 (T1), 4 (T2), 6 (T3), 8 (T4), and 10 (T5) min, sonicated at 25 kHz, 100% amplitude) in film emulsion production to improve the antioxidant and antimicrobial efficiency in the phyto-films. This study showed that sonication increased the phyto-films’ color into more lightness and yellowness, and the intensity of the color changes was in accordance with the increased sonication time. Alternatively, the thickness, water vapor permeability, and solubility of the films were adversely affected by extended sonication. In addition, elongation at break and tensile strength increased while the Young modulus decreased in the phyto-films with the extended sonication. Furthermore, the droplet size and polydispersity index of the phyto-films decreased with extended sonication. Conversely, the zeta potential of the film tended to increase with the treatments. Furthermore, phytochemicals such as total phenolic content and total flavonoid contents, and the radical scavenging ability of phyto-films against the DPPH radical, ABTS radical, superoxide radical, hydroxyl radical, and ferrous chelating activity, were significantly higher, and they were steadily increased in the films with the extended sonication time. Furthermore, the phyto-films showed a significant control against Gram (-) pathogens, followed by Gram (+) pathogens. A higher inhibitory effect was noted against L. monocytogens, followed by S. aureus and B. subtilis. Similarly, the phyto-films also significantly inhibited the Gram (-) pathogens, and significant control was noted against C. jejuni, followed by E. coli and P. aeruginosa. Regardless of the mung bean flour, this study found that longkong pericarp extract and the sonication process could also effectively be used in the film emulsions to enhance the efficiency of the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of phyto-films.

Energy plants as biofuel source and as accumulators of heavy metals

Fossil fuel depletion and soil and water pollution gave impetus to the development of a novel perspective of sustainable development. In addition to the use of plant biomass for ethanol production, plants can be used to reduce the concentration of heavy metals in soil and water. Due to tolerance to high levels of metals, many plant species, crops, non-crops, medicinal, and pharmaceutical energy plants are well-known metal hyperaccumulators. This paper focuses on studies investigating the potential of Miscanthus sp., Beta vulgaris L., Saccharum sp., Ricinus communis L. Prosopis sp. and Arundo donax L. in heavy metal removal and biofuel production. Phytoremediation employing these plants showed great potential for bioaccumulation of Co, Cr, Cu, Al, Pb, Ni, Fe, Cd, Zn, Hg, Se, etc. This review presents the potential of lignocellulose plants to remove pollutants being a valuable substrate for biofuel production. Also, pretreat-ments, dealing with toxic biomass, and biofuel production are discussed.

Effects of Exogenous Application of Indole-3-Butyric Acid on Maize Plants Cultivated in the Presence or Absence of Cadmium

Auxins are plant hormones that affect plant growth, development, and improve a plant's tolerance to stress. In this study, we found that the application of indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) had diverse effects on the growth of maize (Zea mays L.) roots treated without/with Cd. IBA caused changes in the growth and morphology of the roots under non-stress conditions; hence, we were able to select two concentrations of IBA (10-11 M as stimulatory and 10-7 M as inhibitory). IBA in stimulatory concentration did not affect the concentration of H2O2 or the activity of antioxidant enzymes while IBA in inhibitory concentration increased only the concentration of H2O2 (40.6%). The application of IBA also affected the concentrations of mineral nutrients. IBA in stimulatory concentration increased the concentration of N, K, Ca, S, and Zn (5.8-14.8%) and in inhibitory concentration decreased concentration of P, K, Ca, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu (5.5-36.6%). Moreover, IBA in the concentration 10-9 M had the most positive effects on the plants cultivated with Cd. It decreased the concentration of H2O2 (34.3%), the activity of antioxidant enzymes (23.7-36.4%), and increased the concentration of all followed elements, except Mg (5.5-34.1%), when compared to the Cd.

Brassica Species in Phytoextractions: Real Potentials and Challenges

The genus Brassica is recognized for including species with phytoaccumulation potential and a large amount of research has been carried out in this area under a variety of conditions, from laboratory experiments to field trials, with spiked or naturally contaminated soils, using one- or multi-element contaminated soil, generating various and sometimes contradictory results with limited practical applications. To date, the actual field potential of Brassica species and the feasibility of a complete phytoextraction process have not been fully evaluated. Therefore, the aim of this study was to summarize the results of the experiments that have been performed with a view to analyzing real potentials and limitations. The reduced biomass and low metal mobility in the soil have been addressed by the development of chemically or biologically assisted phytoremediation technologies, the use of soil amendments, and the application of crop management strategies. Certain issues, such as the fate of harvested biomass or the performance of species in multi-metal-contaminated soils, remain to be solved by future research. Potential improvements to current experimental settings include testing species grown to full maturity, using a greater amount of soil in experiments, conducting more trials under real field conditions, developing improved crop management systems, and optimizing solutions for harvested biomass disposal.

Exploring the Bioethanol Production Potential of Miscanthus Cultivars

Miscanthus is a fast-growing perennial grass that attracts significant attention for its potential application as a feedstock for bioethanol production. This report explores the difference in the lignocellulosic composition of various Miscanthus cultivars, including Miscanthus × giganteus cultivated at the same location (mainly Lincoln, UK). It also assesses the sugar release profiles and mineral composition profiles of five Miscanthus cultivars harvested over a growing period from November 2018 to February 2019. The results showed that Miscanthus × giganteus contains approximately 45.5% cellulose, 29.2% hemicellulose and 23.8% lignin (dry weight, w/w). Other cultivars of Miscanthus also contain high quantities of carbohydrates (cellulose 41.1–46.0%, hemicellulose 24.3–32.6% and lignin 21.4–24.9%). Pre-treatment of Miscanthus using dilute acid followed by enzymatic hydrolysis released 63.7–80.2% of the theoretical glucose content. Fermentation of a hydrolysate of Miscanthus × giganteus using Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC2592 produced 13.58 ± 1.11 g/L of ethanol from 35.13 ± 0.46 g/L of glucose, corresponding to a yield of 0.148 g/g dry weight Miscanthus biomass. Scanning electron microscopy was used to study the morphology of raw and hydrolysed Miscanthus samples, which provided visual proof of Miscanthus lignocellulose degradation in these processes. The sugar release profile showed that a consequence of Miscanthus plant growth is an increase in difficulty in releasing monosaccharides from the biomass. The potassium, magnesium, sodium, sulphur and phosphorus contents in various Miscanthus cultivars were analysed. The results revealed that these elements were slowly lost from the plants during the latter part of the growing season, for a specific cultivar, until February 2019.