1
|
Antolinez AK, Edwards PF, Holmes MWR, Beaudette SM, Button DC. The Effects of Load, Crank Position, and Sex on the Biomechanics and Performance during an Upper Body Wingate Anaerobic Test. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2024; 56:1422-1436. [PMID: 38537272 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The upper body Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) is a 30-s maximal effort sprint against a set load (percentage of body mass). However, there is no consensus on the optimal load and no differential values for males and females, even when there are well-studied anatomical and physiological differences in muscle mass for the upper body. Our goal was to describe the effects of load, sex, and crank position on the kinetics, kinematics, and performance of the upper body WAnT. METHODS Eighteen participants (9 females) performed three WAnTs at 3%, 4%, and 5% of body mass. Arm crank forces, 2D kinematics, and performance variables were recorded during each WAnT. RESULTS Our results showed an increase of ~49% effective force, ~36% peak power, ~5° neck flexion, and ~30° shoulder flexion from 3% to 5% load ( P < 0.05). Mean power and anaerobic capacity decreased by 15%, with no changes in fatigue index ( P < 0.05). The positions of higher force efficiency were at 12 and 6 o'clock. The least force efficiency occurred at 3 o'clock ( P < 0.05). Sex differences showed that males produced 97% more effective force and 109% greater mean power than females, with 11.7% more force efficiency ( P < 0.001). Males had 16° more head/neck flexion than females, and females had greater elbow joint variability with 17° more wrist extension at higher loads. Males cycled ~32% faster at 3% versus 5% WAnT load with a 65% higher angular velocity than females. Grip strength, maximal voluntary isometric contraction, mass, and height positively correlated with peak and mean power ( P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, load, sex, and crank position have a significant impact on performance of the WAnT. These factors should be considered when developing and implementing an upper body WAnT.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Angie K Antolinez
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University, St. Johns, CANADA
| | - Philip F Edwards
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University, St. Johns, CANADA
| | - Michael W R Holmes
- Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. Johns, CANADA
| | - Shawn M Beaudette
- Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. Johns, CANADA
| | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Vigh-Larsen JF, Junge N, Cialdella-Kam L, Tomás R, Young L, Krustrup P, Mohr M, Nybo L. Testing in Intermittent Sports-Importance for Training and Performance Optimization in Adult Athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2024; 56:1505-1537. [PMID: 39004796 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Performance in intermittent sports relies on the interplay between multiple physiological systems determining the capacity to perform short explosive efforts as well as repeated intense actions with limited recovery over the course of an entire game. Testing should reflect these demands to allow for sport- and position-specific capacity analyses that eventually may translate into optimized training and improved performance. This may include individual load management and optimized training prescription, intensity targeting for specific positions or individual athletes, as well as benchmarking for monitoring of training progression and enhanced engagement of athletes. This review provides an overview of available tests in different exercise domains identified as relevant (from assessment of single explosive actions to intermittent endurance capacity), forming the basis for recommendations on how to compose a comprehensive yet feasible test battery that may be integrated into the seasonal competition and training plan. The test procedures should cover the performance spectrum of relevance for the individual athlete-also in team sports to account for positional differences. We emphasize the benefits of sport-specific tests, highlight parameters of importance for test standardization, and discuss how the applied test battery may be supplemented with secondary tests directed toward specific energy systems to allow for more in-depth analyses when required (e.g., in terms of an underperforming athlete). The synergy between testing and tracking of match performance (utilizing time-motion or global positioning systems) is highlighted, and although tracking cannot substitute for testing, combining the tools may provide a comprehensive overview of the physiological demands and performance during competition contextualized to the athletes' maximal exercise capacity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicklas Junge
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sport Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DENMARK
| | - Lynn Cialdella-Kam
- Warfighter Performance Department, Naval Health Research Center, San Diego, CA
| | - Rita Tomás
- Portugal Football School, Federação Portuguesa de Futebol Avenida das Seleções, Oeiras, PORTUGAL
| | - Laura Young
- American College of Sports Medicine, Indianapolis, IN
| | | | | | - Lars Nybo
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sport Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DENMARK
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Correia JM, Pezarat-Correia P, Minderico C, Infante J, Mendonca GV. Effects of Time-Restricted Eating on Aerobic Capacity, Body Composition, and Markers of Metabolic Health in Healthy Male Recreational Runners: A Randomized Crossover Trial. J Acad Nutr Diet 2024; 124:1041-1050. [PMID: 38242204 DOI: 10.1016/j.jand.2024.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/21/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Optimal nutrition is highly valuable for athletes aiming at maintaining or improving body composition and sports performance. When combined with structured exercise, time-restricted energy intake may represent an effective nonpharmacological approach to achieving these results. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of 4 weeks of time-restricted eating (TRE) vs 4 weeks of habitual diet on aerobic capacity, body composition, and metabolic health in 18- to 30-year-old men accustomed to endurance running. DESIGN This trial used a randomized-crossover study design. Participants completed graded exercise tests, body composition scans, and fasting blood samples before and after each intervention condition. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING Sixteen male physical education students were recruited and enrolled in the study from the Faculty of Human Kinetics-University of Lisbon in September 2020, in Lisbon, Portugal. One participant was excluded after 1 week because of a lack of adherence to the study protocol. Therefore, 15 participants completed the study and were involved in the final analysis. INTERVENTION During the TRE condition, participants consumed two to three meals within an 8-hour eating window (between 1:00 and 9:00 pm). Only water, tea, and coffee (without caloric additives) were permitted to be consumed in the remaining 16 hours per 24-hour period. During the non-TRE condition, participants consumed their habitual diet without any timing restrictions. The order of the TRE intervention and the habitual diet condition was randomized and counterbalanced, and participants served as their own controls. The participants followed a structured training routine during each dietary condition. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Body composition variables, indices of running aerobic capacity, and markers of metabolic health were assessed. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED One-way repeated-measures analysis of variance and covariance were performed to analyze differences between conditions and time with each intervention. RESULTS Neither condition elicited observed changes in total body mass, fat mass, or fat-free mass between time points. Moreover, no significant changes were observed for markers of metabolic health. Significant improvements were obtained with both conditions for the first ventilatory threshold, maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), and velocity at VO2max (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Four weeks of endurance running and TRE, compared with 4 weeks of endurance running and a habitual diet, in healthy trained 18- to 30-year-old male recreational runners did not result in observed differences in total body mass, fat mass, or fat-free mass. In addition, TRE did not offer any additional benefit for improving submaximal or peak exercise capacity in this population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joana M Correia
- Neuromuscular Research Lab, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, Dafundo, Portugal; CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, Dafundo, Portugal.
| | - Pedro Pezarat-Correia
- Neuromuscular Research Lab, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, Dafundo, Portugal; CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, Dafundo, Portugal
| | - Cláudia Minderico
- CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, Dafundo, Portugal
| | - Jorge Infante
- Spertlab, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, Dafundo, Portugal
| | - Goncalo V Mendonca
- Neuromuscular Research Lab, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, Dafundo, Portugal; CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, Dafundo, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Kubica C, Ketelhut S, Nigg CR. Polarized running training adapted to versus contrary to the menstrual cycle phases has similar effects on endurance performance and cardiovascular parameters. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024:10.1007/s00421-024-05545-9. [PMID: 38977510 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05545-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study compared the effects of polarized running training adapted to the menstrual cycle (MC) phases versus polarized training adapted contrary to the MC on endurance performance and cardiovascular parameters. METHODS Thirty-three naturally menstruating, moderately trained females (age: 26 ± 4 years; BMI: 22.3 ± 3.2 kg/m2; V ˙ O2max/rel: 40.35 ± 4.61 ml/min/kg) were randomly assigned to a control (CON) and intervention (INT) group. Both groups participated in a load-matched eight-week running training intervention. In the INT, high-intensity sessions were aligned with the mid and late follicular phase, low-intensity sessions with the early and mid-luteal phase, and recovery with the late luteal and early follicular phase. In the CON, high-intensity sessions were matched to the late luteal and early follicular phase, and recovery to the mid and late follicular phase. Endurance performance and cardiovascular parameters were assessed at baseline and after the intervention. RESULTS Twenty-six females completed the intervention. A repeated measures ANOVA determined no time × group interaction effect for any parameter. A significant time effect was found for maximal oxygen uptake (F(1,12) = 18.753, p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.630), the velocity at the ventilatory threshold one (F(1,12) = 10.704, p = 0.007, ηp2 = 0.493) and two (F(1,12) = 7.746, p = .018, ηp2 = .413). CONCLUSION The training intervention improved endurance performance in both groups, with no further benefit observed from the MC-adapted polarized training in a group-based analysis. Replications with an extended intervention period, a larger sample size, and a more reliable MC determination are warranted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Kubica
- Health Science Department, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Sascha Ketelhut
- Health Science Department, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
de Jager E, Willemsen M, Kempe M, Janssen I. Breaking barriers: Exploring female-specific health challenges affecting performance in an elite multisport training environment. J Sci Med Sport 2024; 27:466-471. [PMID: 38734513 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2024.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Female-specific issues, such as breast injuries, pelvic floor dysfunctions, saddle sores, and menstrual symptoms, can significantly impact female athletes. This study examined the prevalence, perceived impact on performance, and role of the support staff in addressing and managing these issues in elite athletes based at a multisport training centre. DESIGN Anonymous online questionnaire. METHODS A total of 180 female athletes from various sport disciplines at the Dutch Olympic Training Centre were invited to participate in the study. An anonymous, 39-item questionnaire was developed and hosted on Qualtrics collecting data on respondents' characteristics, breast injuries, pelvic floor dysfunctions, saddle sores, menstrual symptoms, contraceptive use, and communication about these issues. RESULTS A total of 105 valid responses were analysed. The findings revealed that athletes regularly experience breast injuries (15.2 %), urinary incontinence (29.5 %), other pelvic floor problems (21.0 %), saddle sores (65.7 %), and menstrual cycle-related symptoms, with negative performance effects. Communication with support staff remained limited, with only 23.8 % of athletes discussing any of these issues, often due to concerns about understanding, shame, or a lack of opportunity for easy communication. CONCLUSIONS The findings underscore the crucial role of creating a supportive environment, promoting early intervention, and utilising multisport centres to comprehensively address these concerns, emphasising the need for open communication, education, and support to enhance female athletes' performance and well-being.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eline de Jager
- Sport Science and Innovation, National Sports Centre Papendal, the Netherlands; Medical Faculty, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Maaike Willemsen
- Sport Science and Innovation, National Sports Centre Papendal, the Netherlands
| | - Matthias Kempe
- Medical Faculty, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Ina Janssen
- Sport Science and Innovation, National Sports Centre Papendal, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Cabre HE, Ladan AN, Moore SR, Joniak KE, Blue MNM, Pietrosimone BG, Hackney AC, Smith-Ryan AE. Effects of Hormonal Contraception and the Menstrual Cycle on Fatigability and Recovery From an Anaerobic Exercise Test. J Strength Cond Res 2024; 38:1256-1265. [PMID: 38598545 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Cabre, HE, Ladan, AN, Moore, SR, Joniak, KE, Blue, MNM, Pietrosimone, BG, Hackney, AC, and Smith-Ryan, AE. Effects of hormonal contraception and the menstrual cycle on fatigability and recovery from an anaerobic exercise test. J Strength Cond Res 38(7): 1256-1265, 2024-This study sought to evaluate the effects of oral contraceptive (OC) and hormonal intrauterine device (H-IUD) use, compared with a eumenorrheic (EUM) cycle, on fatigability and recovery between hormone the phases. Peak power (PP), average power (AP), fatigue index (FI), blood lactate, vessel diameter, and blood flow (BF) were measured from a repeated sprint cycle test (10 × 6 seconds) in 60, healthy, active women (mean ± SD ; age: 26.5 ± 7.0 years, BMI: 22.5 ± 3.7 kg·m -2 ) who used monophasic OC (≥6 months; n = 21), had a H-IUD (≥6 months; n = 20), or had regular naturally occurring menstrual cycle (≥3 months) or had a nonhormonal IUD (EUM; n = 19). Subjects were randomly assigned to begin in either the low-hormone phase (LHP) or high-hormone phase (HHP) and were tested once in each phase. Separate univariate analyses of covariances assessed the change from HHP to LHP between the groups, covaried for progesterone, with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. All groups demonstrated similar changes in PP, AP, FI, blood lactate, vessel diameter, and BF between the phases ( p > 0.05). Although not significant, AP was higher in LHP for OC (Δ -248.2 ± 1,301.4 W) and EUM (Δ -19.5 ± 977.7 W) and higher in HHP for H-IUD (Δ 369.3 ± 1,123.0 W). Oral contraceptive group exhibited a higher FI (Δ 2.0%) and reduced blood lactate clearance (Δ 2.5%) in HHP. In recreationally active women, hormonal contraception and hormone phases may minimally impact fatigue and recovery. Individual elite female athletes may benefit from understanding hormonal contraception type as performance and recovery may slightly vary across the cycle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hannah E Cabre
- Reproductive Endocrinology and Women's Health Laboratory, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
- Human Movement Science Curriculum, Department of Allied Health Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and
| | - Alex N Ladan
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Sam R Moore
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
- Human Movement Science Curriculum, Department of Allied Health Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and
| | - Kelly E Joniak
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Malia N M Blue
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
- Human Movement Science Curriculum, Department of Allied Health Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and
| | - Brian G Pietrosimone
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
- Human Movement Science Curriculum, Department of Allied Health Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and
| | - Anthony C Hackney
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
- Department of Nutrition, Gillings School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Abbie E Smith-Ryan
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
- Human Movement Science Curriculum, Department of Allied Health Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and
- Department of Nutrition, Gillings School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Srinivasa Gopalan S, Mann C, Rhodes RE. Impact of symptoms, experiences, and perceptions of the menstrual cycle on recreational physical activity of cyclically menstruating individuals: A systematic review. Prev Med 2024; 184:107980. [PMID: 38704099 DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2024.107980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 04/13/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The menstrual cycle often presents barriers to participation in daily life activities, including physical activity (PA), which is a cornerstone of health and well-being. The purpose of this systematic review was to explore and summarize the impact of symptoms, experiences, and perceptions of the menstrual cycle on recreational PA (RPA), including sports, exercise and active recreation, in the general population. METHODS Six databases were searched for studies that investigated the impact of the menstrual cycle on PA among individuals who were cyclically menstruating, healthy, and not involved in professional sports training. RESULTS The search yielded 3025 studies that were screened for relevance and eligibility, resulting in 25 eligible studies, which were found to be of moderate-to-high quality following a quality and risk-of-bias assessment. Thematic synthesis of qualitative and quantitative data from the selected studies, constituting 16,557 adults and 3715 adolescents, identified the impact of menstrual symptoms on the physical and psychological capability to participate in RPA, social opportunity barriers to RPA (e.g., social pressure due to the sociocultural taboo against menstruation), as well reflective (knowledge) and automatic (habit) motivation on RPA behaviours. CONCLUSION The variability in menstrual symptoms and corresponding experiences suggested the need for an individualized approach to RPA promotion. Furthermore, this review highlighted the need to address the sociocultural taboo against menstruation, as well as improve the provision of knowledge and resources related to the menstrual cycle and RPA, in order to promote and facilitate RPA for cyclically menstruating individuals throughout the menstrual cycle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sharan Srinivasa Gopalan
- School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada.
| | - Caitlin Mann
- School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Ryan E Rhodes
- School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Santabarbara KL, Helms ER, Stewart TI, Armour MJ, Harris NK. Menstrual cycle patterns and their relationship with measures of well-being and perceived performance metrics in competitive and recreational resistance-trained athletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2024; 64:694-706. [PMID: 38916093 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.24.15752-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/26/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is mixed evidence on how the menstrual cycle (MC) affects sports performance, with many studies showing variations in performance during different phases of the MC, while other evidence shows that the MC's effects on performance may be trivial. Therefore, this exploratory longitudinal monitoring study was designed to investigate MC characteristics and symptoms in a resistance-trained (RT) population to look for associations between measures of well-being and perceived performance metrics across the MC. METHODS RT females reported their workout habits, perceived performance metrics, and measures of well-being while tracking their MC with detailed methods via daily check-ins in an app. RESULTS Most MC characteristics and symptoms in the present RT population aligned with previous research on the general population. However, the frequency of irregular cycles was higher than in previous research on the general population. The amount of individual variation and within-subject cycle-to-cycle variation in MC characteristics and MC symptoms was also high. All measures of well-being were significantly associated with specific days of the MC, demonstrating a change in well-being based on the timing of the MC. Several perceived performance metrics were significantly associated with changes across the MC, while others were not. CONCLUSIONS Overall, with the current evidence as it stands, a highly individualized approach should be taken for any training or performance considerations surrounding the MC due to the high levels of individual variation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly L Santabarbara
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand -
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA, USA -
| | - Eric R Helms
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Florida Atlantic University, Laboratory of Muscle Physiology, Boca Raton, FL, USA
| | - Tom I Stewart
- Human Potential Center, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Mike J Armour
- NICM Health Research Institute, Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia
- Medical Research Institute of New Zealand (MRINZ), Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Nigel K Harris
- Human Potential Center, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Cabre HE, Gould LM, Redman LM, Smith-Ryan AE. Effects of the Menstrual Cycle and Hormonal Contraceptive Use on Metabolic Outcomes, Strength Performance, and Recovery: A Narrative Review. Metabolites 2024; 14:347. [PMID: 39057670 PMCID: PMC11278889 DOI: 10.3390/metabo14070347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2024] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The effects of female sex hormones on optimal performance have been increasingly recognized as an important consideration in exercise and sport science research. This narrative review explores the findings of studies evaluating the effects of menstrual cycle phase in eumenorrheic women and the use of hormonal contraception (oral contraceptives and hormonal intrauterine devices) on metabolism, muscular strength, and recovery in active females. Ovarian hormones are known to influence metabolism because estrogen is a master regulator of bioenergetics. Importantly, the menstrual cycle may impact protein synthesis, impacting skeletal muscle quality and strength. Studies investigating muscular strength in eumenorrheic women report equivocal findings between the follicular phase and luteal phase with no differences compared to oral contraceptive users. Studies examining recovery measures (using biomarkers, blood lactate, and blood flow) do not report clear or consistent effects of the impact of the menstrual cycle or hormonal contraception use on recovery. Overall, the current literature may be limited by the evaluation of only one menstrual cycle and the use of group means for statistical significance. Hence, to optimize training and performance in females, regardless of hormonal contraception use, there is a need for future research to quantify the intra-individual impact of the menstrual cycle phases and hormonal contraceptive use in active females.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hannah E. Cabre
- Reproductive Endocrinology and Women’s Health Laboratory, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA;
| | | | - Leanne M. Redman
- Reproductive Endocrinology and Women’s Health Laboratory, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70808, USA;
| | - Abbie E. Smith-Ryan
- Human Movement Sciences Curriculum, Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA;
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Shahid W, Noor R, Bashir MS. Effects of exercise on sex steroid hormones (estrogen, progesterone, testosterone) in eumenorrheic females: A systematic to review and meta-analysis. BMC Womens Health 2024; 24:354. [PMID: 38890710 PMCID: PMC11186217 DOI: 10.1186/s12905-024-03203-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The sex steroid hormones fluctuate during the menstrual cycle, which affects the strength and postural stability of females and leads to injuries and risk of falls. These hormones may be modulated by exercise to impact the overall health of females. OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of exercise on sex steroid hormones in eumenorrheic females. METHODS This review was performed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses(PRISMA) guidelines in Lahore, Pakistan. The full-length articles were searched using these databases/search engines (PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar, Sci-Hub). Randomized controlled trials along with single group experimental studies were also included. All types of exercises were compared with no exercise in the control group. The Cochrane Risk of Bias assessment tool assessed and screened the articles. The data were then analyzed. The primary outcomes were the levels of estrogen, progesterone and testosterone. RESULTS Eleven studies were included (5 randomized controlled trials and 6 quasi-experimental studies). The effects of exercise on free estradiol concentration and serum progesterone level were not significant [p = 0.37 (SMD = 0.33, 95% CI = 0.14 to 0.74, I2 = 0%) and p = 0.84 (S.D= -0.65, C.I= -6.92 to 5.62, I2 = 94%)] respectively, whereas, the effects on testosterone levels were significant [p value < 0.00001 (M.D = 0.89, 95% C.I= -2.16 to 3.95, I2 = 94%)]. CONCLUSION A blinded randomized controlled trial should be conducted in which a structured approach should be followed by women along with warm-ups, cool down and rest intervals. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER The systematic review was registered prospectively on PROSPERO with registration number CRD42023473767.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wajiha Shahid
- Riphah College of Rehabilitation Sciences, Riphah International University, Lahore Campus, Lahore, 54600, Pakistan.
| | - Rabiya Noor
- Riphah College of Rehabilitation Sciences, Riphah International University, Lahore Campus, Lahore, 54600, Pakistan
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
De Larochelambert Q, Hamri I, Chassard T, Meignié A, Storme F, Dupuit M, Diry A, Toussaint JF, Louis PY, Coulmy N, Antero JDS. Exploring the effect of the menstrual cycle or oral contraception on elite athletes' training responses when workload is not objectively quantifiable: the MILS approach and findings from female Olympians. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2024; 10:e001810. [PMID: 38882205 PMCID: PMC11177701 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2023-001810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Objectives Develop the Markov Index Load State (MILS) model, based on hidden Markov chains, to assess athletes' workload responses and investigate the effects of menstrual cycle (MC)/oral contraception (OC), sex steroids hormones and wellness on elite athletes' training. Methods On a 7-month longitudinal follow-up, daily training (volume and perceived effort, n=2200) and wellness (reported sleep quality and quantity, fitness, mood, menstrual symptoms, n=2509) data were collected from 24 female rowers and skiers preparing for the Olympics. 51 MC and 54 OC full cycles relying on 214 salivary hormone samples were analysed. MC/OC cycles were normalised, converted in % from 0% (first bleeding/pill withdrawal day) to 100% (end). Results MILS identified three chronic workload response states: 'easy', 'moderate' and 'hard'. A cyclic training response linked to MC or OC (95% CI) was observed, primarily related to progesterone level (p=8.23e-03 and 5.72e-03 for the easy and hard state, respectively). MC athletes predominantly exhibited the 'easy' state during the cycle's first half (8%-53%), transitioning to the 'hard' state post-estimated ovulation (63%-96%). OC users had an increased 'hard' state (4%-32%) during pill withdrawal, transitioning to 'easy' (50%-60%) when on the pill. Wellness metrics influenced the training load response: better sleep quality (p=5.20e-04), mood (p=8.94e-06) and fitness (p=6.29e-03) increased the likelihood of the 'easy' state. Menstrual symptoms increased the 'hard' state probability (p=5.92e-02). Conclusion The MILS model, leveraging hidden Markov chains, effectively analyses cumulative training load responses. The model identified cyclic training responses linked to MC/OC in elite female athletes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Quentin De Larochelambert
- Institut de Recherche bioMédicale et d'Epidemiologie du Sport (IRMES), Institut National du Sport de l'Expertise et de la Performance (INSEP), Paris, France
- French Rowing Federation, Nogent-sur-Marne, France
- Scientific Department, Fédération Française de Ski, Annecy, France
- Institut de Mathématiques de Bourgogne, UMR 5584, CNRS & Université de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France, Dijon, France
| | - Imad Hamri
- Institut de Recherche bioMédicale et d'Epidemiologie du Sport (IRMES), Institut National du Sport de l'Expertise et de la Performance (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Tom Chassard
- Institut de Recherche bioMédicale et d'Epidemiologie du Sport (IRMES), Institut National du Sport de l'Expertise et de la Performance (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Alice Meignié
- Institut de Recherche bioMédicale et d'Epidemiologie du Sport (IRMES), Institut National du Sport de l'Expertise et de la Performance (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Florent Storme
- Institut de Recherche bioMédicale et d'Epidemiologie du Sport (IRMES), Institut National du Sport de l'Expertise et de la Performance (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Marine Dupuit
- Institut de Recherche bioMédicale et d'Epidemiologie du Sport (IRMES), Institut National du Sport de l'Expertise et de la Performance (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Allison Diry
- French Rowing Federation, Nogent-sur-Marne, France
| | - Jean-François Toussaint
- Institut de Recherche bioMédicale et d'Epidemiologie du Sport (IRMES), Institut National du Sport de l'Expertise et de la Performance (INSEP), Paris, France
- CIMS, Hôtel-Dieu, AP-HP, Paris, France
| | - Pierre Yves Louis
- Institut de Mathématiques de Bourgogne, UMR 5584, CNRS & Université de Bourgogne, F-21000 Dijon, France, Dijon, France
- Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Institut Agro, Université de Bourgogne, INRAE, UMR PAM 1517, 21000 Dijon, France
| | - Nicolas Coulmy
- Scientific Department, Fédération Française de Ski, Annecy, France
| | - Juliana da Silva Antero
- Institut de Recherche bioMédicale et d'Epidemiologie du Sport (IRMES), Institut National du Sport de l'Expertise et de la Performance (INSEP), Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Oester C, Norris D, Scott D, Pedlar C, Bruinvels G, Lovell R. Inconsistencies in the perceived impact of the menstrual cycle on sport performance and in the prevalence of menstrual cycle symptoms: A scoping review of the literature. J Sci Med Sport 2024; 27:373-384. [PMID: 38508888 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2024.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This scoping review aimed to summarize the findings of studies regarding the perceived impact of the menstrual cycle on athletic performance, as well as the prevalence of negative menstrual cycle symptoms. DESIGN Scoping review. METHODS Three databases were searched and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) was used as guidance. RESULTS A total of 39 studies were included in the final analysis. Between 2.8 and 100 % of athletes reported their performance being negatively impacted by their menstrual cycle, and the main reason was the occurrence of menstrual cycle symptoms. Additionally, a large variability in the prevalence of menstrual cycle symptoms was reported in the different studies mainly due to methodological differences and recall biases. CONCLUSIONS Similarly, as to what has been reported in reviews summarizing performance outcomes during different menstrual cycle phases, this review highlights the high degree of variability between how athletes perceive to be impacted by their menstrual/hormonal contraceptive cycle. REGISTRATION The protocol of this scoping review was registered at the Open Science Framework on 14 September 2023 (osf.io/efu9x).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea Oester
- Western Sydney University, School of Health Sciences, Australia.
| | - Dean Norris
- Western Sydney University, School of Health Sciences, Australia. https://twitter.com/DNorrisSC
| | - Dawn Scott
- Washington Spirit, USA. https://twitter.com/DawnScott06
| | - Charles Pedlar
- St Mary's University, Faculty of Sport, Health and Applied Science, United Kingdom; National University of Ireland, Orreco Business Innovation Unit, Ireland; University College of London, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, United Kingdom. https://twitter.com/PedlarCR
| | - Georgie Bruinvels
- St Mary's University, Faculty of Sport, Health and Applied Science, United Kingdom; National University of Ireland, Orreco Business Innovation Unit, Ireland; University College of London, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, United Kingdom. https://twitter.com/GBruinvels
| | - Ric Lovell
- Western Sydney University, School of Health Sciences, Australia; University of Wollongong, Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, Australia. https://twitter.com/Ric_Lovell
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Mckee JR, Girard O, Peiffer JJ, Dempsey AR, Smedley K, Scott BR. Continuous blood flow restriction during repeated-sprint exercise increases peripheral but not systemic physiological and perceptual demands. Eur J Sport Sci 2024; 24:703-712. [PMID: 38874946 PMCID: PMC11235999 DOI: 10.1002/ejsc.12106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
This study examined the impact of continuous blood flow restriction (BFR) during repeated-sprint exercise (RSE) on acute performance, peripheral, systemic physiological, and perceptual responses. In a randomized crossover design, 26 adult male semi-professional and amateur team-sport players completed two RSE sessions (3 sets of 5 × 5-s sprints with 25 s of passive recovery and 3 min of rest) with continuous BFR (45% arterial occlusion; excluding during between-set rest periods) or without (non-BFR). Mean and peak power output were significantly lower (p < 0.001) during BFR compared to non-BFR (dz = 0.85 and 0.77, respectively). Minimum tissue saturation index during the sprints and rest periods was significantly reduced (p < 0.001) for BFR (dz = 1.26 and 1.21, respectively). Electromyography root mean square was significantly decreased (p < 0.01) for biceps femoris and lateral gastrocnemius muscles during BFR (dz = 0.35 and 0.79, respectively), but remained unchanged for the vastus lateralis muscle in both conditions. Oxygen consumption and minute ventilation were significantly reduced (both p < 0.01) for BFR (dz = 1.46 and 0.43, respectively). Perceived limb discomfort was significantly higher (p < 0.001) for BFR (dz = 0.78). No differences (p > 0.05) in blood lactate concentration or rating of perceived exertion were observed between conditions. Blood flow-restricted RSE reduced performance and likely increased the physiological and perceptual stimulus for the periphery with greater reliance on anaerobic glycolysis, despite comparable or decreased systemic demands.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James R. Mckee
- Physical Activity, Sport and Exercise (PHASE) Research GroupSchool of Allied Health (Exercise Science)Murdoch UniversityPerthWestern AustraliaAustralia
- Centre for Healthy AgeingMurdoch UniversityPerthWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Olivier Girard
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science)The University of Western AustraliaPerthWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Jeremiah J. Peiffer
- Physical Activity, Sport and Exercise (PHASE) Research GroupSchool of Allied Health (Exercise Science)Murdoch UniversityPerthWestern AustraliaAustralia
- Centre for Healthy AgeingMurdoch UniversityPerthWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Alasdair R. Dempsey
- Physical Activity, Sport and Exercise (PHASE) Research GroupSchool of Allied Health (Exercise Science)Murdoch UniversityPerthWestern AustraliaAustralia
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Innovative TherapeuticsMurdoch UniversityPerthWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Kirsten Smedley
- Physical Activity, Sport and Exercise (PHASE) Research GroupSchool of Allied Health (Exercise Science)Murdoch UniversityPerthWestern AustraliaAustralia
- School of Medical, Molecular and Forensic SciencesMurdoch UniversityPerthWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Brendan R. Scott
- Physical Activity, Sport and Exercise (PHASE) Research GroupSchool of Allied Health (Exercise Science)Murdoch UniversityPerthWestern AustraliaAustralia
- Centre for Healthy AgeingMurdoch UniversityPerthWestern AustraliaAustralia
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Kullik L, Stork M, Kiel A, Kellmann M, Jakowski S. The prevalence of menstrual cycle symptoms and their association with mental health and sleep in German exercising women and athletes. J Sci Med Sport 2024; 27:362-367. [PMID: 38503666 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2024.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Menstrual cycle symptoms are very common in female athletes. However, more evidence about the association between menstrual cycle characteristics and symptoms with sleep and mental health in athletes needs to be gathered. This study aimed to examine this association in German exercising women and athletes. DESIGN 322 women (mean age: 23.13 ± 4.36) participated in a cross-sectional study. The survey included the Menstrual Symptom index (MSi), the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21), the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and the Athletes Sleep Behavior Questionnaire (ASBQ). Additionally, demographic, sport-specific data and further menstrual cycle characteristics were examined. Multiple regression models were used for the statistical analyses. RESULTS The MSi score demonstrated a highly significant (p < 0.001) positive association with Depression, Anxiety, Stress, PSQI, and ASBQ. The most prevalent menstrual cycle symptoms were cravings/increased appetite, mood changes/anxiety, and tiredness/fatigue. A difference between individual and team sport athletes could not be found. Moreover, there was no association between the constructs and menses length, irregularity, or heaviness of bleeding. CONCLUSIONS Menstrual cycle symptoms occur very frequently in female athletes. In this study, they were related to mental health, sleep quality, and sleep behavior, regardless of the cycle phase. This evidence demonstrates the relevance of considering the menstrual cycle and menstrual symptoms in future studies with female athletes and in sport practice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Kullik
- Department of Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Science, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany. https://twitter.com/kullik95
| | - Moritz Stork
- Department of Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Science, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
| | - Asja Kiel
- Department of Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Science, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
| | - Michael Kellmann
- Department of Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Science, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany; School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Australia
| | - Sarah Jakowski
- Department of Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Science, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Jribi W, Bougrine H, Aloui A, Khalfoun J, Souissi N, Mkacher W, El Abed K, Ben Abderrahman A. Morning-evening differences of short-term maximal performance and psychological variables in female athletes. Front Physiol 2024; 15:1402147. [PMID: 38872835 PMCID: PMC11170028 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1402147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the effect of time of day on short-term maximal performance and psychological variables in young females. Fifteen active women participated in the study (age: 22 ± 3 years) and completed Hooper and the POMS-F questionnaires subsequently. In a randomized order, they performed a maximum of 30 s cycling exercise at two different times of day: in the morning at 07:00 h and in the afternoon at 16:00 h with a recovery period of 48 h. The digit cancellation test, countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ) test, and the lower quarter Y balance test were performed at the beginning and at the end of each session. Our results showed that only peak power and mean power (p < 0.01) during the maximum 30 s cycling, reaching distances during the Y-balance (p < 0.05), Jump height in CMJ and SJ (p < 0.01) as well as attention, vigor, and stress scores (all p < 0.01) were higher in the afternoon than in the morning. Our results indicated a daily diurnal variation in short-term maximal performance and mood states in young athletic women with better performance observed during the afternoon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wafa Jribi
- High Institute of Sport and Physical Education Sfax, Sfax University, Sfax, Tunisia
- Education, High Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Houda Bougrine
- High Institute of Sport and Physical Education Gafsa, Gafsa University, Sfax, Tunisia
- Physical Activity Research Unit, Sport, and Health (UR18JS01), National Observatory of Sports, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Ali Aloui
- High Institute of Sport and Physical Education, Manouba University, Manouba, Tunisia
- Tunisian Research Laboratory “Sports Performance Optimization”, National Center of Medicine and Science in Sports (CNMSS), Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Jihen Khalfoun
- High Institute of Sport and Physical Education, Manouba University, Manouba, Tunisia
| | - Nafaa Souissi
- High Institute of Sport and Physical Education Sfax, Sfax University, Sfax, Tunisia
- Education, High Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Wajdi Mkacher
- High Institute of Sport and Physical Education Sfax, Sfax University, Sfax, Tunisia
- Department of Physiology and Lung Function Testing, Faculty of Medicine Ibn-El-Jazzar, University of Sousse, Sousse, Tunisia
| | - Kais El Abed
- High Institute of Sport and Physical Education Sfax, Sfax University, Sfax, Tunisia
- Education, High Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Abderraouf Ben Abderrahman
- High Institute of Sport and Physical Education, Manouba University, Manouba, Tunisia
- Tunisian Research Laboratory “Sports Performance Optimization”, National Center of Medicine and Science in Sports (CNMSS), Tunis, Tunisia
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Ronca F, Blodgett JM, Bruinvels G, Lowery M, Raviraj M, Sandhar G, Symeonides N, Jones C, Loosemore M, Burgess PW. Attentional, anticipatory and spatial cognition fluctuate throughout the menstrual cycle: Potential implications for female sport. Neuropsychologia 2024:108909. [PMID: 38762068 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
Current research suggests that menstruating female athletes might be at greater risk of musculoskeletal injury in relation to hormonal changes throughout the menstrual cycle. A separate body of work suggests that spatial cognition might also fluctuate in a similar manner. Changes in spatial cognition could, in theory, be a contributing risk factor for injury, especially in fast-paced sports that require precise, millisecond accuracy in interactions with moving objects in the environment. However, existing theories surrounding causes for increased injury risk in menstruating females largely focus on biomechanical mechanisms, with little consideration of possible cognitive determinants of injury risk. Therefore, the aim of this proof-of-principle study was to explore whether menstruating females exhibit fluctuations in cognitive processes throughout their cycle on a novel sport-oriented cognitive test battery, designed to measure some of the mental processes putatively involved in these sporting situations. A total of 394 participants completed an online cognitive battery, a mood scale and a symptom questionnaire twice, 14 days apart. After exclusions, 248 eligible participants were included in the analyses (mean: 28 ± 6 years) (male = 96, female(menstruating) = 105, female(contraception) = 47). Cycle phase for menstruating females was based on self-reported information. The cognitive battery was designed to measure reaction times, attention, visuospatial functions (including 3D mental rotation) and timing anticipation. Three composite scores were generated using factor analysis with varimax rotation (Errors, Reaction Time, Intra-Individual Variability). Mixed model ANOVAs and repeated measures ANOVAs were performed to test for between and within-subject effects. There was no group difference in reaction times and accuracy between males and females (using contraception and not). However, within subject analyses revealed that regularly menstruating females performed better during menstruation compared to being in any other phase, with faster reaction times (10ms c.ca, p < 0.01), fewer errors (p < 0.05) and lower dispersion intra-individual variability (p < 0.05). In contrast they exhibited slower reaction times (10ms c.ca, p < 0.01) and poorer timing anticipation (p < 0.01) in the luteal phase, and more errors in the predicted ovulatory phase (p < 0.01). Self-reported mood, cognitive and physical symptoms were all worst during menstruation (p < 0.01), and a significant proportion of females felt that their symptoms were negatively affecting their cognitive performance during menstruation on testing day, which was incongruent with their actual performance. These findings suggest that visuospatial and anticipatory processes may fluctuate throughout the menstrual cycle in the general population, with better performance during the menstrual phase and poorer performance during the luteal phase. If these extend to associations between phase-specific cognitive performance and injury incidence, they would support a cognitive theory of determinants of injury risk in cycling female athletes, opening an opportunity to develop mitigation strategies where appropriate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Ronca
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, University College London, London, UK.
| | - J M Blodgett
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, University College London, London, UK; NIHR University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
| | - G Bruinvels
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - M Lowery
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, University College London, London, UK; Sport and Wellbeing Analytics Limited, Swansea, UK
| | - M Raviraj
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - G Sandhar
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - N Symeonides
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - C Jones
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, University College London, London, UK; Sport and Wellbeing Analytics Limited, Swansea, UK
| | - M Loosemore
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - P W Burgess
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Beníčková M, Gimunová M, Paludo AC. Effect of circadian rhythm and menstrual cycle on physical performance in women: a systematic review. Front Physiol 2024; 15:1347036. [PMID: 38720785 PMCID: PMC11076705 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1347036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The literature has extensively investigated potential factors influencing women's performance, including the menstrual cycle and the circadian rhythm. However, review articles exploring the combined influence of both factors remain lacking in the literature. The study aimed to systematically review the literature on the relationship between the circadian rhythm and menstrual cycle on physical performance in women. The review followed the PRISMA guidelines. The search was performed on the Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Google Scholar databases. Of the 1205 records identified, four articles met the inclusion criteria. From four articles, two studies found a significant interaction between the time of day and phase of the menstrual cycle with physical performance. The isometric strength increased in the afternoon in the mid-luteal phase (versus the morning in the mid-luteal phase, p < 0.05), and the maximum cycling power was higher in the afternoon in the mid-follicular phase (versus the morning in the mid-follicular phase, p < 0.01). Our findings suggest that the time of day and the menstrual cycle phase affect physical performance, with the daytime potentially having a more significant influence. However, the results should be interpreted cautiously due to the limited studies and diverse methodologies used to monitor the menstrual cycle phase. This review reinforces the need for further investigation to understand better the combined effects of the circadian rhythm and menstrual cycle on women's physical performance. Systematic Review Registration https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=380965, identifier CRD42022380965.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Beníčková
- Department of Physical Activities and Health Sciences, Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Marta Gimunová
- Department of Physical Activities and Health Sciences, Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Ana Carolina Paludo
- Department of Sport Performance and Exercise Testing, Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Lee SJL, Peiffer JJ, Haakonssen E, Van Rens FECA. Can period-related symptoms predict menstrual manipulation among Australian female cyclists? J Sports Sci 2024:1-10. [PMID: 38590213 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2024.2334485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
This study explored the extent of menstrual manipulation and its associated impact on period-related symptoms and training disruptions in Australian Female Cyclists. 205 female cyclists, from recreational to elite level, participated in an online "Female Cyclist Questionnaire (FCQ)". The FCQ utilised a series of validated questionnaires to obtain demographic information and menstrual function of the respondents, and to investigate their menstrual manipulation habits and perceptions on how their period-related symptoms affected their well-being, mood, energy and training tolerance. More than 80% of the cyclists reported that their period-related symptoms impacted upon training and 41% made training adjustments based on these symptoms. Two-thirds of respondents thought their training should be phase-controlled yet only half discussed their hormonal cycles with their coaches. Menstrual manipulation was predicted by reduced "workout tolerance" in these cyclists (odds ratio = 0.632). Half of the respondents reported compromised ability to tolerate high-intensity interval training with period-related symptoms. Period pain, increased irritability, lower energy levels and more sugar cravings were commonly reported but did not predict menstrual manipulation. The data indicated that period-related symptoms are present in Australian female cyclists across all levels of participation. However, the perceived impact to training and subsequent behavioural changes varied among individuals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Serene J L Lee
- Centre for Healthy Ageing, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
- Murdoch Applied Sports Science Laboratory, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
| | - Jeremiah J Peiffer
- Centre for Healthy Ageing, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
- Murdoch Applied Sports Science Laboratory, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
| | - Eric Haakonssen
- Australian Cycling Team, Cycling Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Fleur E C A Van Rens
- Centre for Healthy Ageing, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
- Discipline of Exercise Science, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Hamed-Hamed D, González-Muñoz A, Cuevas-Cervera M, Perez-Montilla JJ, Aguilar-Nuñez D, Aguilar-García M, Pruimboom L, Navarro-Ledesma S. Effects of the menstrual cycle on the performance of female football players. A systematic review. Front Physiol 2024; 15:1359953. [PMID: 38651042 PMCID: PMC11033481 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1359953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Women's football has been booming for a few years now, which has led to an increase in the expectation of the players' performance, leading to a more detailed study of women's physiology in the field of sports. Objectives To analyze the scientific evidence on the influence of menstruation on the performance of female footballers, as well as to analyze the methodological quality of the studies included in this review. Materials and methods The possible hormonal effects of the menstrual cycle phases on the performance of female footballers were analyzed. The databases used to conduct the searches were Pubmed, Scopus, Virtual Health Library, Web of Science, EBSCO and the Cochrane Library. All included studies met the inclusion criteria. The Cochrane risk of bias tool was used. This systematic review protocol was registered at the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO: CRD42023390652). Results A total of nine clinical trials were included in this review. A low quality of evidence was observed in the studies. Not all the results support the idea that the menstrual cycle phases can alter the performance of female footballers. Conclusion This systematic review shows that there is a great deal of controversy about the influence of the menstrual cycle phases on the performance of female footballers. Studies are focused on solely biological factors and gender is normally no part of those studies. Further research with larger samples, and taking not only biological but also sociological factors, are necessary to determine the effects of menstruation on the performance of female footballers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dina Hamed-Hamed
- Clinical Medicine and Public Health PhD Program, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Ana González-Muñoz
- Clinical Medicine and Public Health PhD Program, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- Clinica Ana Gonzalez, Malaga, Spain
| | | | - Jose Javier Perez-Montilla
- Clinical Medicine and Public Health PhD Program, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Daniel Aguilar-Nuñez
- Department of Nursing and Podiatry, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
| | - María Aguilar-García
- Biomedicine PhD Program, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Leo Pruimboom
- University Chair in Clinical Psychoneuroimmunology, University of Granada and PNI Europe, Melilla, Spain
| | - Santiago Navarro-Ledesma
- University Chair in Clinical Psychoneuroimmunology, University of Granada and PNI Europe, Melilla, Spain
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, Melilla, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Braman M, Root C, Harmon I, Long R, Vopat L, Vopat B, Herda A. Auditing the Representation of Female Athletes in Sports Medicine Research: Achilles Repair. FOOT & ANKLE ORTHOPAEDICS 2024; 9:24730114241255360. [PMID: 38827564 PMCID: PMC11143824 DOI: 10.1177/24730114241255360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Establishing evidence-based recommendations specific to female athletes has been overlooked in sports medicine. Achilles tendon rupture is one of the most common musculoskeletal injuries, occurring in 15 to 55 per 100 000 people annually. Differences in injury rates could be due to hormonal effects, as estrogen receptors have been identified in tendons along with decreased tendon strain based on oral contraceptive use. The primary purpose of this study was to audit the representation of female athletes in the literature regarding Achilles repair. Methods An electronic search was performed using PubMed to identify articles related to Achilles repair using the protocol by Smith et al. Studies were assessed by population, size, athletic caliber, study impact, research theme, and menstrual status. Results Female representation across all studies was 1783 of 10 673 subjects (16.7%). Composition of included studies was predominantly mixed-sex cohorts with 131 of 169 (77.5%) included studies. Within mixed-sex cohort studies, the total representation of female athletes was 1654 of 8792 participants (18.9%). Thirty-two studies were male only, constituting 1540 participants, whereas 3 studies were female only composed of 86 athletes. Importantly, the disparity between male and female representation worsened as the athletic caliber of the study population increased, with 5.0% female representation in studies with professional athletes. No study collected data related to menstrual status and its potential relationship to Achilles rupture or postoperative outcomes. Conclusion Mixed-sex cohort studies underrepresented female athletes, and male-only cohort studies were more common than female-only studies. These findings indicate a need for increased representation of female athletes as well as acknowledgment of menstrual status in research related to Achilles repair. Future studies should focus on representation of female athletes and data collection related to sex-specific hormones, hormonal contraceptive use, and menstrual status to improve treatment of Achilles tendon ruptures for female athletes. Level of Evidence Level IV, case series.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Braman
- The University of Kansas School of Medicine, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Cooper Root
- The University of Kansas School of Medicine, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Ian Harmon
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Rachel Long
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Lisa Vopat
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Bryan Vopat
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Ashley Herda
- Department of Health, Sport & Exercise Science, School of Education and Human Sciences, University of Kansas, Overland Park, KS, USA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Igonin PH, Cognasse F, Gonzalo P, Philippot P, Rogowski I, Sabot T, Boisseau N, Martin C. Monitoring of sprint and change of direction velocity, vertical jump height, and repeated sprint ability in sub-elite female football players throughout their menstrual cycle. SCI MED FOOTBALL 2024:1-9. [PMID: 38492212 DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2024.2328674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024]
Abstract
AIMS The aim of this study was to investigate the associations between the early follicular (EF, i.e., menstruation), late follicular (LF), and middle luteal (ML) phases of the menstrual cycle and different factors that may influence football performance. METHODS To this end, 11 eumenorrheic sub-elite female football players underwent field tests to assess sprint speed, lower extremity power, repeated sprint ability, velocity on change of direction, and technical skills at each cycle phase. RESULTS Performance during the 15-m change of direction ability test, 15-m ball dribbling test, squat jump height, total sprint time [sum of 7 sprints] and decrement score [(mean sprint time/best sprint time × 100) - 100], maximum and mean heart rate, and perceived exertion did not significantly differ among menstrual cycle phases. Conversely, the linear sprint velocity over 10, 20, 30-m distances was decreased in EF vs LF (10-, 20- and 30-m) and in ML vs LF (10- and 20-m) (p < 0.05). The 40-m sprint velocity did not change in the different menstrual cycle phases. CONCLUSION Overall, our study suggests that sex hormone fluctuations during the menstrual cycle are not associated with vertical jump, velocity on change of direction, and repeated sprint ability, but may influence linear sprint velocity over short distances (10, 20, and 30 m).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P H Igonin
- Laboratoire Inter-universitaire de Biologie de la Motricité (LIBM EA 7424), Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, Lyon, France
- Association Sportive de Saint-Etienne (ASSE), Saint-Etienne, France
| | - F Cognasse
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM U1059), Université Jean Monnet, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - P Gonzalo
- Laboratoire de Biochimie Pharmaco-Toxicologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Saint-Etienne (CHU), Saint-Etienne, France
| | - P Philippot
- Laboratoire Inter-universitaire de Biologie de la Motricité (LIBM EA 7424), Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, Lyon, France
- Association Sportive de Saint-Etienne (ASSE), Saint-Etienne, France
- Service de Chirurgie Orthopédique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Saint-Etienne (CHU), Saint-Etienne, France
| | - I Rogowski
- Laboratoire Inter-universitaire de Biologie de la Motricité (LIBM EA 7424), Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, Lyon, France
| | - T Sabot
- Association Sportive de Saint-Etienne (ASSE), Saint-Etienne, France
| | - N Boisseau
- Laboratoire des Adaptations Métaboliques à l'Exercice en conditions Physiologiques et Pathologiques (AME2P), Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - C Martin
- Laboratoire Inter-universitaire de Biologie de la Motricité (LIBM EA 7424), Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, Lyon, France
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Ait Ali Braham M, Ouchen Y, Woorons X. Effects of a 6-Week Repeated-Sprint Training With Voluntary Hypoventilation at Low and High Lung Volume on Repeated-Sprint Ability in Female Soccer Players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024:1-8. [PMID: 38412852 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the effects of repeated-sprint training with voluntary hypoventilation at low (RSH-VHL) and high (RS-VHH) lung volume on repeated-sprint ability (RSA) in female athletes. METHODS Over a 6-week period, 24 female soccer players completed 12 sessions of repeated 30-m running sprints with end-expiratory breath holding (RSH-VHL, n = 8), end-inspiratory breath holding (RS-VHH, n = 8), or unrestricted breathing (RS-URB, n = 8). Before and after training, a running RSA test consisting of performing 30-m all-out sprints until exhaustion was implemented. RESULTS From before to after training, the number of sprints completed during the RSA test was increased in both RSH-VHL (19.3 [0.9] vs 22.6 [0.9]; P < .01) and RS-VHH (19.3 [1.5] vs 20.5 [1.7]; P < .01) but not in RS-URB (19.4 [1.3] vs 19.5 [1.7]; P = .67). The mean velocity and the percentage decrement score calculated over sprints 1 to 17 were, respectively, higher (82.2% [1.8%] vs 84.6% [2.1%] of maximal velocity) and lower (23.7% [3.1%] vs 19.4% [3.2%]) in RSH-VHL (P < .01), whereas they remained unchanged in RS-VHH and RS-URB. The mean arterial oxygen saturation recorded during training at the end of the sprints was lower in RSH-VHL (92.1% [0.4%]) than in RS-VHH (97.3% [0.1%]) and RS-URB (97.8% [0.1%]). CONCLUSIONS This study shows that female athletes can benefit from the RSH-VHL intervention to improve RSA. The performance gains may have been limited by the short sprinting distance with end-expiratory breath holding, which provoked only moderate hypoxemia. The increase in the number of sprints in RS-VHH seems to show that factors other than hypoxia may have played a role in RSA improvement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mounir Ait Ali Braham
- Département des Sciences de l'Activité Physique Trois-Rivières, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivieres, QC, Canada
| | - Youva Ouchen
- Département STAPS, UFR SMBH, Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, Bobigny, France
| | - Xavier Woorons
- EA 7369-URePSSS-Unité de Recherche Pluridisciplinaire Sport Santé Société, Université Lille, Université Artois, Université Littoral Côte d'Opale, Lille, France
- ARPEH, Association for Research and Promotion of Hypoventilation Training, Lille, France
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Bolling C, Tomás R, Verhagen E. 'Considering the reality, I am very lucky': how professional players and staff perceive injury prevention and performance protection in women's football. Br J Sports Med 2024:bjsports-2023-106891. [PMID: 38378261 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2023-106891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To explore the beliefs and perceptions of professional female footballers and staff regarding injury prevention and performance protection in professional women's football. METHODS This qualitative study applied semistructured interviews with 18 participants from 3 top-tier teams from 2 countries (Portugal and England) and 4 nationalities, including 2 physiotherapists, 5 players, 3 team doctors, 2 head coaches, 3 strength and conditioning coaches, 2 managers, and 1 head of performance. Data analysis applied constant comparison analysis, using principles of grounded theory. There were no major differences in the perspectives of players and staff, and the findings are presented together. RESULTS Identifying and reporting injuries and recognising potential injury risk factors were mentioned to influence the prevention of injury. Participants stated that the growth and evolution of women's football could influence injury risk. Before reaching the professional level, exposure to potential risk factors, such as lack of recovery, limited awareness and opportunities for prevention (eg, preventive exercises and load management strategies), was believed to impact players' injury risk. Players further described their experiences and the 'bumpy road' to becoming a professional player, their current context and potential future improvements for women's football regarding injury prevention and performance protection. CONCLUSION Professional female football players face different injury risks during different moments of their careers. According to elite players and staff, amateur and semiprofessionals have limited resources and lack injury prevention strategies. Professional players and staff perceived the current preventive measures as good and relied on the value of individualised care and a multidisciplinary approach. In the future, more resources and structured injury prevention strategies are needed in youth and non-professional levels of women's football to reduce injury risk and allow more players to reach their maximal performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Bolling
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, Amsterdam UMC Locatie AMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Collaboration for Health and Safety in Sports, Department of Public and Occupational Health, Amsterdam UMC, Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Rita Tomás
- Portuguese Football Federation, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal
| | - Evert Verhagen
- Amsterdam Collaboration for Health and Safety in Sports, Department of Public and Occupational Health, Amsterdam UMC, Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Hayward E, Akam L, Hunter D, Mastana S. Role of the Menstrual Cycle on Performance and Injury Risk: A Survey of Female Professional Rugby Players in the United Kingdom. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2024; 21:150. [PMID: 38397641 PMCID: PMC10888092 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph21020150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Female athletic performance and injury risk is impacted by variations in the menstrual cycle (MC), but the understanding of the impacts and mechanisms influenced by the menstrual cycle on exercise performance are not fully delineated. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Evaluate associations between the menstrual cycle, perceived performance, and injury risk of elite female rugby players using an online survey. METHODS An anonymous online questionnaire was completed by 150 elite female rugby players from two English rugby leagues, the Betfred Women's Super League (BWSL) and the Allianz Premier 15s (AP15s). The collected data were analysed thematically. RESULTS The Chi-square test was used to assess associations between age groups and contraception usage, weight change, and training and playing performance; none of the associations were statistically significant (all p values > 0.05). Thematic analysis of 11,660 words of data revealed four themes: (a) MC impact on training and competition, (b) education and period management plans, (c) openness of conversations and comfort taking time off, and (d) injury risk. The impacted performance areas were physical (83.7%), psychological (85.7%), and nutritional (80.3%); players experienced decreased appetite, nausea, fatigue, strength declines, heighted emotions, and worsened focus. In total, 87.8% of athletes perceived the MC to negatively impact performance, 85.7% of players desired to be educated further to prevent injuries, improve nutrition, and training adaptions, 51.7% of participants perceived risk of injury to be higher during MC, and 86.4% of participants did not feel comfortable taking time off due to the MC, worrying that selection would be affected and about opinions from others. CONCLUSION A clear negative impact on perceived performance and injury risk was reported by survey participants. The interaction of physical, psychological, and nutritional factors, and a lack of awareness and education emphasise the need for further comprehensive studies and interventions, with measures such as MC monitoring and profiling, education, and training adaptions to develop openness, knowledge, and understanding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Sarabjit Mastana
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK; (E.H.); (L.A.); (D.H.)
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Niering M, Wolf-Belala N, Seifert J, Tovar O, Coldewey J, Kuranda J, Muehlbauer T. The Influence of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Maximal Strength Performance in Healthy Female Adults: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. Sports (Basel) 2024; 12:31. [PMID: 38251305 PMCID: PMC10818650 DOI: 10.3390/sports12010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Maximal strength is a significant factor in achieving peak performance and injury prevention in athletes. In individualization strategies for the efficient development of athletes, it is necessary to consider the respective components separately. The purpose of this study was to systematically examine the effects of the different cycle phases on isometric, isokinetic, and dynamic maximum strength. A systematic literature review was conducted; databases were searched from January 1960 to September 2023. The included studies focused on the expression of maximal strength in the earlier follicular phase as well as at least one comparative phase. Of the initial 707 articles identified, 22 met the selection criteria and were included. The studies considered a total of 433 subjects. Our results revealed medium effects (weighted mean standardized mean difference (SMD) = 0.60; seven studies) for isometric maximal strength in favor of the late follicular phase, small effects (weighted mean SMD = 0.39; five studies) for isokinetic maximal strength in favor of the ovulation phase, and small effects (weighted mean SMD = 0.14; three studies) for dynamic maximal strength in favor of the late follicular phase. The results indicate that the early follicular phase is unfavorable for all strength classes. Peak performance in isometric strength is seen in the late follicular phase, whereas isokinetic strength peaks during ovulation. Dynamic strength is optimal in the late follicular phase.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marc Niering
- Institute of Biomechanics and Neurosciences, Nordic Science, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (M.N.); (N.W.-B.); (J.S.)
| | - Nacera Wolf-Belala
- Institute of Biomechanics and Neurosciences, Nordic Science, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (M.N.); (N.W.-B.); (J.S.)
| | - Johanna Seifert
- Institute of Biomechanics and Neurosciences, Nordic Science, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (M.N.); (N.W.-B.); (J.S.)
- Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical School Hannover, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Ole Tovar
- Department of Sports Science, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany;
| | - Jacqueline Coldewey
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Biosciences of Sports, University of Hildesheim, 31141 Hildesheim, Germany;
| | - Jennifer Kuranda
- Triagon Academy Munich, School of Sports, Psychology and Education, 85737 Ismaning, Germany;
| | - Thomas Muehlbauer
- Division of Movement and Training Sciences/Biomechanics of Sport, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45141 Essen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Lee SJL, Sim MP, VAN Rens FECA, Peiffer JJ. Fatigue Resistance Is Altered during the High-Hormone Phase of Eumenorrheic Females but Not Oral Contraceptive Users. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2024; 56:92-102. [PMID: 37699150 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to examine the effect of ovarian hormones and their synthetic equivalents on substrate utilization and fatigue resistance during a race-specific cycling protocol. METHODS Seventeen well-trained female cyclists (nine eumenorrheic females, eight oral contraceptive users) completed two experimental trials, in a randomized order, in their low- (follicular/sugar pill) and high-hormone (luteal/active pill) phases. Each 91-min trial consisted of a 45-min moderate-intensity component (submaximal cycling, or SMC) followed by 6 min of high-intensity (HIT) and then a fatigue resistance test (FRT): 6 × 1-min all-out efforts with 1-min active recovery. Meals, comprising carbohydrate (CHO) intake of 8 g·kg -1 body mass, were standardized 24-h pretrial. An electrolyte-only solution was provided ad libitum during each trial. RESULTS In eumenorrheic females, a large reduction in average power during FRT was observed in the luteal phase (277 ± 31 vs 287 ± 33 W; P = 0.032). Greater CHO ox (~ 4%, P = 0.020) during SMC and ventilatory inefficiencies during SMC and HIT (~7%, P < 0.001) were also observed in the luteal phase. In contraceptive users, despite some phasal changes in cardiorespiratory and metabolic data in SMC (~6% higher blood glucose and ~2% higher minute ventilation in active pill phase), none of the performance parameters in the FRT were different. CONCLUSIONS Fatigue resistance was compromised only in high-hormone phase of the menstrual cycle, with eumenorrheic females likely susceptible because of increased CHO utilization during SMC. Hormone-induced ventilatory inefficiencies may also have increased metabolic demand. These findings emphasize the need to maintain CHO availability for power production, particularly in high-hormone phases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Fleur E C A VAN Rens
- Discipline of Exercise Science, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia, AUSTRALIA
| | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Chiba Y, Hayashi R, Hayashi H, Kuo TF, Hojo W, Iwabuchi T. Urinary Biopyrrin Levels and Their Relationship with the Menstrual Cycle and Concomitant Symptoms Among Healthy Nonpregnant Women of Reproductive Age: A Cohort Study. WOMEN'S HEALTH REPORTS (NEW ROCHELLE, N.Y.) 2023; 4:671-679. [PMID: 38169691 PMCID: PMC10758543 DOI: 10.1089/whr.2023.0074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Background Urinary biopyrrin (UBP) is an oxidative metabolite formed from the reaction of bilirubin with reactive oxygen species. Previous studies have explored the relationship between UBP levels and certain diseases or pregnancy. However, UBP levels in healthy nonpregnant women have not been well examined. We aimed to clarify the representative value of UBP in healthy nonpregnant women and explore its relationship with menstrual cycles and concomitant symptoms. Methods We included healthy, nonpregnant Japanese women aged 20-39 years with normal body mass index and menstrual cycle. In total, 1260 urine samples collected during 43 menstrual cycles of 36 women were analyzed to determine the representative values and reference intervals of UBP levels. The correlation between daily UBP levels and the order of the day was explored, and median UBP levels of 5-day clusters were compared using Friedman and Mann-Whitney U tests. These analyses were also conducted in women with concomitant symptoms during the menstrual cycle. Results The median UBP level in all samples was 0.2291 (reference: 0.0102-2.9335) μmol/gCr. There was no significant relationship between the median UBP level and menstrual cycle, regardless of the presence of self-manageable symptoms during or before menstruation. Conclusions The representative UBP value and its reference interval can serve as standards for comparison with other populations. Our findings suggest that the UBP level may be an objective oxidative stress indicator that is less sensitive to menstrual cycle and concomitant symptoms. UBP levels in healthy nonpregnant women could be assessed regardless of the menstrual cycle and concomitant symptoms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Chiba
- Department of Nursing, Kyoto College of Nursing, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Risako Hayashi
- Department of Nursing, Kyoto College of Nursing, Kyoto, Japan
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Gasperi L, Sansone P, Gómez-Ruano MÁ, Lukonaitienė I, Conte D. Female basketball game performance is influenced by menstrual cycle phase, age, perceived demands and game-related contextual factors. J Sports Sci 2023:1-8. [PMID: 38059487 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2023.2285119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
This study evaluated the influence of physical and perceived game demands, menstrual cycle phase, perceived recovery, individual and game-related contextual factors on competitive performance in professional, female basketball players.11 professional female players (age: 20.6 ± 2.7 years) were monitored for game-related statistics (Performance Index Rating, PIR; rebounds, REB; effective field goal %, eFG%; turnovers, TO), objective (PlayerLoad per minute, PL·min-1) and subjective (RPE) game loads, pre-game perceived recovery (Total Quality Recovery, TQRpre), menstrual phase (follicular; luteal) and game-related contextual factors (game location; game outcome; score differential; opponent level) during 12 official games. Separate linear mixed models were used to evaluate the influence of RPE, PL·min-1, TQRpre, menstrual phase, contextual factors, and individual characteristics (age; playing position) on game-related statistics.Higher PIR and eFG% were found for older players and those who reported higher RPE (all p < 0.05). Higher age also led to less TO (p = 0.042). eFG% was higher when players reported higher TQRpre ;(p = 0.010). Better shooting (eFG%) and rebounding (REB) performances were found during the follicular menstrual phase (p < 0.05). More REB were collected in won games (p = 0.002).This study suggests that the co-influences of perceptual, menstrual-related, individual and game-related contextual factors should be considered to optimise female basketball players' performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Gasperi
- Facultad de Ciencias de La Actividad Física y Del Deporte, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Pierpaolo Sansone
- UCAM Research Center for High Performance Sport, UCAM Universidad Católica de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Miguel-Ángel Gómez-Ruano
- Facultad de Ciencias de La Actividad Física y Del Deporte, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Inga Lukonaitienė
- Department of Coaching Science, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Daniele Conte
- Department of Coaching Science, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Eroglu MN, Rodríguez-Longobardo C, Ramírez-Adrados A, Colina-Coca C, Burgos-Postigo S, López-Torres O, Fernández-Elías VE. The Effects of 24-h Fasting on Exercise Performance and Metabolic Parameters in a Pilot Study of Female CrossFit Athletes. Nutrients 2023; 15:4841. [PMID: 38004236 PMCID: PMC10674902 DOI: 10.3390/nu15224841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Many studies have tested intermittent fasting (IF) in athletes, but its effects on female CrossFit athletes remain relatively unexplored in the existing literature. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the effects of 24-h IF on the physical performance of female CrossFit practitioners. Eleven female CrossFit athletes (age: 30.91 ± 3.42, weight: 65.26 ± 7.55 kg, height: 1.66 ± 0.05 m) participated in the study. The study used a crossover design with fasting and eating conditions. Participants completed an exercise test, standing long jump, and handgrip strength assessment. Hydration status, heart rate, blood lactate, blood glucose, rates of perceived exertion, and hunger were measured. Results showed significant differences in blood lactate concentration (F = 5.435, p = 0.042, η2p = 0.352). Resting blood lactate concentration was significantly lower in the fasting trial than in the eating trial (p < 0.001), but post-exercise blood lactate concentrations were higher in the fasting trial than in the eating trial (p < 0.001). No differences were found in performance times (p > 0.05). In conclusion, this pilot study of females suggests that 24-h fasting does not impair exercise performance or negatively affect physiological parameters in CrossFit athletes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melike Nur Eroglu
- Coaching Education Department, Sports Science Faculty, Sakarya University of Applied Sciences, Serdivan 54050, Turkey;
| | - Celia Rodríguez-Longobardo
- Social Sciences of Physical Activity, Sport and Leisure Department, Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Ana Ramírez-Adrados
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Villaviciosa de Odón, Spain; (A.R.-A.); (S.B.-P.); (V.E.F.-E.)
| | - Clara Colina-Coca
- Faculty of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Villaviciosa de Odón, Spain;
| | - Silvia Burgos-Postigo
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Villaviciosa de Odón, Spain; (A.R.-A.); (S.B.-P.); (V.E.F.-E.)
| | - Olga López-Torres
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Villaviciosa de Odón, Spain; (A.R.-A.); (S.B.-P.); (V.E.F.-E.)
| | - Valentín E. Fernández-Elías
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Villaviciosa de Odón, Spain; (A.R.-A.); (S.B.-P.); (V.E.F.-E.)
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Kanellakis S, Skoufas E, Simitsopoulou E, Migdanis A, Migdanis I, Prelorentzou T, Louka A, Moschonis G, Bountouvi E, Androutsos O. Changes in body weight and body composition during the menstrual cycle. Am J Hum Biol 2023; 35:e23951. [PMID: 37395124 DOI: 10.1002/ajhb.23951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The general perception is that menstrual cycle is a factor related to body weight and body composition fluctuations in women. The lack of a standardized methodology of the so far conducted studies has led to controversial results. The aim of the current study is to identify if there are any changes in body weight and body composition during the menstrual cycle. METHODS In the current study measurements of body weight, circumferences, skinfolds and body composition with bioelectrical impedance analysis were conducted twice per week in 42 women during their menstrual cycle. RESULTS Body weight was found to be statistically significantly higher during menstruation compared to the first week of the menstrual cycle by 0.450 kg, which could be attributed to a statistically significant increase of 0.474 kg observed in extracellular water. No other statistically significant changes were observed regarding body composition. CONCLUSIONS An increase of approximately 0.5 kg was observed during women's menstrual cycle, mostly due to extracellular fluid retention at menstruation days. These findings could be taken into account to interpret body weight and composition periodic fluctuations in women of reproductive age.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Spyridon Kanellakis
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Harokopio University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Efstathios Skoufas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Western Attica, Aigaleo, Greece
| | | | - Athanasios Migdanis
- Department of Gastroenterology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Ioannis Migdanis
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece
| | | | - Aikaterini Louka
- 1st Department of Propedeutic Internal Medicine, Laiko Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Georgios Moschonis
- Department of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics, School of Allied Health, Human Services and Sport, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Evangelia Bountouvi
- Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, "Alexandra" University and State Maternity Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Odysseas Androutsos
- Lab of Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, School of Physical Education, Sport Science and Dietetics, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Prado RCR, Kilpatrick MW. Menstrual Cycle and Performance: What Is Next? Sports Health 2023; 15:895-897. [PMID: 37731307 PMCID: PMC10606960 DOI: 10.1177/19417381231197609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
|
32
|
Oberlin DJ. Sex differences and athletic performance. Where do trans individuals fit into sports and athletics based on current research? Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1224476. [PMID: 37964771 PMCID: PMC10641525 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1224476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
There are well known sex differences in parameters of physical fitness/performance due to changes occurring during sexual development. Thus, many sport and athletic events have regulations separating male and female participants. However, the inclusion or exclusion of transgender individuals in athletics has recently received outsized attention despite relatively few cases of transgender athletes. When determining which athletic gender category trans individuals should be permitted to compete in, it is important to understand the level of physical fitness/performance these individuals possess relative to their cisgender counterparts. Unfortunately, there are few studies investigating this topic, and several complications that confound this research. The current review seeks to discuss sex and gender as concepts, review sex differences in fitness/performance and how they develop, and then, consider how current evidence suggests that trans individuals compare to cis individuals. Finally, this review seeks to offer considerations for whether trans individuals should be excluded from sports and athletics, and how future research should proceed to better understand this marginalized population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D. J. Oberlin
- Department of Exercise Sciences and Recreation, City University of New York, Lehman College, Bronx, NY, United States
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Miyamoto M, Shibuya K. Exploring the relationship between nutritional intake and menstrual cycle in elite female athletes. PeerJ 2023; 11:e16108. [PMID: 37780394 PMCID: PMC10538277 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.16108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to examine potential variations in nutritional intake among female athletes, including top-level, throughout the menstrual cycle. A total 122 female athletes participated in the study, documenting their food consumption over a 3-day period. The menstrual status of female athletes was also assessed, and using the survey results, the phase of the menstrual cycle (the follicular, early luteal, or late luteal) during which each meal was recorded was determined. Consequently, the meal records were categorized into the respective three phases. The findings of this study indicated that there were no notable disparities in nutritional intake, encompassing energy, protein, fat, carbohydrate, calcium, iron, and fiber, across the three phases of the menstrual cycle. The results imply that female athletes may experience comparatively smaller variations in nutrient intake related to the menstrual cycle. This could be attributed to the higher energy requirements of female athletes because of their rigorous training. This study underscores the significance of accounting for the population when examining nutrient intake changes associated with the menstrual cycle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mana Miyamoto
- Department of Health and Nutrition, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
- Graduate School of Health and Welfare, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
| | - Kenichi Shibuya
- Department of Health and Nutrition, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
- Graduate School of Health and Welfare, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Bingzheng Z, Xinzhuo Z, Zhuo J, Xing Y, Bin L, Lunhao B. The effects of sex hormones during the menstrual cycle on knee kinematics. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1209652. [PMID: 37744250 PMCID: PMC10512414 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1209652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The effects of the menstrual cycle and sex hormones on knee kinematics remain unclear. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of the menstrual cycle and serum sex hormone concentrations on knee kinematic parameters of the 90°cutting in female college soccer athletes. Three female college soccer teams (53 subjects) participated in the study. During the first menstrual cycle, a three-step method was used to exclude subjects with anovulatory and luteal phase-deficient (LPD) (12 subjects). The subjects' menstrual cycle was divided into the menstrual phase, late-follicular phase, ovulatory phase, and mid-luteal phase (group 1, 2, 3, 4). In each phase of the second menstrual cycle, we used a portable motion analysis system to enter the teams and tested the sex hormones concentrations and knee kinematics parameters in three universities in turn. We found that subjects had a lower maximum knee valgus in group 4 compared with other groups. This meant that subjects had a lower biomechanical risk of non-contact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury in the mid-luteal phase. There was no significant correlation between serum estrogen, progesterone concentration, and knee kinematic parameters. This meant that sex hormones did not have a protective effect. Future studies need to incorporate more factors (such as neuromuscular control, etc.) to investigate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhou Bingzheng
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Zhao Xinzhuo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Jin Zhuo
- Center of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yang Xing
- Research Center for Universal Health, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Li Bin
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Bai Lunhao
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Stankovic M, Djordjevic D, Trajkovic N, Milanovic Z. Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) on Physical Performance in Female Team Sports: A Systematic Review. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2023; 9:78. [PMID: 37594624 PMCID: PMC10439062 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-023-00623-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is limited information regarding adaptation of HIIT in female athletes which is important since the adaptation to HIIT may be different compared to male athletes. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review was to summarize the effects of HIIT on physical performance in female team sports athletes. METHODS The following databases Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, ProQuest and Science Direct were searched prior to September 2nd, 2022. The inclusion criteria were longitudinal studies written in English, elite, sub-elite or college female team sports participants, and HIIT intensity had to be at 80-100% maximal heart rate. There were no exclusion criteria regarding the age of the participants or their training experience. The primary outcome measures were maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), repeated sprint ability (RSA), change of direction speed, speed, explosive strength and body composition. RESULTS A total of 13 studies met the inclusion criteria, with a total of 230 participants. HIIT improved VO2max in five studies (ES from 0.19 to 1.08), while three studies showed improvement in their RSA (ES from 0.32 to 0.64). In addition, change of direction speed was improved in five studies (ES from 0.34 to 0.88), while speed improved in four studies (ES from 0.12 to 0.88). Explosive strength results varied (ES from 0.39 to 1.05), while in terms of body composition, the results were inconsistent through observed team sports. CONCLUSION HIIT has significant effects on VO2max, RSA, change of direction speed, speed and explosive strength in female team sports, regardless of the competition level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mima Stankovic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Niš, Čarnojevičeva 10a, 18000, Niš, Serbia
| | - Dusan Djordjevic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Niš, Čarnojevičeva 10a, 18000, Niš, Serbia
| | - Nebojsa Trajkovic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Niš, Čarnojevičeva 10a, 18000, Niš, Serbia
| | - Zoran Milanovic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Niš, Čarnojevičeva 10a, 18000, Niš, Serbia.
- Science and Research Centre, Institute for Kinesiology Research, Garibaldijeva 1, 6000, Koper, Slovenia.
- Faculty of Sports Studies, Incubator of Kinanthropological Research, Masaryk University, 60200, Brno, Czech Republic.
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Deng N, Soh KG, Abdullah B, Huang D, Sun H, Xiao W. Effects of physical training programs on female tennis players' performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1234114. [PMID: 37664429 PMCID: PMC10470022 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1234114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Tennis is among the world's most popular and well-studied sports. Physical training has commonly been used as an intervention among athletes. However, a comprehensive review of the literature on the effects of physical training programs on female tennis players' performance is lacking. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine the effects of physical training on performance outcomes in female tennis players. Methods: A comprehensive search was conducted on Web of Science, PubMed, SPORTDicus, Scopus, and CNKI from inception until July 2023 to select relevant articles from the accessible literature. Only controlled trials were included if they examined the effects of physical training on at least one measure of tennis-specific performance in female tennis players. The Cochrane RoB tool was employed to assess the risk of bias. The CERT scale was used to examine the quality of program information. The GRADE approach was adopted to evaluate the overall quality of the evidence. The Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software was used for the meta-analysis. Results: Nine studies were selected for the systematic review and seven for the meta-analysis, totaling 222 individuals. The study's exercise programs lasted 6-36 weeks, with training sessions ranging from 30 to 80 min, conducted one to five times per week. Muscle power (ES = 0.72; p = 0.003), muscle strength (ES = 0.65; p = 0.002), agility (ES = 0.69; p = 0.002), serve velocity (ES = 0.72; p = 0.013), and serve accuracy (ES = 1.14; p = 0.002) demonstrated significant improvement following physical training, while no notable changes in linear sprint speed (ES = 0.63; p = 0.07) were detected. Conclusion: Although research on physical training in sports is diversified, studies on training interventions among female tennis players are scarce. This review found that existing training programs yield some favorable outcomes for female tennis players. However, further research with high methodological quality is warranted on the tailoring of specific training programs for female tennis players. There should be more consistent measuring and reporting of data to facilitate meaningful data pooling for future meta-analyses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nuannuan Deng
- Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Kim Geok Soh
- Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Borhannudin Abdullah
- Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Dandan Huang
- College of Physical Education, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - He Sun
- School of Physical Education Institute (Main Campus), Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Wensheng Xiao
- Department of Sports Sciences, Huzhou University, Huzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Montemurro N, Trilli I, Bordea IR, Ferrara E, Francesco MD, Caccamo F, Malcangi G, Rapone B. Are Whiplash-Associated Disorders and Temporomandibular Disorders in a Trauma Related Cause and Effect Relationship? A Review. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2023; 59:1482. [PMID: 37629772 PMCID: PMC10456620 DOI: 10.3390/medicina59081482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 08/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Background: Whiplash is associated with a wide variety of clinical manifestations, including headache, neck pain, cervical rigidity, shoulder and back pain, paresthesia, vertigo, and temporomandibular disorders (TMDs). Previous studies reported that TMDs are more common in individuals with chronic whiplash-associated disorders (WAD) than in the general population; however, the pathophysiology and mechanism of this relationship are still not well understood. Methods: A PubMed and Ovid EMBASE review was performed to identify all studies addressing the trauma related cause and effect relationship between WAD and TMDs from January 2003 to March 2023. Results: After screening for eligibility and inclusion criteria, a total of 16 articles met the selection criteria. The various included studies discussed different aspects of the association between WDA and TMDs, including changes in the coordination and amplitude of jaw opening, the severity of the associated symptoms/signs in cases of WAD, the degree of fatigue and psychological stress, difficulty in feeding, cervical and myofascial pain, changes in the MRI signal at various muscle points, muscle tenderness, and quality of life. Conclusions: In this review, we summarized the clinical evidence of any trauma related cause and effect relationship between whiplash and TMDs. An accurate screening of the previous literature showed that, in conclusion, the relationship between whiplash and TMDs is still unclear.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Montemurro
- Department of Neurosurgery, Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Pisana (AOUP), University of Pisa, 56100 Pisa, Italy;
| | - Irma Trilli
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, “Aldo Moro” University of Bari, 70121 Bari, Italy; (I.T.); (G.M.); (B.R.)
| | - Ioana Roxana Bordea
- Department of Oral Rehabilitation, Faculty of Dental Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy ‘Iuliu Hatieganu’, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Elisabetta Ferrara
- Department of Medical, Oral and Biotechnological Sciences, University G. d’Annunzio, 66100 Chieti, Italy;
| | - Maurizio De Francesco
- Department of Neurosciences, Institute of Clinical Dentistry, University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy;
| | | | - Giuseppina Malcangi
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, “Aldo Moro” University of Bari, 70121 Bari, Italy; (I.T.); (G.M.); (B.R.)
| | - Biagio Rapone
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, “Aldo Moro” University of Bari, 70121 Bari, Italy; (I.T.); (G.M.); (B.R.)
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Gurton WH, Matta GG, Gough LA, Ranchordas MK, King DG, Hurst P. Sodium Bicarbonate and Time-to-Exhaustion Cycling Performance: A Retrospective Analysis Exploring the Mediating Role of Expectation. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2023; 9:65. [PMID: 37523028 PMCID: PMC10390418 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-023-00612-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Research has shown that ingesting 0.3 g·kg-1 body mass sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) can improve time-to-exhaustion (TTE) cycling performance, but the influence of psychophysiological mechanisms on ergogenic effects is not yet understood. OBJECTIVE This study retrospectively examined whether changes in TTE cycling performance are mediated by positive expectations of receiving NaHCO3 and/or the decline in blood bicarbonate during exercise. METHODS In a randomised, crossover, counterbalanced, double-blind, placebo-controlled design, 12 recreationally trained cyclists (maximal oxygen consumption, 54.4 ± 5.7 mL·kg·min-1) performed four TTE cycling tests 90 min after consuming: (1) 0.3 g·kg-1 body mass NaHCO3 in 5 mL·kg-1 body mass solution, (2) 0.03 g·kg-1 body mass sodium chloride in solution (placebo), (3) 0.3 g·kg-1 body mass NaHCO3 in capsules and (4) cornflour in capsules (placebo). Prior to exercise, participants rated on 1-5 Likert type scales how much they expected the treatment they believe had been given would improve performance. Capillary blood samples were measured for acid-base balance at baseline, pre-exercise and post-exercise. RESULTS Administering NaHCO3 in solution and capsules improved TTE compared with their respective placebos (solution: 27.0 ± 21.9 s, p = 0.001; capsules: 23.0 ± 28.1 s, p = 0.016). Compared to capsules, NaHCO3 administered via solution resulted in a higher expectancy about the benefits on TTE cycling performance (Median: 3.5 vs. 2.5, Z = 2.135, p = 0.033). Decline in blood bicarbonate during exercise was higher for NaHCO3 given in solution compared to capsules (2.7 ± 2.1 mmol·L-1, p = 0.001). Mediation analyses showed that improvements in TTE cycling were indirectly related to expectancy and decline in blood bicarbonate when NaHCO3 was administered in solution but not capsules. CONCLUSIONS Participants' higher expectations when NaHCO3 is administered in solution could result in them exerting themselves harder during TTE cycling, which subsequently leads to a greater decline in blood bicarbonate and larger improvements in performance. KEY POINTS Ingesting 0.3 g·kg-1 body mass sodium bicarbonate in solution and capsules improved time-to-exhaustion cycling performance Positive expectancy about the benefits of sodium bicarbonate and decline in blood bicarbonate were higher when sodium bicarbonate was administered in solution compared with capsules Improvements in time-to-exhaustion cycling performance for sodium bicarbonate administered in solution were related to expectancy and the enhanced extracellular buffering response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William H Gurton
- School of Psychology and Life Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, UK
- Sport and Physical Activity Research Centre, College of Health, Wellbeing and Life Sciences, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
| | - Guilherme G Matta
- School of Psychology and Life Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, UK
| | - Lewis Anthony Gough
- Human Performance and Health Research Group, Centre for Life and Sport Sciences, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK
| | - Mayur Krachna Ranchordas
- Sport and Physical Activity Research Centre, College of Health, Wellbeing and Life Sciences, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK.
| | - David G King
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - Philip Hurst
- School of Psychology and Life Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, UK
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Hills E, Woodland MB, Divaraniya A. Using Hormone Data and Age to Pinpoint Cycle Day within the Menstrual Cycle. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2023; 59:1348. [PMID: 37512159 PMCID: PMC10384168 DOI: 10.3390/medicina59071348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Menstrual cycle tracking is essential for reproductive health and overall well-being. However, there is still an over-reliance on estimations that standard cycles are 28 days long, divided evenly between the follicular and luteal phases. Due to the variability of cycle length and cycle phase lengths, common methods of identifying where an individual is in their cycle are often inaccurate. This study used daily hormone monitoring obtained through a remote hormone-monitoring platform to evaluate hormone levels across a menstrual cycle to identify nuances in the follicular and luteal phases in individuals of different age groups. Materials and Methods: This study used a remote fertility testing system that quantitatively tracks luteinizing hormone (LH) and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PdG) through urine tests read by an AI-powered smartphone app. The study analyzed cycle data from 1233 users with a total of 4123 evaluated cycles. Daily levels for LH and PdG were monitored across multiple cycles. Results: This study determined that calculated cycle lengths tended to be shorter than user-reported cycle lengths. Significant differences were observed in cycle phase lengths between age groups, indicating that follicular phase length declines with age while luteal phase length increases. Finally, the study found that if an individual's age, first cycle day, and current hormone levels are known, population-level hormone data can be used to pinpoint which cycle phase and cycle day they are in with 95% confidence. Conclusions: At-home hormone monitoring technologies can allow patients and clinicians to track their cycles with greater precision than when relying on textbook estimations. The study's findings have implications for fertility planning, clinical management, and general health monitoring. Prior to this study, no standard existed for pinpointing where a person was in their cycle through only one measure of LH and PdG. These findings have the potential to fill significant gaps within reproductive healthcare and beyond.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elinor Hills
- Oova, Inc., 335 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
| | - Mark B Woodland
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Reading Hospital-/Tower Health, West Reading, PA 19611, USA
- Pennsylvania State Board of Medicine, Harrisburg, PA 17110, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Veldema J. Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation and Sex/Polypeptide Hormones in Reciprocal Interactions: A Systematic Review. Biomedicines 2023; 11:1981. [PMID: 37509620 PMCID: PMC10377221 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11071981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
A better understanding of interindividual differences and the development of targeted therapies is one of the major challenges of modern medicine. The sex of a person plays a crucial role in this regard. This systematic review aimed to summarise and analyse available evidence on the mutual interactions between non-invasive brain stimulation and sex/polypeptide hormones. The PubMed database was searched from its inception to 31 March 2023, for (i) studies that investigated the impact of sex and/or polypeptide hormones on the effects induced by non-invasive brain stimulation, or (ii) studies that investigated non-invasive brain stimulation in the modulation of sex and/or polypeptide hormones. Eighteen studies (319 healthy and 96 disabled participants) were included. Most studies focused on female sex hormone levels during the menstrual cycle. The later follicular phase is associated with a weak between hemispheric and intracortical inhibition, strong intracortical facilitation, and high stimulation-induced neural and behavioural changes. The opposite effects are observed during the luteal phase. In addition, the participant's sex, presence and/or absence of real ovulation and increase in oestradiol level by chorionic gonadotropin injection influence the stimulation-induced neurophysiological and behavioural effects. In Parkinson's disease and consciousness disorders, the repetitive application of non-invasive brain stimulation increases oestradiol and dehydroepiandrosterone levels and reduces disability. To date, male hormones have not been sufficiently included in these studies. Here, we show that the sex and/or polypeptide hormones and non-invasive brain stimulation methods are in reciprocal interactions. This may be used to create a more effective and individualised approach for healthy individuals and individuals with disabilities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jitka Veldema
- Department of Sport Science, Bielefeld University, 33501 Bielefeld, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Raj RD, Fontalis A, Grandhi TSP, Kim WJ, Gabr A, Haddad FS. The impact of the menstrual cycle on orthopaedic sports injuries in female athletes. Bone Joint J 2023; 105-B:723-728. [PMID: 37391203 DOI: 10.1302/0301-620x.105b7.bjj-2022-1262.r2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/02/2023]
Abstract
There is a disparity in sport-related injuries between sexes, with females sustaining non-contact musculoskeletal injuries at a higher rate. Anterior cruciate ligament ruptures are between two and eight times more common than in males, and females also have a higher incidence of ankle sprains, patellofemoral pain, and bone stress injuries. The sequelae of such injuries can be devastating to an athlete, resulting in time out of sport, surgery, and the early onset of osteoarthritis. It is important to identify the causes of this disparity and introduce prevention programmes to reduce the incidence of these injuries. A natural difference reflects the effect of reproductive hormones in females, which have receptors in certain musculoskeletal tissues. Relaxin increases ligamentous laxity. Oestrogen decreases the synthesis of collagen and progesterone does the opposite. Insufficient diet and intensive training can lead to menstrual irregularities, which are common in female athletes and result in injury, whereas oral contraception may have a protective effect against certain injuries. It is important for coaches, physiotherapists, nutritionists, doctors, and athletes to be aware of these issues and to implement preventive measures. This annotation explores the relationship between the menstrual cycle and orthopaedic sports injuries in pre-menopausal females, and proposes recommendations to mitigate the risk of sustaining these injuries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rhody D Raj
- Department of Trauma & Orthopaedic Surgery, University College Hospital, London, UK
| | - Andreas Fontalis
- Department of Trauma & Orthopaedic Surgery, University College Hospital, London, UK
| | - Tarani S P Grandhi
- Department of Trauma & Orthopaedic Surgery, University College Hospital, London, UK
| | - Woo J Kim
- Department of Trauma & Orthopaedic Surgery, University College Hospital, London, UK
| | - Ayman Gabr
- Department of Trauma & Orthopaedic Surgery, University College Hospital, London, UK
| | - Fares S Haddad
- Department of Trauma & Orthopaedic Surgery, University College Hospital, London, UK
- The Bone & Joint Journal , London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Souglis A, Bourdas DI, Gioldasis A, Ispirlidis I, Philippou A, Zacharakis E, Apostolidis A, Efthymiou G, Travlos AK. Time Course of Performance Indexes, Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Muscle Damage Markers after a Female Futsal Match. Sports (Basel) 2023; 11:127. [PMID: 37505614 PMCID: PMC10385326 DOI: 10.3390/sports11070127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Our aims were to investigate the time-course effects of a futsal match on performance, oxidative stress, and muscle damage markers, as well as inflammatory and antioxidant responses during a 6-day post-match period. METHODS Thirty-four female high-level futsal players were assessed on several oxidative stress, inflammation, subjective muscle soreness, subjective rate perceived exertion, and performance tests before a futsal match, immediately after, and 24 h to 144 h after. RESULTS Counter movement jump, 20 m, and 10 m sprints performance significantly decreased immediately after the match (p < 0.05) and returned to baseline 72 h post-match (p > 0.05). Delayed onset muscle soreness peaked 24 h post-match and rate perceived exertion peaked post-match (p < 0.05) and returned to baseline 96 h post-match (p > 0.05). Inflammatory biomarkers peaked at 24 h (p < 0.05) and remained significantly elevated for 72 h after the match (p < 0.05). Muscle damage biomarkers peaked at 24 h (p < 0.05) and remained significantly (p < 0.05) elevated for at least 72 h after the match. Oxidative stress markers peaked at 24 h-48 h (p < 0.05) and returned to baseline 120 h post-match (p > 0.05). In respect to antioxidant responses, these peaked at 24 h-48 h post-match (p < 0.05) and returned to baseline 120 h after the match (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS A single futsal match induces short/mid-term changes in performance, inflammation, oxidative stress, and muscle damage markers for about 72 h-96 h post-match.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Athanasios Souglis
- Section of Didactics and Coaching in Sport Games, School of Physical Education & Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 41 Ethnikis Antistasis, 17237 Daphne, Greece
| | - Dimitrios I Bourdas
- Section of Sport Medicine & Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 41 Ethnikis Antistasis, 17237 Daphne, Greece
| | - Aristotelis Gioldasis
- Section of Didactics and Coaching in Sport Games, School of Physical Education & Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 41 Ethnikis Antistasis, 17237 Daphne, Greece
| | - Ioannis Ispirlidis
- School of Physical Education & Sport Science, Democritus University of Thrace, Panepistimioupoli, 69100 Komotini, Greece
| | - Anastassios Philippou
- Department of Physiology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75 Mikras Asias, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Emmanouil Zacharakis
- Section of Didactics and Coaching in Sport Games, School of Physical Education & Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 41 Ethnikis Antistasis, 17237 Daphne, Greece
| | - Alexandros Apostolidis
- Section of Didactics and Coaching in Sport Games, School of Physical Education & Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 41 Ethnikis Antistasis, 17237 Daphne, Greece
| | - Georgios Efthymiou
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Papakiriazi 24, 41222 Larissa, Greece
| | - Antonios K Travlos
- Department of Sports Organization and Management, Faculty of Human Movement and Quality of Life Sciences, University of Peloponnese, Efstathiou and Stamatikis Valioti & Plataion Avenue, 23100 Sparta, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
McGawley K, Sargent D, Noordhof D, Badenhorst CE, Julian R, Govus AD. Improving menstrual health literacy in sport. J Sci Med Sport 2023:S1440-2440(23)00143-3. [PMID: 37407335 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2023.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Menstrual health represents a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being in relation to a woman's menstrual cycle. From a health literacy perspective, knowledge acquisition and expertise are dependent upon the degree to which an individual can find, access, understand, critically analyse, and apply health information. Therefore, menstrual health literacy can be used to describe the state of knowledge acquisition and application specific to menstrual health-related issues. Menstrual health literacy is low among female athletes, their coaches, and practitioners, and few evidence-informed education or implementation strategies exist to improve menstrual health literacy in sport. Moreover, athletes seldom discuss their menstrual cycles or hormonal contraceptive use with their coaches, despite experiencing menstrual symptoms and/or disturbances and perceiving their menstrual cycles/hormonal contraceptive use to affect performance. Barriers to communication about menstrual cycle- and hormonal contraceptive-related topics include a perceived lack of knowledge among athletes, coaches, and practitioners, concerns about how conversations on these issues will affect interpersonal relationships, and a lack of formal and informal discussion forums. Whilst evidence relating to the effects of the menstrual cycle phase and hormonal contraceptive use on training and performance is currently limited, with existing studies often lacking methodological rigour, impactful steps can still be made to support female athletes. This cornerstone review highlights the current state of menstrual health literacy among athletes, coaches, and practitioners, and provides recommendations for improving menstrual health literacy in sport.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K McGawley
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Sweden. https://twitter.com/KerryMcGawley
| | - D Sargent
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, United Kingdom. https://twitter.com/DebbyDls4
| | - D Noordhof
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway. https://twitter.com/DionneNoordhof
| | - C E Badenhorst
- School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Massey University, New Zealand. https://twitter.com/claire_bades
| | - R Julian
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, United Kingdom; University of Münster, Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Department of Neuromotor Behavior and Exercise, Germany. https://twitter.com/RossJulian88
| | - A D Govus
- Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science, Department of Sport, Exercise, and Nutrition Science, La Trobe University, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Abstract
Females are often underrepresented in the scientific literature, but awareness of the need for female-specific research is increasing. Review articles have been published on the effects of the menstrual cycle on aspects of exercise performance and physiology, yet to date no research has reviewed the effect of menstrual cycle phase on dietary energy intake. Fluctuations in endogenous sex hormones across the menstrual cycle influence a range of physiological processes, including those involved in nutritional status. Observational research typically quantifies female athletes' nutritional intakes at a single time point; however, this may provide inaccurate information if dietary intake fluctuates across the menstrual cycle. Similarly, this may have implications for interventional research, where dietary intake is often poorly controlled or monitored. This review aimed to synthesize the published literature on dietary energy intakes of naturally menstruating females in various phases of the menstrual cycle. The review critiques the relevant literature in light of recent publications on good practice for female research, explores the impact of the menstrual cycle on energy intake, identifies gaps within the evidence base, and informs future research. Overall, energy intake appears to be lower in the follicular phase compared with the luteal phase, with a particular decrease in the days leading up to and including ovulation. The magnitude of these fluctuations is not yet clearly quantifiable and most likely varies, both between individuals, and from cycle to cycle. This review notes the lack of high-quality research investigating the energy intakes of females across the menstrual cycle, and the very limited data available for female athletes and others who undertake large amounts of physical activity. It also highlights the need for researchers to take into consideration anovulatory cycles and the potential effects of premenstrual disorders on dietary intake.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michaela M Rogan
- are with the Department of Human Nutrition, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Katherine E Black
- K.E. Black, Department of Human Nutrition, University of Otago, PO Box 54, Dunedin, Otago, New Zealand. E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Doohan MA, King N, White MJ, Stewart IB. Trends in menstrual cycle symptoms, physical activity avoidance, and hormonal contraceptive use in a general population of adult women. SEXUAL & REPRODUCTIVE HEALTHCARE 2023; 36:100853. [PMID: 37167827 DOI: 10.1016/j.srhc.2023.100853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Research examining symptoms and side effects of the menstrual cycle on physical activity performance and participation has almost exclusively focussed on elite and athletic populations. The current study aimed to i) identify any differences in symptomatic experiences of the menstrual cycle between hormonal contraceptive users and non-users, ii) gain insight into hormonal contraceptive use, iii) describe perceived symptomatic influences on physical activity engagement, and iv) identify perceived levels of knowledge and understanding around the menstrual cycle. METHODS An online questionnaire was completed by 881 adult females aged between 18 and 55 years. Questionnaire items related to hormonal contraceptive use, habitual physical activity levels, experiences and symptoms of the menstrual cycle, and sources of information resulting in knowledge and understanding of the menstrual cycle. RESULTS More than half of all participants (52%) identified themselves as being recreationally active, and the most commonly reported menstrual symptoms were abdominal cramps, lethargy, abdominal bloating, lower back pain, and heavy bleeding. Of all respondents, 48.1% were using some form of hormonal contraception, 66% of which were using a version of a combined oral contraceptive pill. DISCUSSION Consistent with previous studies, 90% of respondents regularly experienced adverse menstrual symptoms, including abdominal cramps, lethargy, abdominal bloating, lower back pain, and heavy bleeding. Menstrual symptoms were frequently identified as influential factors in the avoidance of, and reduced performance in, physical activity. Almost half of all participants were using some form of hormonal contraception, a noticeably larger proportion than has been previously documented in studies examining non-athletic populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meg A Doohan
- Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia; School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
| | - Neil King
- Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia; School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Melanie J White
- Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia; School of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Ian B Stewart
- Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia; School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Smith MA, Sexton CL, Smith KA, Osburn SC, Godwin JS, Beausejour JP, Ruple BA, Goodlett MD, Edison JL, Fruge AD, Robinson AT, Gladden LB, Young KC, Roberts MD. Molecular predictors of resistance training outcomes in young untrained female adults. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2023; 134:491-507. [PMID: 36633866 PMCID: PMC10190845 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00605.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
We sought to determine if the myofibrillar protein synthetic (MyoPS) response to a naïve resistance exercise (RE) bout, or chronic changes in satellite cell number and muscle ribosome content, were associated with hypertrophic outcomes in females or differed in those who classified as higher (HR) or lower (LR) responders to resistance training (RT). Thirty-four untrained college-aged females (23.4 ± 3.4 kg/m2) completed a 10-wk RT protocol (twice weekly). Body composition and leg imaging assessments, a right leg vastus lateralis biopsy, and strength testing occurred before and following the intervention. A composite score, which included changes in whole body lean/soft tissue mass (LSTM), vastus lateralis (VL) muscle cross-sectional area (mCSA), midthigh mCSA, and deadlift strength, was used to delineate upper and lower HR (n = 8) and LR (n = 8) quartiles. In all participants, training significantly (P < 0.05) increased LSTM, VL mCSA, midthigh mCSA, deadlift strength, mean muscle fiber cross-sectional area, satellite cell abundance, and myonuclear number. Increases in LSTM (P < 0.001), VL mCSA (P < 0.001), midthigh mCSA (P < 0.001), and deadlift strength (P = 0.001) were greater in HR vs. LR. The first-bout 24-hour MyoPS response was similar between HR and LR (P = 0.367). While no significant responder × time interaction existed for muscle total RNA concentrations (i.e., ribosome content) (P = 0.888), satellite cell abundance increased in HR (P = 0.026) but not LR (P = 0.628). Pretraining LSTM (P = 0.010), VL mCSA (P = 0.028), and midthigh mCSA (P < 0.001) were also greater in HR vs. LR. Female participants with an enhanced satellite cell response to RT, and more muscle mass before RT, exhibited favorable resistance training adaptations.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study continues to delineate muscle biology differences between lower and higher responders to resistance training and is unique in that a female population was interrogated. As has been reported in prior studies, increases in satellite cell numbers are related to positive responses to resistance training. Satellite cell responsivity, rather than changes in muscle ribosome content per milligrams of tissue, may be a more important factor in delineating resistance-training responses in women.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Morgan A Smith
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
| | - Casey L Sexton
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
| | - Kristen A Smith
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics and Hospitality Management, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
| | | | | | | | | | - Michael D Goodlett
- Athletics Department, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
- Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Auburn, Alabama
| | - Joseph L Edison
- Athletics Department, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
- Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Auburn, Alabama
| | - Andrew D Fruge
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics and Hospitality Management, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
- College of Nursing, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
| | | | | | - Kaelin C Young
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
- Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Auburn, Alabama
| | - Michael D Roberts
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
- Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Auburn, Alabama
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Enea C, Delpech N, Bosquet L. Comment on: "Menstrual Cycle: The Importance of Both the Phases and the Transitions Between Phases on Training and Performance". Sports Med 2023; 53:761-762. [PMID: 37133672 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01778-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C Enea
- Laboratoire MOVE (UR20296), Faculté des Sciences du Sport, Université de Poitiers, 8 Allée Jean Monnet, TSA 31113, 96073, Poitiers Cedex 9, Poitiers, France.
| | - N Delpech
- Laboratoire MOVE (UR20296), Faculté des Sciences du Sport, Université de Poitiers, 8 Allée Jean Monnet, TSA 31113, 96073, Poitiers Cedex 9, Poitiers, France
| | - L Bosquet
- Laboratoire MOVE (UR20296), Faculté des Sciences du Sport, Université de Poitiers, 8 Allée Jean Monnet, TSA 31113, 96073, Poitiers Cedex 9, Poitiers, France
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Impact of Premenstrual Syndrome Symptoms on Sport Routines in Nonelite Athlete Participants of Summer Olympic Sports. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:142-147. [PMID: 36577421 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Most women during their lifetime experience a combination of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms (eg, menstrual cramps) before and often to the end of menstruation. However, the impact of these symptoms on sport routines (eg, performance, training absence) during phases around menstruation is still unclear. Therefore, we investigated the impact of PMS symptoms on sport routines among nonelite athletes over 3 phases related to menstruation. METHODS An online questionnaire was developed to recruit nonelite female athletes who participate in summer Olympic sports. Participants were allocated into 2 groups: those who experienced mild to moderate PMS symptoms (no-PMS) and those with severe PMS symptoms (p-PMS). Two hundred thirty-four responses from eumenorrheic women (p-PMS = 78%) were considered valid. An unpaired Student t test was conducted to compare demographic characteristics between groups and chi-square test to evaluate the impact of PMS status on sport routines between groups. RESULTS A significant (P < .05) proportion of women in the p-PMS group changed their training schedule because of menstrual (55%) and premenstrual (61%) symptoms compared with the no-PMS group. Overall, all participants indicated that training (P = .01) and competitive (P < .01) performance are impacted during menstruation, followed by a greater impact (P < .05) in the p-PMS group before menstruation. CONCLUSION The presence of PMS symptoms reduces training and competitive performance, primarily during and before menstruation, respectively. Severity of PMS symptoms was significantly associated with alterations in training schedule but not with competitive schedule.
Collapse
|
49
|
Zehravi M, Maqbool M, Ara I. Teenage menstrual dysfunction: an overview. Int J Adolesc Med Health 2023; 35:15-19. [PMID: 36117242 DOI: 10.1515/ijamh-2022-0018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
When a girl experiences her first period, she starts a new phase of her life and becomes biologically capable of becoming a mother and giving birth to a child. Girls' hypothalamus-pituitary-ovary axis reaches "axial maturity" during puberty, when they are between the ages of 8 and 13 years old. Secondary biological features, including as growth, body-shape changes in females, breast growth, hair growth on the vulva, and hair growth on the axillary pits, are often observed during this era. The first menstruation, or menarche, is also commonly observed during this time. During the menstrual cycle, a woman's ability to conceive and give birth is at the core of her reproductive life.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mehrukh Zehravi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy Girls Section, Prince Sattam Bin Abdul Aziz University, Alkharj, Saudia Arabia
| | - Mudasir Maqbool
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University Of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India
| | - Irfat Ara
- Regional Research Institute of Unani Medicine, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Dos’Santos T, Stebbings GK, Morse C, Shashidharan M, Daniels KAJ, Sanderson A. Effects of the menstrual cycle phase on anterior cruciate ligament neuromuscular and biomechanical injury risk surrogates in eumenorrheic and naturally menstruating women: A systematic review. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0280800. [PMID: 36701354 PMCID: PMC9879429 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0280800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Eumenorrheic women experience cyclic variations in sex hormones attributed to the menstrual cycle (MC) which can impact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) properties, knee laxity, and neuromuscular function. This systematic review aimed to examine the effects of the MC on ACL neuromuscular and biomechanical injury risk surrogates during dynamic tasks, to establish whether a particular MC phase predisposes women to greater ACL injury risk. METHODS PubMed, Medline, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science were searched (May-July 2021) for studies that investigated the effects of the MC on ACL neuromuscular and biomechanical injury risk surrogates. Inclusion criteria were: 1) injury-free women (18-40 years); 2) verified MC phases via biochemical analysis and/or ovulation kits; 3) examined neuromuscular and/or biomechanical injury risk surrogates during dynamic tasks; 4) compared ≥1 outcome measure across ≥2 defined MC phases. RESULTS Seven of 418 articles were included. Four studies reported no significant differences in ACL injury risk surrogates between MC phases. Two studies showed evidence the mid-luteal phase may predispose women to greater risk of non-contact ACL injury. Three studies reported knee laxity fluctuated across the MC; two of which demonstrated MC attributed changes in knee laxity were associated with changes in knee joint loading (KJL). Study quality (Modified Downs and Black Checklist score: 7-9) and quality of evidence were low to very low (Grading of Recommendations Assessment Development and Evaluation: very low). CONCLUSION It is inconclusive whether a particular MC phase predisposes women to greater non-contact ACL injury risk based on neuromuscular and biomechanical surrogates. Practitioners should be cautious manipulating their physical preparation, injury mitigation, and screening practises based on current evidence. Although variable (i.e., magnitude and direction), MC attributed changes in knee laxity were associated with changes in potentially hazardous KJLs. Monitoring knee laxity could therefore be a viable strategy to infer possible ACL injury risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Dos’Santos
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Manchester Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Georgina K. Stebbings
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Manchester Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher Morse
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Manchester Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Medha Shashidharan
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Manchester Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Katherine A. J. Daniels
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Manchester Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Andy Sanderson
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Manchester Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|