Teacher Discrimination Reduces School Performance of African American Youth: Role of Gender

The association between experiences of unfair treatment in school and adolescent adjustment over 5 years

This study investigates how high-school experiences of unfair treatment connect to adolescents' higher education enrollment and life satisfaction 5 years later. We utilized four waves of data at ages 14 years (T1), 16 (T2), 18 (T3) and 19 (T4) in the UK (N = 13,065; 51% Male, 49% Female, 70% White, 11% Black, 19% South-Asian). Perceived teacher unfairness at T1 predicted lower university aspirations (T2) and subsequently lower enrollment in higher education (at T3 and T4) and life satisfaction (T4). Experiences with T1 teacher ethnic discrimination also predicted lower life satisfaction. The effects were similar across historically minoritized and majority-background pupils, but historically minoritized adolescents experienced more ethnic discrimination in school. Our findings highlight the importance of fair treatment for all pupils.

Contextualizing school discipline: Examining the role of general peer and teacher discrimination at the individual- and school-level on individual suspension

Past research has linked peer and teacher discrimination to risk factors for school discipline, but few studies have examined whether peer and teacher discrimination have a direct impact on school discipline. This study examines the effects of general peer and teacher discrimination at the individual- and school-level on school suspension using nationally representative, secondary data on almost 12,000 youth across 131 schools. Hierarchical logistic regression models indicated that general teacher discrimination at the individual- and school-level-but not general peer discrimination-increased the odds of receiving school suspension. Findings suggest that general discrimination by direct learning instructors and teachers representing the broader school culture can shape student conduct. Reducing school discipline thus falls on teachers, staff, principals, and learners.

Racial-Ethnic Discrimination and Early Adolescents' Behavioral Problems: The Protective Role of Parental Warmth

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of the study was to investigate the association between discrimination by multiple sources (ie, teachers, students, and other adults) and early adolescents' behavioral problems (ie, internalizing, externalizing, and attention problems), also considering the protective role of parental warmth in the association.

METHOD

Cross-sectional analyses were conducted with 3,245 early adolescents of color obtained from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study (ABCD Study) at year 1 follow-up (Y1), a large and diverse sample of children (mean age = 9.48 years) in the United States. Racially-ethnically minoritized adolescents reported sources of discrimination, parental warmth, and symptoms of psychopathology. Regression with interaction terms was conducted to investigate the associations among sources of discrimination, parental warmth, and behavioral problems among racially-ethnically minority adolescents. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to examine (1) race/ethnicity and sex/gender variations; (2) whether the associations between different sources of discrimination and behavioral problems were reliably different; and (3) effects of discrimination, parental warmth, and their interplay at Y1 in predicting adolescents' behavioral problems at year 2 follow-up.

RESULTS

Early adolescents experiencing interpersonal racial-ethnic discrimination by multiple sources, including teachers, students, and other adults, reported higher levels of attention, internalizing, and externalizing problems. Parental warmth was protective for the association between interpersonal racial-ethnic discrimination and early adolescents' behavioral problems.

CONCLUSION

Experiencing interpersonal racial-ethnic discrimination from teachers, peers, and other adults is related to heightened attention, internalizing, and externalizing problems among racially-ethnically minoritized early adolescents. Parental warmth may reduce the risk of developing behavioral problems among early adolescents who experience interpersonal racial-ethnic discrimination from students, teachers, and other adults outside of school.

DIVERSITY & INCLUSION STATEMENT

We worked to ensure race, ethnic, and/or other types of diversity in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure sex and gender balance in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure that the study questionnaires were prepared in an inclusive way. One or more of the authors of this paper self-identifies as a member of one or more historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science. One or more of the authors of this paper self-identifies as a member of one or more historically underrepresented sexual and/or gender groups in science. One or more of the authors of this paper received support from a program designed to increase minority representation in science. We actively worked to promote inclusion of historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science in our author group. While citing references scientifically relevant for this work, we also actively worked to promote inclusion of historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science in our reference list. We actively worked to promote sex and gender balance in our author group. While citing references scientifically relevant for this work, we also actively worked to promote sex and gender balance in our reference list.

Teachers' Beliefs, Values, and Likelihood of Talking about Group-Based Discrimination

A teacher survey (N = 290) based on the social reasoning developmental model investigated (1) beliefs and values about using class time for discussing discrimination and reported frequency of discussing discrimination based on different social identities and (2) factors predicting teachers' frequency for discussing racial discrimination in the classroom. Most participants reported beliefs that all five identities were worth discussing in class, yet teachers most strongly believed that wealth, race, and native language affect students' education. Higher beliefs that prejudice can change, school support, and beliefs that race affects students' education predicted higher teacher reports for talking about racial discrimination.

Intersectional Effects of Race and Educational Attainment on Memory Function of Middle-Aged and Older Adults With Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

High educational attainment may protect individuals, particularly middle-aged and older adults, against a wide range of health risks, including memory decline with age; however, this protection is less clear in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). In addition, this effect may differ across racial groups. According to the Marginalized-Related Diminished Return (MDR) theory, for example, the protective effect of high educational attainment on mental and physical health shows a weaker protective effect for racial minority groups, particularly Black people compared to White individuals.

OBJECTIVES

This longitudinal study used data of middle-aged and older adults with AD with two aims: first, to test the association between educational attainment and memory, and second, to explore racial differences in this association in the USA.

METHODS

Data came from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) study. The total sample was 1673 American middle-aged and older adults. The independent variable was educational attainment measured as years of education. The main outcome was memory operationalized as Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) Verbal Forgetting percentage (VF%). Age, gender, and follow-up duration were covariates. Race was the effect modifier. Linear regression model was utilized to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Of all participants, 68 (4.1%) were Black, and the remaining were White, with a mean age of 75 years old. In the pooled sample, educational attainment did not show a significant association with memory, independent of confounders. Educational attainment showed a significant interaction with race on memory, with higher educational attainment having a different effect on memory in White patients compared to Black patients.

CONCLUSION

The effect of higher educational attainment on memory differs for Black patients with AD compared to White patients. To prevent cognitive disparities by race, we need to go beyond racial inequality in access to resources (e.g., education) and minimize diminished returns of educational attainment for racial minorities. To tackle health inequalities, social policies should not be limited to equalizing socioeconomic status but also help minority groups leverage their available resources, such as educational attainment, and secure tangible outcomes.

Ethnic-Racial Socialization, Teacher Discrimination, and Black Youth's School Engagement and Achievement

Ethnic-racial socialization is one strategy Black parents use to support their children's school engagement and academic achievement given the occurrence and toxic effects of discrimination. Egalitarianism and preparation for bias socialization messages have yielded mixed evidence of promotive and protective effects for Black youth's school outcomes, and effects may vary according to ethnicity. Thus, this research examined associations between ethnic-racial socialization messages and school engagement and achievement, and whether these messages protected against teacher discrimination effects on academic achievement transmitted through school engagement, among a nationally representative sample of Black adolescents who participated in the National Survey of American Life Adolescent supplement study. Ethnic-racial socialization message content and the frequency of communication about race demonstrated different associations with engagement (i.e., school bonding, aspiration-expectation discrepancy, and disciplinary actions) and achievement (i.e., grades) for African American and Caribbean Black youth. However, the benefits were not sufficient to combat the adverse effects of teacher discrimination on school engagement and, in turn, achievement. These findings highlight the utility of integrating ethnic-racial socialization into prevention programs to support Black youth's school experiences; demonstrate the importance of attention to heterogeneity within Black youth; and underscore the critical need for prevention programs to address teacher discrimination.

Investigating the Role of Suicidality and Ethnic Identity among Black Adolescents: A Latent Profile Analysis

OBJECTIVE

Suicide among Black adolescent youth has steadily increased in recent years, yet few studies describe how facets of social identity shape suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs) during this critical stage of development. Ethnic identity represents an underexplored, yet important element of social identity among Black youth that may contribute to differential associations with STBs. This study examined the association between ethnic identity and self-reported suicidal ideation, planning, and attempts.

METHODS

Data were drawn from 1,170 African American (n = 810) and Caribbean Black (n = 368) adolescents aged 13-17 (Mean age = 15) that participated in the National Survey of American Life Adolescent supplement study.

RESULTS

Using latent profile analyses, three patterns of ethnic identity were identified: Undifferentiated, Low Ethnic Identification, and Alienated. Caribbean Black adolescents were more likely to be in the Low Ethnic Identification class relative to the Undifferentiated class. Adolescents in the Undifferentiated group reported higher proportions of suicidal ideation, planning, and attempts compared to the remaining latent profile groups.

CONCLUSION

Findings demonstrate that ethnic identity is an important aspect of social identity that can influence STBs among Black adolescents. Considering increased suicide attempts and death rates among Black youth, findings underscore the importance of examining culturally relevant developmental processes that may shape suicidal beliefs and behaviors.

Perceived Discrimination in School: a Longitudinal Look at the Impact on Expectations and Health

The purpose of the study was to look at levels of perceived discrimination in school among students of different races and to assess whether there are significant short- or long-term effects as they develop. This study analyzed data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, which is a multi-stage nationally representative study of individuals who were in 7th-12th grade during the 1994-1995 school year. Responses on teacher discrimination items showed that Black students reported the highest levels of perceived teacher discrimination. Educational expectations were lowest for Hispanic students. At wave three, participants who identified their race/ethnicity as Hispanic or other reported the worst overall health, whereas at wave four, White participants had significantly better overall health than the other three groups. Teacher discrimination was found to be a significant predictor for educational expectations, income expectations, and overall health eight and 15 years later. When stratified by race, higher teacher discrimination predicted lower educational expectations and poorer overall health eight years later for Black, Hispanic, and White students.

Association between School Achievement and Tobacco Susceptibility among US Adolescents: Ethnic Differences

BACKGROUND

Although risky behaviors such as educational problems and tobacco use tend to co-occur, these associations may vary across diverse ethnic groups, in part because ethnic minorities tend to reside in worse neighborhoods and tend to attend worse schools than Non-Latino White adolescents.

AIM

To compare the association between baseline school achievement (student grades) and subsequent tobacco use susceptibility (openness to smoke in future) by ethnicity, we compared African American, Latino, and Non-Latino White adolescents in the US over a four-year period.

METHODS

This longitudinal study followed 3636 adolescents who were never smokers at baseline for a period of four years. Baseline and four-year data of the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) study were used for this analysis. All participants were 12 to 17 years old at baseline and were either Non-Latino White (Majority), African American (Minority), or Latino (Minority). The outcome was a tobacco use susceptibility score at wave 4 which was defined as openness to use tobacco in the future, measured at year four. The predictor was school achievement at wave 1, measured as grades from F to A+. The moderator was ethnicity (African American, Latino, Non-Latino White), and covariates were age, gender, parental education, and family structure.

RESULTS

Our linear regressions in the pooled sample showed an inverse association between baseline school achievement and subsequent tobacco use susceptibility four years later. However, this inverse association was weaker for ethnic minorities than for Non-Latino White adolescents, as documented by interaction effects between ethnic minority status and baseline school grades.

CONCLUSION

Higher educational success better correlates with lower tobacco use susceptibility of non-Latino White than African American and Latino adolescents, which may reflect some tobacco use susceptibility of Latino and African American adolescents with highly educated parents. Future research should investigate how social context such as high-risk school environment, neighborhood risk, peer risk, and other mechanisms increase behavioral risk of educationally successful African American and Latino adolescents.

Parental Education and Adolescents' Asthma: The Role of Ethnicity

While high parental education is associated with better health, this association may be weaker for ethnic minority than for ethnic majority families. It is unknown whether the association between parental education and adolescents' asthma also varies by ethnicity.

AIM

To study the association between parental education and adolescents' asthma overall and by ethnicity.

METHODS

The current study used data from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH)-Adolescents study. All participants were 12 to 17-year-old non-smokers (n = 8652). The outcome of interest was adolescents' asthma. The predictor of interest was baseline parental education, the covariates were age, sex, and number of parents present at baseline, and the moderator was ethnicity.

RESULTS

According to logistic regression analyses, higher parental education was predictive of adolescents' asthma; however, this association was weaker for Latino than non-Latino adolescents (OR 1.771; CI 1.282-2.446). We did not find a significant difference in the effect of parental education on asthma of White and African American adolescents. Our stratified models also showed that higher parental education was associated with lower asthma for non-Latino but not for Latino adolescents.

CONCLUSION

The effect of high parental education on adolescents' asthma prevalence differs between Latino and non-Latino families, with Latino families showing weaker protective effects of parental education on adolescents' asthma. Future research should test the role of exposure to environmental pollutants, neighborhood quality, and prevalence of smoking in social network members as well as other contextual factors at home, in school, and in the neighborhood that may increase prevalence of asthma in Latino adolescents regardless of their parental education. Given that these potential causes are multi-level, potential causes of such disparities should be tested in future multi-level research.

Race and Ethnic Differences in the Protective Effect of Parental Educational Attainment on Subsequent Perceived Tobacco Norms among US Youth

BACKGROUND

Although parental educational attainment is known to be associated with a lower prevalence of behaviors such as tobacco use, these effects are shown to be weaker for Black than White youth. It is important to study whether this difference is due to higher perceived tobacco use norms for Black youth.

AIM

To study the association between parental educational attainment and perceived tobacco use norms overall and by race/ethnicity among youth in the US.

METHODS

The current study used four years of follow-up data from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH-Youth) study conducted between 2013 and 2017. All participants were 12- to 17-year-old non-smokers at baseline and were successfully followed for four years (n = 4329). The outcome of interest was perceived tobacco use norms risk at year four. The predictor of interest was baseline parental educational attainment, the moderator was race/ethnicity, and the covariates were age, sex, and parental marital status at baseline.

RESULTS

Our linear regressions in the pooled sample showed that higher parental educational attainment at baseline was predictive of perceived disapproval of tobacco use at year four; however, this association was weaker for Latino than non-Latino youth. Our stratified models also showed that higher parental educational attainment was associated with perceived tobacco use norms for non-Latino but not for Latino youth.

CONCLUSION

The effect of high parental educational attainment on anti-tobacco norms differs between Latino and non-Latino youth. Latino youth with highly educated parents remain at risk of tobacco use, while non-Latino youth with highly educated parents show low susceptibility to tobacco use.

Immigration Status, Socioeconomic Status, and Self-Rated Health in Europe

The literature has established a protective effect of socioeconomic status (SES) indicators on health. However, at least in the US, these SES indicators tend to generate fewer health gains for marginalized groups including immigrants. As this literature mainly originated in the US, it is necessary to study whether these indicators similarly correlate with the health of foreign-born and native-born individuals in Europe. The current study was based on the Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory and compared the effects of three SES indicators, namely parental education, own education and income, on self-rated health (SRH) of immigrant and native-born individuals. We used data from the European Social Survey 2020 (ESS 2020). Participants included 14,213 individuals who identified as either native-born (n = 9052) or foreign-born (n = 508). Education, income, and parental education were the independent variables. Self-rated health (SRH) was the outcome. Age and sex were covariates. Linear regression and logistic regression were used for data analysis. Overall, high education, income, and parental education were associated with lower odds of poor SRH. We documented a statistical interaction between immigration status and parental education, indicating a weaker inverse association between parental education and poor SRH for foreign-born than native-born individuals. The links between some but not all SES indicators vary across foreign-born and native-born individuals in Europe. Host countries seem to undervalue the parental educational attainment of foreign-born families. Future research should explore the role of time, period, cohort and country of origin as well as host country and associated policies in equalizing returns of SES indicators on the health of population subgroups. The results are important given that most studies on MDRs are developed in the US, and less is known about Europe. The results are also very important given the growing anti-immigrant sentiment and nationalist movements in Europe and the rest of the world.

School Discrimination, Discipline Inequities, and Adjustment Among Black Adolescent Girls and Boys: An Intersectionality-Informed Approach: Dismantling Systems of Racism and Oppression during Adolescence

Employing an intersectionality-informed approach, this investigation examines how school discrimination and disciplinary inequities shape Black adolescent boys' and girls' adjustment. One hundred and twenty-six adolescents (M = 11.88 years; SD = 1.02) residing in the Southeastern United States comprised the study sample. Results indicated that school discrimination was associated with greater depressive symptoms, lower academic persistence, and lower school satisfaction (at 1-year follow-up). In a counterintuitive pattern, adolescents' perceptions of disciplinary inequities were associated with greater persistence. This investigation provided partial support for gender variation. Perceptions of school disciplinary inequities were associated with lower educational aspirations for girls, whereas systemic school discrimination was more strongly associated with boys' educational aspirations. Overall, our study suggests that school-specific systemic discrimination and disciplinary practices shape Black adolescents' adjustment.

Racial and Language Microaggressions in the School Ecology

The growth trajectory of ethnically and linguistically diverse individuals in the United States, particularly for youth, compels the education system to have urgent awareness of how diverse aspects of culture (e.g., Spanish-speaking, Black Latina student) are implicated in outcomes in American school systems. Students spend a significant amount of time in the school ecology, and this experience plays an important role in their well-being. Diverse ethnic, racial, and linguistic students face significant challenges and are placed at considerable risk by long-observed structural inequities evidenced in society and schools. Teachers must develop the capacity to be culturally sensitive, provide culturally responsive pedagogy, and regularly self-assess for biases implicated in positive academic outcomes for students in kindergarten through Grade 12. Research and practice have suggested that racism and discrimination in the form of racial microaggressions are observed daily in schools and classrooms. This article provides an overview of racial microaggressions in the school context and their damaging effects on students. We provide specific examples of microaggressions that may be observed in the U.S. classroom environment and how schools can serve as a positive intervention point to ameliorate racism, discrimination, and racial and language microaggressions. This comprehensive approach blends theory with practice to support the continued development of cultural humility, culturally sustaining pedagogy, and an equity-responsive climate.

Parental Educational Attainment, the Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area, and Reading Ability among American Children: A Test of Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have shown that parental educational attainment is associated with a larger superior temporal cortical surface area associated with higher reading ability in children. Simultaneously, the marginalization-related diminished returns (MDRs) framework suggests that, due to structural racism and social stratification, returns of parental education are smaller for black and other racial/ethnic minority children compared to their white counterparts.

PURPOSE

This study used a large national sample of 9-10-year-old American children to investigate associations between parental educational attainment, the right and left superior temporal cortical surface area, and reading ability across diverse racial/ethnic groups.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional analysis that included 10,817 9-10-year-old children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Parental educational attainment was treated as a five-level categorical variable. Children's right and left superior temporal cortical surface area and reading ability were continuous variables. Race/ethnicity was the moderator. To adjust for the nested nature of the ABCD data, mixed-effects regression models were used to test the associations between parental education, superior temporal cortical surface area, and reading ability overall and by race/ethnicity.

RESULTS

Overall, high parental educational attainment was associated with greater superior temporal cortical surface area and reading ability in children. In the pooled sample, we found statistically significant interactions between race/ethnicity and parental educational attainment on children's right and left superior temporal cortical surface area, suggesting that high parental educational attainment has a smaller boosting effect on children's superior temporal cortical surface area for black than white children. We also found a significant interaction between race and the left superior temporal surface area on reading ability, indicating weaker associations for Alaskan Natives, Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders (AIAN/NHPI) than white children. We also found interactions between race and parental educational attainment on reading ability, indicating more potent effects for black children than white children.

CONCLUSION

While parental educational attainment may improve children's superior temporal cortical surface area, promoting reading ability, this effect may be unequal across racial/ethnic groups. To minimize the racial/ethnic gap in children's brain development and school achievement, we need to address societal barriers that diminish parental educational attainment's marginal returns for middle-class minority families. Social and public policies need to go beyond equal access and address structural and societal barriers that hinder middle-class families of color and their children. Future research should test how racism, social stratification, segregation, and discrimination, which shape the daily lives of non-white individuals, take a toll on children's brains and academic development.

Black-White Achievement Gap: Role of Race, School Urbanity, and Parental Education

BACKGROUND

Recent research on Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs) has documented weaker boosting effects of parental educational attainment on educational outcomes of Black than White students. Such MDRs of parental education seem to contribute to the Black-White achievement gap. Given that Blacks are more likely than Whites to attend urban schools, there is a need to study if these MDRs can be replicated at both urban and suburban schools.

AIM

To test the contribution of diminished returns of parental educational attainment on the Black-White achievement gap in urban and suburban American high schools.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study that used baseline Education Longitudinal Study (ELS-2002) data, a nationally representative study of 10th grade adolescents in the United States. This study analyzed 8315 youths who were either non-Hispanic White (n = 6539, 78.6%) or non-Hispanic Black (n = 1776, 21.4%) who were attending either suburban (n = 5188, 62.4%) or urban (n = 3127, 37.6%) schools. The outcome was standard math and reading grades. The independent variable was parental educational attainment. Gender, parental marital status, and school characteristics (% free lunch and relationship quality with the teacher) were the confounders. Race/ethnicity was the effect of modifier. School urbanity was the strata. Linear regression was used for data analysis.

RESULTS

In urban and suburban schools, higher parental educational attainment was associated with higher math and reading test scores. In urban and suburban schools, Black students had considerably lower reading and math scores than White students. At urban but not suburban schools, significant interactions were found between race (Non-Hispanic Black) and parental education attainment (years of schooling) on reading and math scores, suggested that the protective effect of parental education on students' reading and math scores (ie school achievement) is smaller for Non-Hispanic Black relative to Non-Hispanic White youth only in urban but not sub-urban schools.

CONCLUSION

Diminished returns of parental education (MDRs) contribute to the racial achievement gap in urban but not suburban American high schools. This result is important given Black students are more likely to attend urban schools than White students. As MDRs are not universal and depend on context, future research should study contextual characteristics of urban schools that contribute to MDRs.

Diminished Returns of Parental Education in Terms of Youth School Performance: Ruling out Regression toward the Mean

Background: Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) refer to systemically weaker effects of socioeconomic status (SES) indicators on various developmental, behavioral, and health outcomes of ethnic minorities compared to non-Hispanic (non-Latino) Whites. Similar MDRs also exist for the effects of parental education on the school performance of ethnic minority youth. Aim: To assess whether regression toward the mean (RTM) has any role in explaining the diminished effects of parental education on the school performance of Black and Hispanic youth relative to non-Hispanic White youth. Materials and methods: Data for this cross-sectional study came from the Monitoring the Future survey (MTF, 2017), a nationally representative survey of American youth in 12th grade. The sample included 10,262 youth who were 12th graders (typically 17–18 years old). The independent variable was parental education with five categories: Some high school, High school graduate, Some college, College graduate, and Graduate school. The outcome was self-reported school performance measured as grade point average (GPA). Ethnicity was the effect modifier. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Tukey Post Hoc test was used to analyze the data. Data visualization (line graphs) was used to visualize the shape of youth GPA as a function of parental education levels across ethnic groups. Results: While a perfect stepwise increase was seen in youth school performance as a result of parental education improvement, this pattern differed considerably across ethnic groups. Such a perfect stepwise increase in youth school performance as a result of the incremental increase in parental education was missing for Black and Hispanic youth. The shape of the association between parental education and youth school performance ruled out regression toward the mean (RTM) as an explanation for the observed diminished effects of parental education on the school performance of Black and Hispanic youth. Conclusion: Diminished returns of parental education on the school performance of Black and Hispanic youth cannot be explained by regression toward the mean. Other factors and contextual processes, such as segregation, discrimination, racism, and poor quality of schools in urban areas, should be investigated in future research.

African Americans' Diminished Returns of Parental Education on Adolescents' Depression and Suicide in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study

To investigate racial and ethnic differences in the protective effects of parental education and marital status against adolescents' depressed mood and suicidal attempts in the U.S. As proposed by the Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs), parental education generates fewer tangible outcomes for non-White compared to White families. Our existing knowledge is very limited regarding diminished returns of parental education and marital status on adolescents' depressed mood and suicidal attempts. To compare racial groups for the effects of parental education and marital status on adolescents' depressed mood and suicidal attempt. This cross-sectional study included 7076 non-Hispanic White or African American 8-11 years old adolescents from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The independent variables were parental education and marital status. The main outcomes were depressed mood and suicidal attempts based on parents' reports using the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (K-SADS). Age and gender were the covariates. Race was the moderator. Logistic regression was used to analyze the ABCD data. Overall, parental education was associated with lower odds of depressed mood (OR = 0.81; 95% CI = 0.67-0.99; p = 0.037) and having married parents was associated with lower odds of suicidal attempts (OR = 0.50; 95% CI = 0.28-0.91; p = 0.022). In the pooled sample, we found interaction terms between race with parental education and marital status on the outcomes, suggesting that the protective effect of having married parents against depressed mood (OR = 1.54; 95% CI = 1.00-2.37; p = 0.048) and the protective effect of having married parents against suicidal attempts (OR = 6.62; 95% CI = 2.21-19.86; p =0.001) are weaker for African Americans when compared to Whites. The protective effects of parent education and marital status against depressed mood and suicidal attempts are diminished for African American adolescents compared to White adolescents. There is a need for programs and interventions that equalize not only socioeconomic status (SES) but also the marginal returns of SES for racial minority groups. Such efforts require addressing structural and societal barriers that hinder African American families from translating their SES resources and human capital into tangible outcomes. There is a need for studies that can minimize MDRs for African American families, so that every individual and every family can benefit from their resources regardless of their skin color. To achieve such a goal, we need to help middle-class African American families secure tangible outcomes in the presence of SES resources.

Parental Educational Attainment and Black-White Adolescents' Achievement Gap: Blacks' Diminished Returns

Recent research has documented Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs), defined as weaker protective effects of parental educational attainment and other socioeconomic status (SES) indicators for racial and ethnic minority groups. To explore racial differences in the associations between parental educational attainment and youth educational outcomes among American high schoolers. This cross-sectional study used baseline data from the Education Longitudinal Study (ELS-2002), a nationally representative survey of 10th grade American youth. This study analyzed 10702 youth who were composed of 2020 (18.9%) non-Hispanic Black and 8682 (81.1%) non-Hispanic White youth. The dependent variables were youth math and reading grades. The independent variable was parental educational attainment. Gender, parental marital status, and school characteristics (% students receiving free lunch, academic risk factors, urban school, public school) were the covariates. Race was the moderating variable. Linear regression was used for data analysis. Overall, higher parental educational attainment was associated with higher math and reading test scores. We found a significant interaction between race (Non-Hispanic Black) and parental education attainment on math and reading test scores, suggesting that the boosting effects of high parental educational attainment on youth educational outcomes might be systemically smaller for Non-Hispanic Black than for Non-Hispanic White youth. While high parental educational attainment promotes educational outcomes for youth, this association is weaker for Non-Hispanic Black youth than non-Hispanic White youth. The diminished returns of parental education are beyond what can be explained by school characteristics that differ between Non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic White students. Diminishing returns of parental educational attainment (MDRs) may be an unrecognized source of racial youth disparities. Equalizing SES would not be enough for equalizing outcomes. There is a need for public and economic policies that reduce diminished returns of SES for Black families.

Prediction of Delayed Neurodevelopment in Infants Using Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials and the Bayley II Scales

Background: Brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEP) provide an objective analysis of central nervous system function and development in infants. This study proposed to examine the relationship between infant BAEP values at age 6 months, and their neurodevelopment at age 2 years assessed by the mental development indices (MDI), a form of Bayley Scales of Infant Development. We hypothesized that in infants with BAEP values outside normal range, there may be neurodevelopmental delays, as shown by their MDI scores. Methods: An exploratory investigation was conducted using preterm (28-36 weeks gestation; 95 cases) and term infants (≥37 weeks gestation; 100 cases) who were born with specific perinatal conditions. BAEP values were recorded in these infants from 1 to 8 months of age, and compared with MDI scores in these infants at age 2 years. A multivariate linear regressions model was performed to test the associations between all variables and MDI scores. Stratified linear regression was used to test the interactions between gestational age and BAEP values with MDI scores. Significance was determined at a p < 0.05. Results: We found that BAEP values were inversely associated with MDI scores in premature infants (β = -1.89; 95% confidence interval = -3.42 to -0.36), and that the effect of gestational age and BAEP values on the MDI scores is decreased by 1.89 points due to the interaction between these two variables. In premature babies, the lower the BAEP value below the mean, the greater the decrease in MDI score at age 2 years. Asphyxia and lower socioeconomic status in the family were also covariates associated with lower MDI scores at age 2 years. Conclusion: The data provided evidence that BAEP values outside the normal range in premature infants at age 6 months may predict developmental delays in cognitive and motor skills, as shown by MDI scores. We propose that BAEP assessment may be utilized as a potential indicator for neurodevelopment, and suggest that early intellectual and public health interventions should be encouraged to enrich neurodevelopment in premature babies with BAEP values outside the normal range.

Health-Related Quality of Life of Economically Disadvantaged African American Older Adults: Age and Gender Differences

Background: The association between age and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) is still under debate. While some research shows older age is associated with better HRQoL, other studies show no or negative association between age and HRQoL. In addition, while the association between age and HRQoL may depend on race, ethnicity, gender, and their intersections, most previous research on this link has been performed in predominantly White Middle Class. Objective: To explore gender differences in the association between age and mental and physical HRQoL in a sample of economically disadvantaged African American (AA) older adults. Methods: This cross-sectional survey was conducted in South Los Angeles between 2015 to 2018. A total number of 740 economically disadvantaged AA older adults (age ≥ 55 years) were enrolled in this study, using non-random sampling. This includes 266 AA men and 474 AA women. The independent variable of interest was age. Dependent variables of interest were physical component scores (PCS) and mental component scores (MCS), two main summary scores of the HRQoL, measured using Short Form-12 (SF-12). Gender was the moderator. Socioeconomic status (educational attainment and financial difficulty) were covariates. Linear regression models were used to analyze the data. Results: AA women reported worse PCS; however, gender did not impact MCS. In the pooled sample, high age was associated with better PCS and MCS. In the pooled sample, a significant interaction was found between gender and age on PCS, suggesting a stronger effect of age on PCS for AA men than AA women. In gender-stratified models, older age was associated with better PCS for AA men but not AA women. Older age was similarly and positively associated with better MCS for AA men and women. Conclusions: There may be some gender differences in the implications of ageing for the physical HRQoL of AA older adults. It is unclear how old age may have a boosting effect on physical HRQoL for AA men but not AA women. Future research should test gender differences in the effect of age on physical health indicators such as chronic disease as well as cognitive processes involved in the evaluation of own's health in AA men and women.

Perceived Racial Discrimination and Marijuana Use a Decade Later; Gender Differences Among Black Youth

Background: Researchers have reported gender differences in the association between perceived racial discrimination (PRD) and substance use including marijuana use (MU). A limited number of longitudinal studies, however, have documented the long-term effect of PRD during adolescence on subsequent MU in young adulthood. Objective: In the current longitudinal study, we tested gender differences in the association between baseline PRD during adolescence and subsequent MU during young adulthood within Black population. Methods: A cohort of 595 Black (278 male and 317 female) ninth grade students were followed for 13 years from 1999 (mean age 20) to 2012 (mean age 33). Participants were selected from an economically disadvantaged urban area in the Midwest, United States. The independent variable was PRD measured in 1999. The outcome was average MU between 2000 and 2012 (based on eight measurements). Covariates included age, socio-demographics (family structure, and parental employment), and substance use by friends and parents. Gender was the focal moderator. Linear regression was used for statistical analysis. Results: In the pooled sample, PRD in 1999 was not associated with average MU between 2000 and 2012. We did, however, find an interaction effect between baseline PRD and gender on average MU, suggesting stronger association for males than females. In gender-specific models, baseline PRD predicted average MU between 2000 and 2012 for males, but not for females. Conclusion: Exposure to PRD during late adolescence may have a larger role on MU of male than female Black young adults. Although we found that males are more vulnerable to the effects of PRD on MU, PRD should be prevented regardless of race, gender, and other social identities. While PRD is pervasive among Black Americans, exposure to PRD increase the risk of MU for Black males. Hence, substance use prevention efforts for Black males, in particular, should emphasize coping with PRD.

Parental Educational Attainment Differentially Boosts School Performance of American Adolescents: Minorities' Diminished Returns

Objective: To explore racial and ethnic variation in the effects of parental educational attainment on students' grade point average (GPA) in the US. As suggested by the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDR) theory, socioeconomic status (SES) systemically results in smaller outcomes for non-Whites compared to Whites. We still know very little about diminished trans-generational returns of SES resources such as parental educational attainment. For example, the differential impacts of parental educational attainment on school performance of youth from various racial and ethnic backgrounds are still unknown. Materials and methods: The Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH 2013 - 2014) is a nationally representative survey in the US. The total sample was 10,701 youth (12-17 years old) were enrolled. The independent variable was parental educational attainment. The main outcome was GPA measured using self-report. Age, gender, and parental marital status were the covariates. Race and ethnicity were the effect modifiers. Linear regression models were used to analyze the data. Results: Overall, higher parental educational attainment was associated with a higher GPA, independent of all possible confounders. Race and ethnicity, however, both showed significant interaction with parental educational attainment on students' GPA, indicating smaller positive effects of parental educational attainment on students' GPA for Hispanic and Black compared to non-Hispanic White youth. Conclusion: The boosting effect of parental educational attainment on GPA is smaller for Black and Hispanic compared to White youth. To minimize diminished returns of parental educational attainment for Black and Hispanic families, there is a need for innovative public and social policies and programs that are not limited to equalizing SES but also address the structural barriers that disproportionately limit upward social mobility of racial and ethnic minority students and their families. The US society should reduce extra costs of upward social mobility for racial and ethnic minority families. As the underlying mechanisms are multifaceted, multi-level approach is needed to undo minorities' diminished returns, so every individual can gain the same tangible outcome from their SES resources.

Parental Education Attainment and Educational Upward Mobility; Role of Race and Gender

Background. The Minorities' Diminished Return theory suggests that education attainment and other socioeconomic resources have smaller effects on the health and well-being of African Americans and other racial and ethnic minorities compared to Whites. Racial and ethnic differences in the processes involved with educational upward mobility may contribute to the diminished returns of education attainment for African Americans compared to Whites. Aim: This study compared African Americans and non-Hispanic Whites for the effect of parental education attainment on educational upward mobility and explored gender differences in these effects. Methods. The National Survey of American Life (NSAL 2003) is a nationally representative survey of American adults. Participants included 891 non-Hispanic White and 3570 African American adults. Gender, race/ethnicity, age, highest parental education attainment, and respondents' educational attainment were measured. Data were analyzed using linear regression models. Results. Overall, higher parental education attainment was associated with higher educational upward mobility (b = 0.34, p < 0.001), however, this boosting effect was significantly smaller for African Americans compared to Whites (b = -0.13, p = 0.003). Our further analysis showed that race by parental education attainment can be found for females (b = -0.14, p = 0.013) but not males (p > 0.05). Conclusion. African American females are at a disadvantage compared to White females regarding the effect of parental education attainment on their educational upward mobility, a phenomenon which could not be observed when comparing African American and White males. These results advocate for taking intersectionality frameworks to study the effects of race, gender, and class in the US.