The C-C Chemokines CCL17 and CCL22 and Their Receptor CCR4 in CNS Autoimmunity

Infiltration by monocytes of the central nervous system and its role in multiple sclerosis: reflections on therapeutic strategies

Mononuclear macrophage infiltration in the central nervous system is a prominent feature of neuroinflammation. Recent studies on the pathogenesis and progression of multiple sclerosis have highlighted the multiple roles of mononuclear macrophages in the neuroinflammatory process. Monocytes play a significant role in neuroinflammation, and managing neuroinflammation by manipulating peripheral monocytes stands out as an effective strategy for the treatment of multiple sclerosis, leading to improved patient outcomes. This review outlines the steps involved in the entry of myeloid monocytes into the central nervous system that are targets for effective intervention: the activation of bone marrow hematopoiesis, migration of monocytes in the blood, and penetration of the blood-brain barrier by monocytes. Finally, we summarize the different monocyte subpopulations and their effects on the central nervous system based on phenotypic differences. As activated microglia resemble monocyte-derived macrophages, it is important to accurately identify the role of monocyte-derived macrophages in disease. Depending on the roles played by monocyte-derived macrophages at different stages of the disease, several of these processes can be interrupted to limit neuroinflammation and improve patient prognosis. Here, we discuss possible strategies to target monocytes in neurological diseases, focusing on three key aspects of monocyte infiltration into the central nervous system, to provide new ideas for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Tissue gene expression profiles and communication networks inform candidate blood biomarker identification in psoriasis and atopic dermatitis

Overlapping clinical and pathomechanistic features can complicate the diagnosis and treatment of inflammatory skin diseases, including psoriasis and atopic dermatitis (AD). Spatial transcriptomics allows the identification of disease- and cell-specific molecular signatures that may advance biomarker development and future treatments. This study identified transcriptional signatures in keratinocytes and sub-basal CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes from patients with psoriasis and AD. In silico prediction of ligand:receptor interactions delivered key signalling pathways (interferon, effector T cells, stroma cell and matrix biology, neuronal development, etc.). Targeted validation of selected transcripts, including CCL22, RELB, and JUND, in peripheral blood T cells suggests the chosen approach as a promising tool also in other inflammatory diseases. Psoriasis and AD are characterized by transcriptional dysregulation in T cells and keratinocytes that may be targeted therapeutically. Spatial transcriptomics is a valuable tool in the search for molecular signatures that can be used as biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets.

Novel genetically glycoengineered human dendritic cell model reveals regulatory roles of α2,6-linked sialic acids in DC activation of CD4+ T cells and response to TNFα

Dendritic cells (DCs) are central for the initiation and regulation of appropriate immune responses. While several studies suggest important regulatory roles of sialoglycans in DC biology, our understanding is still inadequate primarily due to a lack of appropriate models. Previous approaches based on enzymatic- or metabolic-glycoengineering and primary cell isolation from genetically modified mice have limitations related to specificity, stability, and species differences. This study addresses these challenges by introducing a workflow to genetically glycoengineer the human DC precursor cell line MUTZ-3, described to differentiate and maturate into fully functional dendritic cells, using CRISPR-Cas9, thereby providing and validating the first isogenic cell model for investigating glycan alteration on human DC differentiation, maturation, and activity. By knocking out (KO) the ST6GAL1 gene, we generated isogenic cells devoid of ST6GAL1-mediated α(2,6)-linked sialylation, allowing for a comprehensive investigation into its impact on DC function. Glycan profiling using lectin binding assay and functional studies revealed that ST6GAL1 KO increased the expression of important antigen presenting and co-stimulatory surface receptors and a specifically increased activation of allogenic human CD4 + T cells. Additionally, ST6GAL1 KO induces significant changes in surface marker expression and cytokine response to TNFα-induced maturation, and it affects migration and the endocytic capacity. These results indicate that genetic glycoengineering of the isogenic MUTZ-3 cellular model offers a valuable tool to study how specific glycan structures influence human DC biology, contributing to our understanding of glycoimmunology.

Role of calcium integrin-binding protein 1 in the mechanobiology of the liver endothelium

Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) dysfunction is a key process in the development of chronic liver disease (CLD). Progressive scarring increases liver stiffness in a winch-like loop stimulating a dysfunctional liver cell phenotype. Cellular stretching is supported by biomechanically modulated molecular factors (BMMFs) that can translocate into the cytoplasm to support mechanotransduction through cytoskeleton remodeling and gene transcription. Currently, the molecular mechanisms of stiffness-induced LSECs dysfunction remain largely unclear. Here we propose calcium- and integrin-binding protein 1 (CIB1) as BMMF with crucial role in LSECs mechanobiology in CLD. CIB1 expression and translocation was characterized in healthy and cirrhotic human livers and in LSECs cultured on polyacrylamide gels with healthy and cirrhotic-like stiffnesses. Following the modulation of CIB1 with siRNA, the transcriptome was scrutinized to understand downstream effects of CIB1 downregulation. CIB1 expression is increased in LSECs in human cirrhosis. In vitro, CIB1 emerges as an endothelial BMMF. In human umbilical vein endothelial cells and LSECs, CIB1 expression and localization are modulated by stiffness-induced trafficking across the nuclear membrane. LSECs from cirrhotic liver tissue both in animal model and human disease exhibit an increased amount of CIB1 in cytoplasm. Knockdown of CIB1 in LSECs exposed to high stiffness improves LSECs phenotype by regulating the intracellular tension as well as the inflammatory response. Our results demonstrate that CIB1 is a key factor in sustaining cellular tension and stretching in response to high stiffness. CIB1 downregulation ameliorates LSECs dysfunction, enhancing their redifferentiation, and reducing the inflammatory response.

A Narrative Review of the State of the Art of CCR4-Based Therapies in Cutaneous T-Cell Lymphomas: Focus on Mogamulizumab and Future Treatments

The CCR4 receptor is a pivotal target in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) therapy due to its role in impairing immune responses against malignant T-cells and expression profiles. Monoclonal antibodies like mogamulizumab effectively bind to CCR4, reducing tumour burden and enhancing patient outcomes by inhibiting the receptor's interaction with ligands, thereby hindering malignant T-cell migration and survival. Combining CCR4 antibodies with chemotherapy, radiation, and other drugs is being explored for synergistic effects. Additionally, small-molecular inhibitors, old pharmacological agents interacting with CCR4, and CAR-T therapies are under investigation. Challenges include drug resistance, off-target effects, and patient selection, addressed through ongoing trials refining protocols and identifying biomarkers. Despite advancements, real-life data for most of the emerging treatments are needed to temper expectations. In conclusion, CCR4-targeted therapies show promise for CTCL management, but challenges persist. Continued research aims to optimise treatments, enhance outcomes, and transform CTCL management. This review aims to elucidate the biological rationale and the several agents under various stages of development and clinical evaluation with the actual known data.

CC Chemokine Family Members' Modulation as a Novel Approach for Treating Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System Injury-A Review of Clinical and Experimental Findings

Despite significant progress in modern medicine and pharmacology, damage to the nervous system with various etiologies still poses a challenge to doctors and scientists. Injuries lead to neuroimmunological changes in the central nervous system (CNS), which may result in both secondary damage and the development of tactile and thermal hypersensitivity. In our review, based on the analysis of many experimental and clinical studies, we indicate that the mechanisms occurring both at the level of the brain after direct damage and at the level of the spinal cord after peripheral nerve damage have a common immunological basis. This suggests that there are opportunities for similar pharmacological therapeutic interventions in the damage of various etiologies. Experimental data indicate that after CNS/PNS damage, the levels of 16 among the 28 CC-family chemokines, i.e., CCL1, CCL2, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, CCL6, CCL7, CCL8, CCL9, CCL11, CCL12, CCL17, CCL19, CCL20, CCL21, and CCL22, increase in the brain and/or spinal cord and have strong proinflammatory and/or pronociceptive effects. According to the available literature data, further investigation is still needed for understanding the role of the remaining chemokines, especially six of them which were found in humans but not in mice/rats, i.e., CCL13, CCL14, CCL15, CCL16, CCL18, and CCL23. Over the past several years, the results of studies in which available pharmacological tools were used indicated that blocking individual receptors, e.g., CCR1 (J113863 and BX513), CCR2 (RS504393, CCX872, INCB3344, and AZ889), CCR3 (SB328437), CCR4 (C021 and AZD-2098), and CCR5 (maraviroc, AZD-5672, and TAK-220), has beneficial effects after damage to both the CNS and PNS. Recently, experimental data have proved that blockades exerted by double antagonists CCR1/3 (UCB 35625) and CCR2/5 (cenicriviroc) have very good anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects. In addition, both single (J113863, RS504393, SB328437, C021, and maraviroc) and dual (cenicriviroc) chemokine receptor antagonists enhanced the analgesic effect of opioid drugs. This review will display the evidence that a multidirectional strategy based on the modulation of neuronal-glial-immune interactions can significantly improve the health of patients after CNS and PNS damage by changing the activity of chemokines belonging to the CC family. Moreover, in the case of pain, the combined administration of such antagonists with opioid drugs could reduce therapeutic doses and minimize the risk of complications.

Vagus Nerve Stimulation Modulates Inflammation in Treatment-Resistant Depression Patients: A Pilot Study

Vagal neurostimulation (VNS) is used for the treatment of epilepsy and major medical-refractory depression. VNS has neuropsychiatric functions and systemic anti-inflammatory activity. The objective of this study is to measure the clinical efficacy and impact of VNS modulation in depressive patients. Six patients with refractory depression were enrolled. Depression symptoms were assessed with the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating, and anxiety symptoms with the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale. Plasmas were harvested prospectively before the implantation of VNS (baseline) and up to 4 years or more after continuous therapy. Forty soluble molecules were measured in the plasma by multiplex assays. Following VNS, the reduction in the mean depression severity score was 59.9% and the response rate was 87%. Anxiety levels were also greatly reduced. IL-7, CXCL8, CCL2, CCL13, CCL17, CCL22, Flt-1 and VEGFc levels were significantly lowered, whereas bFGF levels were increased (p values ranging from 0.004 to 0.02). This exploratory study is the first to focus on the long-term efficacy of VNS and its consequences on inflammatory biomarkers. VNS may modulate inflammation via an increase in blood-brain barrier integrity and a reduction in inflammatory cell recruitment. This opens the door to new pathways involved in the treatment of refractory depression.

Fentanyl dysregulates neuroinflammation and disrupts blood-brain barrier integrity in HIV-1 Tat transgenic mice

Opioid overdose deaths have dramatically increased by 781% from 1999 to 2021. In the setting of HIV, opioid drug abuse exacerbates neurotoxic effects of HIV in the brain, as opioids enhance viral replication, promote neuronal dysfunction and injury, and dysregulate an already compromised inflammatory response. Despite the rise in fentanyl abuse and the close association between opioid abuse and HIV infection, the interactive comorbidity between fentanyl abuse and HIV has yet to be examined in vivo. The HIV-1 Tat-transgenic mouse model was used to understand the interactive effects between fentanyl and HIV. Tat is an essential protein produced during HIV that drives the transcription of new virions and exerts neurotoxic effects within the brain. The Tat-transgenic mouse model uses a glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-driven tetracycline promoter which limits Tat production to the brain and this model is well used for examining mechanisms related to neuroHIV. After 7 days of fentanyl exposure, brains were harvested. Tight junction proteins, the vascular cell adhesion molecule, and platelet-derived growth factor receptor-β were measured to examine the integrity of the blood brain barrier. The immune response was assessed using a mouse-specific multiplex chemokine assay. For the first time in vivo, we demonstrate that fentanyl by itself can severely disrupt the blood-brain barrier and dysregulate the immune response. In addition, we reveal associations between inflammatory markers and tight junction proteins at the blood-brain barrier.

CC chemokine receptors are prognostic indicators of gastric cancer and are associated with immune infiltration

BACKGROUND

CC chemokine receptors are responsible for regulating the tumor microenvironment (TME) and participating in carcinogenesis and tumor advancement. However, no functional study has investigated CC chemokine receptors in gastric cancer (GC) prognosis, risk, immunotherapy, or other treatments.

METHODS

We conducted a bioinformatics analysis on GC data using online databases, including the Human Protein Atlas (HPA), Kaplan-Meier (KM) plotter, GeneMANIA, MethSurv, the University of ALabama at Birmingham CANcer (UALCAN) Data Analysis Portal, Gene Set Cancer Analysis (GSCA), cBioportal, and Tumor IMmune Estimation Resource (TIMER).

RESULTS

We noted that CC chemokine receptor expression correlated with survival in GC. CC chemokine receptor expression was also strongly linked to different tumor-infiltrating immune cells. Additionally, CC chemokine receptors were found to be broadly drug-resistant in GC.

CONCLUSION

Our study identifed CC chemokine receptor expression helped in predicting the prognosis of patients diagnosed with GC. The expression level of the CC chemokine receptors was also positively related to multiple tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs). These findings provide evidence to monitor patients with GC using CC chemokine receptors, which can be used as an effective biomarker for predicting the disease prognosis and be regarded as a therapeutic target for modulating the tumor immune microenvironment.

Stem cells and pain

Pain can be defined as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience caused by either actual or potential tissue damage or even resemble that unpleasant experience. For years, science has sought to find treatment alternatives, with minimal side effects, to relieve pain. However, the currently available pharmacological options on the market show significant adverse events. Therefore, the search for a safer and highly efficient analgesic treatment has become a priority. Stem cells (SCs) are non-specialized cells with a high capacity for replication, self-renewal, and a wide range of differentiation possibilities. In this review, we provide evidence that the immune and neuromodulatory properties of SCs can be a valuable tool in the search for ideal treatment strategies for different types of pain. With the advantage of multiple administration routes and dosages, therapies based on SCs for pain relief have demonstrated meaningful results with few downsides. Nonetheless, there are still more questions than answers when it comes to the mechanisms and pathways of pain targeted by SCs. Thus, this is an evolving field that merits further investigation towards the development of SC-based analgesic therapies, and this review will approach all of these aspects.

The regulatory network of the chemokine CCL5 in colorectal cancer

The chemokine CCL5 plays a potential role in the occurrence and development of colorectal cancer (CRC). Previous studies have shown that CCL5 directly acts on tumor cells to change tumor metastatic rates. In addition, CCL5 recruits immune cells and immunosuppressive cells into the tumor microenvironment (TME) and reshapes the TME to adapt to tumor growth or increase antitumor immune efficacy, depending on the type of secretory cells releasing CCL5, the cellular function of CCL5 recruitment, and the underlying mechanisms. However, at present, research on the role played by CCL5 in the occurrence and development of CRC is still limited, and whether CCL5 promotes the occurrence and development of CRC and its role remain controversial. This paper discusses the cells recruited by CCL5 in patients with CRC and the specific mechanism of this recruitment, as well as recent clinical studies of CCL5 in patients with CRC.Key MessagesCCL5 plays dual roles in colorectal cancer progression.CCL5 remodels the tumor microenvironment to adapt to colorectal cancer tumor growth by recruiting immunosuppressive cells or by direct action.CCL5 inhibits colorectal cancer tumor growth by recruiting immune cells or by direct action.

The novel small molecule TPN10518 alleviates EAE pathogenesis by inhibiting AP1 to depress Th1/Th17 cell differentiation

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is one of the most common autoimmune diseases of central nervous system (CNS) demyelination. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is the most classic animal model for simulating the onset of clinical symptoms in MS. Previous research has reported the anti-inflammatory effects of artemisinin on autoimmune diseases. In our study, we identified a novel small molecule, TPN10518, an artemisinin derivative, which plays a protective role on the EAE model. We found that TPN10518 reduced CNS inflammatory cell infiltration and alleviated clinical symptoms of EAE. In addition, TPN10518 downregulated the production of Th1 and Th17 cells in vivo and in vitro, and decrease the levels of related chemokines. RNA-seq assay combined with the experimental results demonstrated that TPN10518 lowered the mRNA and protein levels of the AP1 subunits c-Fos and c-Jun in EAE mice. It was further confirmed that TPN10518 was dependent on AP1 to inhibit the differentiation of Th1 and Th17 cells. The results suggest that TPN10518 reduces the production of Th1 and Th17 cells through inhibition of AP1 to alleviate the severity of EAE disease. It is expected to be a potential drug for the treatment of MS.

The GM-CSF/CCL17 pathway in obesity-associated osteoarthritic pain and disease in mice

OBJECTIVES

We have previously identified a granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF)/C-C motif ligand 17 (CCL17) pathway in monocytes/macrophages, in which GM-CSF regulates the formation of CCL17, and it is important for an experimental osteoarthritis (OA) model. We explore here additional OA models, including in the presence of obesity, such as a requirement for this pathway.

DESIGN

The roles of GM-CSF, CCL17, CCR4, and CCL22 in various experimental OA models, including those incorporating obesity (eight-week high-fat diet), were investigated using gene-deficient male mice. Pain-like behavior and arthritis were assessed by relative static weight distribution and histology, respectively. Cell populations (flow cytometry) and cytokine messenger RNA (mRNA) expression (qPCR) in knee infrapatellar fat pad were analyzed. Human OA sera were collected for circulating CCL17 levels (ELISA) and OA knee synovial tissue for gene expression (qPCR).

RESULTS

We present evidence that: i) GM-CSF, CCL17, and CCR4, but not CCL22, are required for the development of pain-like behavior and optimal disease in three experimental OA models, as well as for exacerbated OA development due to obesity, ii) obesity alone leads to spontaneous knee joint damage in a GM-CSF- and CCL17-dependent manner, and iii) in knee OA patients, early indications are that BMI correlates with a lower Oxford Knee Score (r = -0.458 and p = 0.0096), with elevated circulating CCL17 levels (r = 0.2108 and p = 0.0153) and with elevated GM-CSF and CCL17 gene expression in OA synovial tissue.

CONCLUSIONS

The above findings indicate that GM-CSF, CCL17, and CCR4 are involved in obesity-associated OA development, broadening their potential as targets for possible treatments for OA.

Increase of the T-reg-recruiting chemokine CCL22 expression in a progressive course of cervical dysplasia

PURPOSE

An increasing infiltration of FoxP3-positive T-regs is associated with a higher grade of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. The T-reg-recruiting chemokine CCL22 is expressed in various tumour entities. Aim of our study was to investigate the role of CCL22 in the progression and regression of cervical intraepithelial neoplasias, especially in patients with intermediate cervical intraepithelial neoplasias (CIN II). Furthermore, our aim was to characterize the CCL22-producing cells and explore the role of innate immunity in the process of cells recruitment.

METHODS

CCL22 expression was analyzed immunohistochemically in 169 patient samples. The immunoreactive score as well as the median numbers of positive cells were calculated in each slide and correlated with the histological CIN grade and FoxP3 expression. Additionally, CD68/CCL22 as well as CD68/PPARγ and CD68/FoxP3 expression were examined by double immunofluorescence. Statistical analysis was performed by SPSS 26.

RESULTS

A significantly higher expression of epithelial CCL22 in CIN II with progression in comparison to CIN II with regression (p = 0.006) could be detected. CCL22 was correlated with FoxP3 (Spearman's Rho: 0.308; p < 0.01). In 88%, CCL22-positive cells were positive for CD68, and 71% of CD68-positive macrophages expressed PPARγ. Colocalization of CD68 and FoxP3 was detected in 12%.

CONCLUSION

We could demonstrate that increased expression of CCL22, mainly produced by macrophages, correlates with elevated potential of malignancy. CCL22 expression could act as a predictor for regression and progression in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, and it may help in the decision process regarding surgical treatment versus watchful waiting strategy in order to prevent conisation-associated risks. Furthermore, our findings support the potential of CCL22-producing cells as a target for immune therapy in cervical cancer patients.

CCL17/TARC in autoimmunity and inflammation-not just a T-cell chemokine

Chemokine (C-C) ligand 17 (CCL17) was first identified as thymus- and activation-regulated chemokine when it was found to be constitutively expressed in the thymus and identified as a T-cell chemokine. This chemoattractant molecule has subsequently been found at elevated levels in a range of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, as well as in cancer. CCL17 is a C-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CCR4) ligand, with chemokine (C-C) ligand 22 being the other major ligand and, as CCR4 is highly expressed on helper T cells, CCL17 can play a role in T-cell-driven diseases, usually considered to be via its chemotactic activity on T helper 2 cells; however, given that CCR4 is also expressed by other cell types and there is elevated expression of CCL17 in many diseases, a broader CCL17 biology is suggested. In this review, we summarize the biology of CCL17, its regulation and its potential contribution to the pathogenesis of various preclinical models. Reference is made, for example, to recent literature indicating a role for CCL17 in the control of pain as part of a granulocyte macrophage-colony-stimulating factor/CCL17 pathway in lymphocyte-independent models and thus not as a T-cell chemokine. The review also discusses the potential for CCL17 to be a biomarker and a therapeutic target in human disorders.

Targeting Members of the Chemokine Family as a Novel Approach to Treating Neuropathic Pain

Neuropathic pain is a debilitating condition that affects millions of people worldwide. Numerous studies indicate that this type of pain is a chronic condition with a complex mechanism that tends to worsen over time, leading to a significant deterioration in patients' quality of life and issues like depression, disability, and disturbed sleep. Presently used analgesics are not effective enough in neuropathy treatment and may cause many side effects due to the high doses needed. In recent years, many researchers have pointed to the important role of chemokines not only in the development and maintenance of neuropathy but also in the effectiveness of analgesic drugs. Currently, approximately 50 chemokines are known to act through 20 different seven-transmembrane G-protein-coupled receptors located on the surface of neuronal, glial, and immune cells. Data from recent years clearly indicate that more chemokines than initially thought (CCL1/2/3/5/7/8/9/11, CXCL3/9/10/12/13/14/17; XCL1, CX3CL1) have pronociceptive properties; therefore, blocking their action by using neutralizing antibodies, inhibiting their synthesis, or blocking their receptors brings neuropathic pain relief. Several of them (CCL1/2/3/7/9/XCL1) have been shown to be able to reduce opioid drug effectiveness in neuropathy, and neutralizing antibodies against them can restore morphine and/or buprenorphine analgesia. The latest research provides irrefutable evidence that chemokine receptors are promising targets for pharmacotherapy; chemokine receptor antagonists can relieve pain of different etiologies, and most of them are able to enhance opioid analgesia, for example, the blockade of CCR1 (J113863), CCR2 (RS504393), CCR3 (SB328437), CCR4 (C021), CCR5 (maraviroc/AZD5672/TAK-220), CXCR2 (NVPCXCR220/SB225002), CXCR3 (NBI-74330/AMG487), CXCR4 (AMD3100/AMD3465), and XCR1 (vMIP-II). Recent research has shown that multitarget antagonists of chemokine receptors, such as CCR2/5 (cenicriviroc), CXCR1/2 (reparixin), and CCR2/CCR5/CCR8 (RAP-103), are also very effective painkillers. A multidirectional strategy based on the modulation of neuronal-glial-immune interactions by changing the activity of the chemokine family can significantly improve the quality of life of patients suffering from neuropathic pain. However, members of the chemokine family are still underestimated pharmacological targets for pain treatment. In this article, we review the literature and provide new insights into the role of chemokines and their receptors in neuropathic pain.

Intrathecal Th17-driven inflammation is associated with prolonged post-treatment convalescence for patients with Lyme neuroborreliosis

Lyme neuroborreliosis (LNB) is associated with increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Residual symptoms after antibiotic treatment can have deleterious effects on patients and knowledge regarding the pathogenesis linked to prolonged recovery is lacking. In this prospective follow-up study, we investigated the B cell-associated and T helper (Th) cell-associated immune responses in well-characterized patients with LNB and controls. The aims were to assess the kinetics of selected cytokines and chemokines involved in the inflammatory response and to identify potential prognostic markers. We investigated 13 patients with LNB according to a standardized clinical protocol before antibiotic treatment and after 1, 6 and 12 months of follow-up. CSF and blood samples were obtained at baseline and after 1 month. As controls, we used CSF samples from 37 patients who received spinal anesthesia during orthopedic surgery. The CSF samples were analyzed for CXCL10 (Th1-related), CCL22 (Th2-related) and IL-17A, CXCL1 and CCL20 (Th17-related), as well as for the B cell-related cytokines of a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL), B cell-activating factor (BAFF) and CXCL13. The CSF levels of all the cytokines and chemokines, with the exception of APRIL, were significantly higher at baseline in patients with LNB compared with controls. All the cytokines and chemokines, except for IL-17A were significantly reduced at 1-month follow-up. Patients with quick recovery (< 1 month, n = 3) had significantly lower levels of CCL20 at baseline and lower levels of IL-17A at 1-month follow-up. Patients with time of recovery > 6 months (n = 7) had significantly higher levels of IL-17A at the one-month follow-up. No other cytokines or chemokines were associated with prolonged recovery. Dominating residual symptoms were fatigue, myalgia, radiculitis and/or arthralgia. In this prospective follow-up study of patients with LNB, we found significantly lower levels of CCL20 in those who recovered rapidly, and increased levels of IL-17A in patients with delayed recovery post-treatment. Our findings indicate persistent Th17-driven inflammation in the CSF, possibly contributing to a longer convalescence, and suggest IL-17A and CCL20 as potential biomarker candidates for patients with LNB.

Sex Differences in the Inflammatory Profile in the Brain of Young and Aged Mice

Neurodegenerative diseases are a leading cause of death worldwide with no cures identified. Thus, there is a critical need for preventative measures and treatments as the number of patients is expected to increase. Many neurodegenerative diseases have sex-biased prevalence, indicating a need to examine sex differences when investigating prevention and treatment strategies. Inflammation is a key contributor to many neurodegenerative diseases and is a promising target for prevention since inflammation increases with age, which is known as inflammaging. Here, we analyzed the protein expression levels of cytokines, chemokines, and inflammasome signaling proteins in the cortex of young and aged male and female mice. Our results show an increase in caspase-1, interleukin (IL)-1β, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC), and ASC specks in females compared to males. Additionally, there was an increase in IL-1α, VEGF-A, CCL3, CXCL1, CCL4, CCL17, and CCL22 in aging females and an increase in IL-8, IL-17a, IL-7, LT-α, and CCL22 in aging males. IL-12/IL-23p40, CCL13, and IL-10 were increased in females compared to males but not with age. These results indicate that there are sex differences in cortical inflammaging and provide potential targets to attenuate inflammation to prevent the development of neurodegenerative disease.

Blockade of CCR4 breaks immune tolerance in chronic hepatitis B patients by modulating regulatory pathways

BACKGROUND

Immunotargets including checkpoint inhibitors and toll-like receptor 8 agonists have recently gained attention for the recovery of hepatitis B virus (HBV)-specific T cell exhaustion in chronic hepatitis B(CHB). Chemokine receptors have a similar significant role during viral infections; however, their role in CHB remains poorly understood. Therefore, in this study we evaluated the role of chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4) in deriving immunosuppression during CHB.

METHODS

We characterized CCR4+CD8+ T cells in CHB and identified their involvement in immunosuppression. Further, we examined if CCR4 blockade with mogamulizumab antibody can recover the functional exhaustion in HBsAg-specific T cells.

RESULTS

CHB patients exhibit higher frequency of CCR4+CD8+ T cells that increase with higher HBsAg levels and fibrosis scores. In vitro, HBs antigen triggers CCR4 expression. These cells express multiple inhibitory receptors and exhibit immunosuppressive functions by producing excessive immunoregulatory cytokines IL-4, IL-5, IL-10 and TGF-β1. CCR4 Blockade significantly boosted HBsAg-specific antiviral-cytokine production(IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-21) in T cells through enhancing their proliferation capacity and polarizing these cells towards T helper 1(Th1) and T follicular helper cells(T_FH) in case of CD4 cells, and cytotoxic T cell 1(TC1) and cytotoxic T follicular(T_CF) cells in case of CD8. Cytotoxic potential was improved, while no induction of immunosuppressive-cytokines was seen after anti-CCR4 treatment thereby eliminating the risk of treatment-induced immunosuppression. CCR4 blockade inhibited the development and effector function of Tregs by controlling their expansion and TGF-β1 production preventing Tregs-induced immunotolearance.

CONCLUSIONS

CCR4 blockade reconstitutes antiviral immune response in T cells and limits the immunosuppressive functions of Tregs, representing them as a promising immunotherapeutic target for functional cure of CHB.

Interferon-γ-Treated Mesenchymal Stem Cells Modulate the T Cell-Related Chemokines and Chemokine Receptors in an Animal Model of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) modulate immune responses, and their immunomodulatory potential can be enhanced using inflammatory cytokines. Here, the modulatory effects of IFN-γ-licensed MSCs on expression of T cell-related chemokines and chemokine receptors were evaluated using an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

EAE was induced in 3 groups of C57bl/6 mice and then treated with PBS, MSCs and IFN-γ-treated MSCs. The EAE manifestations were registered daily and finally, the brain and spinal cords were isolated for histopathological and gene expression studies.

RESULTS

The clinical scores were lowered in MSCs and IFN-γ-licensed MSCs groups, however, mice treated with IFN-γ-licensed MSCs exhibited lower clinical scores than MSCs-treated mice. Leukocyte infiltration into the brain was reduced after treatment with MSCs or IFN-γ-licensed MSCs compared to untreated group (P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively). In comparison with untreated EAE mice, treatment with MSCs reduced CCL20 expression (P<0.001) and decreased CXCR3 and CCR6 expression (P<0.02 and P<0.04, respectively). In comparison with untreated EAE mice, treatment with IFN-γ-licensed MSCs reduced CXCL10, CCL17 and CCL20 expression (P<0.05, P<0.05, and P<0.001, respectively) as well as decreased CXCR3 and CCR6 expression (P<0.002 and P<0.02, respectively), whilst promoting expression of CCL22 and its receptor CCR4 (P<0.0001 and P<0.02, respectively). In comparison with MSC-treated group, mice treated with IFN-γ-licensed MSCs exhibited lower CXCL10 and CCR6 expression (P<0.002 and P<0.01, respectively), whereas greater expression of CCL22 and CCR4 (P<0.0001 and P<0.01, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Priming the MSC with IFN-γ can be an efficient approach to enhance the immunomodulatory potential of MSCs.

The roles of chemokines following intracerebral hemorrhage in animal models and humans

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is one common yet devastating stroke subtype, imposing considerable burdens on families and society. Current guidelines are limited to symptomatic treatments after ICH, and the death rate remains significant in the acute stage. Thus, it is crucial to promote research to develop new targets on brain injury after ICH. In response to hematoma formation, amounts of chemokines are released in the brain, triggering the infiltration of resident immune cells in the brain and the chemotaxis of peripheral immune cells via the broken blood-brain barrier. During the past decades, mounting studies have focused on the roles of chemokines and their receptors in ICH injury. This review summarizes the latest advances in the study of chemokine functions in the ICH. First, we provide an overview of ICH epidemiology and underlying injury mechanisms in the pathogenesis of ICH. Second, we introduce the biology of chemokines and their receptors in brief. Third, we outline the roles of chemokines in ICH according to subgroups, including CCL2, CCL3, CCL5, CCL12, CCL17, CXCL8, CXCL12, and CX3CL1. Finally, we summarize current drug usage targeting chemokines in ICH and other cardio-cerebrovascular diseases. This review discusses the expressions of these chemokines and receptors under normal or hemorrhagic conditions and cell-specific sources. Above all, we highlight the related data of these chemokines in the progression and outcomes of the ICH disease in preclinical and clinical studies and point to therapeutic opportunities targeting chemokines productions and interactions in treating ICH, such as accelerating hematoma absorption and alleviating brain edema.

CC Chemokine Receptor 4 (CCR4) as a Possible New Target for Therapy

Chemokines and their receptors participate in many biological processes, including the modulation of neuroimmune interactions. Approximately fifty chemokines are distinguished in humans, which are classified into four subfamilies based on the N-terminal conserved cysteine motifs: CXC, CC, C, and CX3C. Chemokines activate specific receptors localized on the surface of various immune and nervous cells. Approximately twenty chemokine receptors have been identified, and each of these receptors is a seven-transmembrane G-protein coupled receptor. Recent studies provide new evidence that CC chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4) is important in the pathogenesis of many diseases, such as diabetes, multiple sclerosis, asthma, dermatitis, and cancer. This review briefly characterizes CCR4 and its ligands (CCL17, CCL22, and CCL2), and their contributions to immunological and neoplastic diseases. The review notes a significant role of CCR4 in nociceptive transmission, especially in painful neuropathy, which accompanies many diseases. The pharmacological blockade of CCR4 seems beneficial because of its pain-relieving effects and its influence on opioid efficacy. The possibilities of using the CCL2/CCL17/CCL22/CCR4 axis as a target in new therapies for many diseases are also discussed.

Meta-Analysis on Nicotine's Modulation of HIV-Associated Dementia

HIV-Associated Dementia (HAD) is a significant comorbidity that many HIV-patients face. Our study utilized QIAGEN Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) to identify and analyze molecular profiles and pathways underlying nicotine's impact on HAD pathology. The Qiagen Knowledge Base (QKB) defines HAD as "Dementia associated with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (disorder)." Although much remains unknown about HAD pathology, the curated research findings from the QKB shows 5 upregulated molecules that are associated with HAD + : CCL2 (Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2), L-glutamic acid, GLS (Glutaminase), POLG (DNA polymerase subunit gamma), and POLB (DNA polymerase subunit beta). The current study focused on these 5 HAD pathology molecules as the phenotype of interest. The Pathway Explorer tool of IPA was used to connect nicotine-associated molecules with the 5 HAD associated molecules (HAD pathology molecules) by connecting 29 overlapping molecules (including transcription regulators, cytokines, kinases, and other enzymes/proteins). The Molecule-Activity-Predictor (MAP) tool predicted nicotine-induced activation of the HAD pathology molecules indicating the exacerbation of HAD. However, alternative pathways with more holistic representations of molecular relationships revealed the potential of nicotine as a neuroprotective treatment. It was found that concurrent with nicotine treatment the individual inactivation of several of the intermediary molecules in the holistic pathways caused the downregulation of the HAD pathology molecules. These findings reveal that nicotine may have therapeutic properties for HAD when given alongside specific inhibitory drugs for one or more of the identified intermediary molecules.

CCL17 Promotes Colitis-Associated Tumorigenesis Dependent on the Microbiota

Colorectal cancer is one of the most common cancers and a major cause of mortality. Proinflammatory and antitumor immune responses play critical roles in colitis-associated colon cancer. CCL17, a chemokine of the C-C family and ligand for CCR4, is expressed by intestinal dendritic cells in the steady state and is upregulated during colitis in mouse models and inflammatory bowel disease patients. In this study, we investigated the expression pattern and functional relevance of CCL17 for colitis-associated colon tumor development using CCL17-enhanced GFP-knockin mice. CCL17 was highly expressed by dendritic cells but also upregulated in macrophages and intermediary monocytes in colon tumors induced by exposure to azoxymethane and dextran sodium sulfate. Despite a similar degree of inflammation in the colon, CCL17-deficient mice developed fewer tumors than did CCL17-competent mice. This protective effect was abrogated by cohousing, indicating a dependency on the microbiota. Changes in microbiota diversity and composition were detected in separately housed CCL17-deficient mice, and these mice were more susceptible to azoxymethane-induced early apoptosis in the colon affecting tumor initiation. Immune cell infiltration in colitis-induced colon tumors was not affected by the lack of CCL17. Taken together, our results indicate that CCL17 promotes colitis-associated tumorigenesis by influencing the composition of the intestinal microbiome and reducing apoptosis during tumor initiation.

How lung injury and therapeutic oxygen could alter white matter development

Developmental brain injury describes a spectrum of neurological pathologies resulting from either antenatal or perinatal injury. This includes both cognitive and motor defects that affect patients for their entire lives. Developmental brain injury can be caused by a spectrum of conditions including stroke, perinatal hypoxia-ischemia, and intracranial hemorrhage. Additional risk factors have been identified including very low birth weight, mechanical ventilation, and oxygen (O2 ) supplementation. In fact, infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia, an inflammatory disease associated with disrupted lung development, have been shown to have decreased cerebral white matter and decreased intracranial volumes. Thus, there appears to be a developmental link between the lung, O2 , and the brain that leads to proper myelination. Here, we will discuss what is currently known about the link between O2 and myelination and how scientists are exploring mechanisms through which supplemental O2 and/or lung injury can affect brain development. Consideration of a link between the diseased lung and developing brain will allow clinicians to fine tune their approaches in managing preterm lung disease in order to optimize brain health.

Features of Peripheral Blood Th-Cell Subset Composition and Serum Cytokine Level in Patients with Activity-Driven Ankylosing Spondylitis

Th cells may exhibit pathological activity depending on the regulatory and functional signals sensed under a wide range of immunopathological conditions, including ankylosing spondylitis (AS). The relationship between Th cells and cytokines is important for diagnoses and for determining treatment. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between Th-cell subset composition and serum cytokine profile for patients with activity-driven AS. In our study, patients were divided into two groups according to disease activity: low-activity AS (ASDAS-CRP < 2.1) and high-activity AS (ASDAS-CRP > 2.1). The peripheral blood Th cell subset composition was studied by flow cytometry. Using multiplex analysis, serum cytokine levels were quantified and investigated. It was found that only patients with high-activity AS had reduced central memory (CM) Th1 cells (p = 0.035) but elevated numbers of CM (p = 0.014) and effector memory (EM) Th2 cells (p < 0.001). However, no activity-driven change in the Th17 cell subset composition was observed in AS patients. Moreover, low-AS activity patients had increased numbers of Tfh17 EM cells (p < 0.001), whereas high-AS activity was associated with elevated Tfh2 EM level (p = 0.031). The serum cytokine profiles in AS patients demonstrated that cues stimulating cellular immunity were increased, but patients with high-AS activity reveled increased IL-5 level (p = 0.017). Analyzing the data obtained from AS patients allowed us to conclude that Th cell subset differentiation was mainly affected during the CM stage and characterized the IL-23/IL-17 regulatory axis, whereas increased humoral immunity was observed in the high-AS activity group.

Migrating Type 2 Dendritic Cells Prime Mucosal Th17 Cells Specific to Small Intestinal Commensal Bacteria

Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional APCs equipped with MHC-restricted Ags, costimulations, and cytokines that effectively prime and differentiate naive T cells into distinct functional subsets. The immune signals that DCs carry reflect the route of Ag uptake and the innate stimuli they received. In the mucosal tissues, owing to the great variety of foreign Ags and inflammatory cues, DCs are predominantly activated and migratory. In the small intestine, CD4 Th17 cells are abundant and have been shown to be regulated by DCs and macrophages. Using a mouse commensal bacteria experimental model, we identified that the early priming step of commensal-driven Th17 cells is controlled by bona fide Zbtb46-expressing DCs. CCR7-dependent migration of type 2 DCs (DC2s) from the small intestine to the mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) is essential for the activation of naive CD4 T cells. The migratory DC2 population in the MLNs is almost exclusively Esam+ cells. Single-cell RNA sequencing highlighted the abundance of costimulatory markers (CD40 and OX40) and chemokines (Ccl22 and Cxcl16) on MLN migratory DCs. Further resolution of MLN migratory DC2s revealed that the Th17-polarizing cytokine IL-6 colocalizes with DC2s expressing CD40, Ccl17, and Ccl22. Thus, early Th17 cell differentiation is initiated by a small subset of migratory DC2s in the gut-draining lymph nodes.

The cytokine IL-27 reduces inflammation and protects photoreceptors in a mouse model of retinal degeneration

BACKGROUND

Retinal degenerative diseases are a group of conditions characterized by photoreceptor death and vision loss. Excessive inflammation and microglial activation contribute to the pathology of retinal degenerations and a major focus in the field is identifying more effective anti-inflammatory therapeutic strategies that promote photoreceptor survival. A major challenge to developing anti-inflammatory treatments is to selectively suppress detrimental inflammation while maintaining beneficial inflammatory responses. We recently demonstrated that endogenous levels of the IL-27 cytokine were upregulated in association with an experimental treatment that increased photoreceptor survival. IL-27 is a pleiotropic cytokine that regulates tissue reactions to infection, neuronal disease and tumors by inducing anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory genes and suppressing pro-inflammatory genes. IL-27 is neuroprotective in the brain, but its function during retinal degeneration has not been investigated. In this study, we investigated the effect of IL-27 in the rd10 mouse model of inherited photoreceptor degeneration.

METHODS

Male and female rd10 mice were randomly divided into experimental (IL-27) and control (saline) groups and intravitreally injected at age post-natal day (P) 18. Retina function was analyzed by electroretinograms (ERGs), visual acuity by optomotor assay, photoreceptor death by TdT-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay, microglia/macrophage were detected by immunodetection of IBA1 and inflammatory mediators by cytoplex and QPCR analysis. The distribution of IL-27 in the retina was determined by immunohistochemistry on retina cross-sections and primary Muller glia cultures.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that recombinant IL-27 decreased photoreceptor death, increased retinal function and reduced inflammation in the rd10 mouse model of retinal degeneration. Furthermore, IL-27 injections led to lower levels of the pro-inflammatory proteins Ccl22, IL-18 and IL-12. IL-27 expression was localized to Muller glia and IL-27 receptors to microglia, which are key cell types that regulate photoreceptor survival.

CONCLUSION

Our results identify for the first time anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activities of IL-27 in a genetic model of retinal degeneration. These findings provide new insight into the therapeutic potential of anti-inflammatory cytokines as a treatment for degenerative diseases of the retina.

CCL17 acts as a novel therapeutic target in pathological cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure

Circulating proteomic signatures of age are closely associated with aging and age-related diseases; however, the utility of changes in secreted proteins in identifying therapeutic targets for diseases remains unclear. Serum proteomic profiling of an age-stratified healthy population and further community-based cohort together with heart failure patients study demonstrated that circulating C-C motif chemokine ligand 17 (CCL17) level increased with age and correlated with cardiac dysfunction. Subsequent animal experiments further revealed that Ccll7-KO significantly repressed aging and angiotensin II (Ang II)–induced cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis, accompanied by the plasticity and differentiation of T cell subsets. Furthermore, the therapeutic administration of an anti-CCL17 neutralizing antibody inhibited Ang II–induced pathological cardiac remodeling. Our findings reveal that chemokine CCL17 is identifiable as a novel therapeutic target in age-related and Ang II–induced pathological cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure.

Chemokine receptor 4 expression on blood T lymphocytes predicts severity of major depressive disorder

BACKGROUND

Chemokines and their receptors regulate inflammatory processes in major depressive disorder (MDD). Here, we characterize the expression pattern of the C-C chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4) and its ligands CCL17 and CCL22 in MDD and its clinical relevance in predicting disease severity.

METHODS

Expression of CCR4 on peripheral blood lymphocytes and serum CCL17/CCL22 levels were measured using multiparameter flow cytometry and multiplex assays in 33 depressed inpatients at baseline (T0) and after 6-week multimodal treatment (T1) compared with 21 healthy controls (HC). Using stratified and correlation analysis, we examined the associations of CCR4-CCL17/CCL22 expression with depression severity and symptoms according to standard clinical rating scales and questionnaires. Additionally, we assessed whether polygenic risk score (PRS) for psychiatric disorders and chronotype are associated with disease status or CCR4-CCL17/CCL22 expression. Regression analysis was performed to assess the capacity of CCR4 and PRS in predicting disease severity.

RESULTS

Compared with HC, MDD patients showed significantly decreased CCR4 expression on T cells (T0 and T1), whereas CCL17/CCL22 serum levels were increased. Stratified and correlation analysis revealed an association of CCR4 expression on CD4⁺ T cells with depression severity as well as Beck Depression Inventory-II items including loss of pleasure, agitation and cognitive deficits. CCR4 expression levels on CD4⁺ T cells together with cross-disorder and chronotype PRS significantly predicted disease severity.

LIMITATIONS

This exploratory study with small sample size warrants future studies.

CONCLUSIONS

This newly identified CCR4-CCL17/CCL22 signature and its predictive capacity for MDD severity suggest its potential functional involvement in the pathophysiology of MDD.

CCL22 mutations drive natural killer cell lymphoproliferative disease by deregulating microenvironmental crosstalk

Chronic lymphoproliferative disorder of natural killer cells (CLPD-NK) is characterized by clonal expansion of natural killer (NK) cells where the underlying genetic mechanisms are incompletely understood. In the present study, we report somatic mutations in the chemokine gene CCL22 as the hallmark of a distinct subset of CLPD-NK. CCL22 mutations were enriched at highly conserved residues, mutually exclusive of STAT3 mutations and associated with gene expression programs that resembled normal CD16^dim/CD56^bright NK cells. Mechanistically, the mutations resulted in ligand-biased chemokine receptor signaling, with decreased internalization of the G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) for CCL22, CCR4, via impaired β-arrestin recruitment. This resulted in increased cell chemotaxis in vitro, bidirectional crosstalk with the hematopoietic microenvironment and enhanced NK cell proliferation in vivo in transgenic human IL-15 mice. Somatic CCL22 mutations illustrate a unique mechanism of tumor formation in which gain-of-function chemokine mutations promote tumorigenesis by biased GPCR signaling and dysregulation of microenvironmental crosstalk.

IKKα-deficient lung adenocarcinomas generate an immunosuppressive microenvironment by overproducing Treg-inducing cytokines

The tumor microenvironment (TME) provides potential targets for cancer therapy. However, how signals originating in cancer cells affect tumor-directed immunity is largely unknown. Deletions in the CHUK locus, coding for IκB kinase α (IKKα), correlate with reduced lung adenocarcinoma (ADC) patient survival and promote Kras^G12D-initiated ADC development in mice, but it is unknown how reduced IKKα expression affects the TME. Here, we report that low IKKα expression in human and mouse lung ADC cells correlates with increased monocyte-derived macrophage and regulatory T cell (Treg) scores and elevated transcription of genes coding for macrophage-recruiting and Treg-inducing cytokines (CSF1, CCL22, TNF, and IL-23A). By stimulating recruitment of monocyte-derived macrophages from the bone marrow and enforcing a TNF/TNFR2/c-Rel signaling cascade that stimulates Treg generation, these cytokines promote lung ADC progression. Depletion of TNFR2, c-Rel, or TNF in CD4⁺ T cells or monocyte-derived macrophages dampens Treg generation and lung tumorigenesis. Treg depletion also attenuates carcinogenesis. In conclusion, reduced cancer cell IKKα activity enhances formation of a protumorigenic TME through a pathway whose constituents may serve as therapeutic targets for KRAS-initiated lung ADC.

Time Series Ovarian Transcriptome Analyses of the Porcine Estrous Cycle Reveals Gene Expression Changes during Steroid Metabolism and Corpus Luteum Development

Simple Summary

The estrous cycle, which is divided into follicular and luteal phases based on ovulation, is influenced by reproductive hormones which affect reproduction and cause changes in the reproductive system of the pig. As the main reproductive organ, the ovary is involved in ovulation and changes in the corpus luteum. We aimed to identify dynamic changes in gene expression through differentially expressed gene profiling and to provide a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms that occur in the pig ovary during the estrous cycle. The transcriptome analysis revealed that the dynamic change in gene expression was more activated in the luteal phase than in the follicular phase. Functional analysis revealed that the metestrus and diestrus periods are important in preparation for pregnancy or the next estrous cycle after ovulation.

Abstract

The porcine estrous cycle is influenced by reproductive hormones, which affect porcine reproduction and result in physiological changes in the reproductive organs. The ovary is involved in ovulation, luteinization, corpus luteum development, and luteolysis. Here, we aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the gene expression patterns in porcine ovarian transcriptomes during the estrous cycle through differentially expressed genes profiling and description of molecular mechanisms. The transcriptomes of porcine ovary were obtained during the estrous cycle at three-day intervals from day 0 to day 18 using RNA-seq. At seven time points of the estrous cycle, 4414 DEG were identified; these were classified into three clusters according to their expression patterns. During the late metestrus and diestrus periods, the expression in cluster 1 increased rapidly, and steroid biosynthesis was significant in the pathway. Cluster 2 gene expression patterns represented the cytokine–cytokine receptor interaction in significant pathways. In cluster 3, the hedgehog signaling pathway was selected as the significant pathway. Our study exhibited dynamic gene expression changes with these three different patterns of cluster 1, 2, and 3. The results helped identify the functions and related significant genes especially during the late metestrus and diestrus periods in the estrous cycle.

Expression of CXCR4 on CD4+ T cells predicts body composition parameters in female adolescents with anorexia nervosa

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a severe eating disorder characterized by excessive weight loss and lack of recognition of the seriousness of the current low body weight. Individuals with AN frequently exhibit an enhanced inflammatory state and altered blood levels of cytokines and chemokines. However, the expression of chemokine receptors in AN and the association with body composition parameters and treatment effects are still unknown. In this study, we examined the expression of CCR4, CCR6, CXCR3, and CXCR4 on peripheral blood T cells in female adolescents with AN before (T0, n = 24) and after 6 weeks of multimodal therapy (T1, n = 20). We also investigated their value to predict body mass index (BMI) and fat mass index (FMI) at baseline. Using multi-parameter flow cytometry, we found increased expression of CCR4, CXCR3, and CXCR4, but not CCR6, on CD4⁺ T cells in AN at T0 when compared to healthy controls (HC, n = 20). At T1, CXCR3 and CXCR4 expression decreased in AN. We found a close link between CCR4, CCR6 and CXCR4 expression and the adolescent mental health status in the study cohort as determined by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Specifically, CXCR4 expression correlated positively with emotional symptoms and peer relationship problems, as well as with the total sum score of the SDQ. In addition, CXCR4 expression on CD4⁺ T cells was a significant predictor of BMI and FMI in female adolescents. Our findings that CXCR4 expression on T cells is altered in adolescents with AN and predicts body composition parameters in adolescents suggest an impact of this chemokine receptor in the pathogenesis of AN.

Blood protein profiles related to preterm birth and retinopathy of prematurity

BACKGROUND

Nearly one in ten children is born preterm. The degree of immaturity is a determinant of the infant's health. Extremely preterm infants have higher morbidity and mortality than term infants. One disease affecting extremely preterm infants is retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), a multifactorial neurovascular disease that can lead to retinal detachment and blindness. The advances in omics technology have opened up possibilities to study protein expressions thoroughly with clinical accuracy, here used to increase the understanding of protein expression in relation to immaturity and ROP.

METHODS

Longitudinal serum protein profiles the first months after birth in 14 extremely preterm infants were integrated with perinatal and ROP data. In total, 448 unique protein targets were analyzed using Proximity Extension Assays.

RESULTS

We found 20 serum proteins associated with gestational age and/or ROP functioning within mainly angiogenesis, hematopoiesis, bone regulation, immune function, and lipid metabolism. Infants with severe ROP had persistent lower levels of several identified proteins during the first postnatal months.

CONCLUSIONS

The study contributes to the understanding of the relationship between longitudinal serum protein levels and immaturity and abnormal retinal neurovascular development. This is essential for understanding pathophysiological mechanisms and to optimize diagnosis, treatment and prevention for ROP.

IMPACT

Longitudinal protein profiles of 14 extremely preterm infants were analyzed using a novel multiplex protein analysis platform combined with perinatal data. Proteins associated with gestational age at birth and the neurovascular disease ROP were identified. Among infants with ROP, longitudinal levels of the identified proteins remained largely unchanged during the first postnatal months. The main functions of the proteins identified were angiogenesis, hematopoiesis, immune function, bone regulation, lipid metabolism, and central nervous system development. The study contributes to the understanding of longitudinal serum protein patterns related to gestational age and their association with abnormal retinal neuro-vascular development.

Dermatologic Events Associated with the Anti-CCR4 Antibody Mogamulizumab: Characterization and Management

The CCR4-directed monoclonal antibody mogamulizumab has been shown to significantly improve progression-free survival and overall response rate compared with vorinostat in adults with relapsed/refractory mycosis fungoides (MF) and Sézary syndrome (SS). One of the most common adverse events seen with mogamulizumab in MF/SS patients is rash. Because of the protean nature of MF/SS and the variable clinical and histopathological features of mogamulizumab-associated rash, healthcare providers may have difficulty distinguishing rash from disease, and may not be aware of appropriate treatment strategies for this generally manageable adverse event. The objective of this report was to combine results from published literature with experiences and recommendations from multiple investigators and institutions into clinical best practice recommendations to assist healthcare providers in identifying and managing mogamulizumab-associated rash. Optimal management, which includes biopsy confirmation and steroid treatment, requires a multidisciplinary approach among oncology, dermatology, and pathology practitioners.

Involvement of increased expression of chemokine C-C motif chemokine 22 (CCL22)/CC chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4) in the inflammatory injury and cartilage degradation of chondrocytes

CCL22, which could induce chondrocyte apoptosis, was identified to be overexpressed in damaged cartilage. This study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effects of CCL22 interference on chondrocyte injury. The osteoarthritis model was established by stimulating chondrocytes with LPS. The expressions of CCL22, CCR4, matrix metallopeptidase (MMP) 3, MMP9, MMP13, (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin-like motifs) ADAMTS-4, collagen II and inflammatory cytokines were measured using quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) and western blot. Besides, immunoprecipitation (IP) was employed to verify the binding of CCL22 and CCR4. After CCR4 was overexpressed, cell viability was observed using Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8). Additionally, cell apoptosis as well as its related proteins was detected by TUNEL and western blot, respectively. ng What's more, glycosaminoglycan (GAG) level was detected using GAG kits. CCL22 and CCR4 expression increased noticeably in LPS-stimulated ATDC5 chondrocytes. CCL22 inhibition could suppress the expression of CCR4 in LPS-induced ATDC5 cells. Likewise, CCL22 inhibition could revive the activation of LPS-induced ATDC5 cells by regulating CCR4. In addition, CCL22 knockdown alleviated inflammatory response and cell apoptosis through CCR4. Furthermore, the cartilage degradation of ADTC5 cells could be relieved by CCL22 silence via regulating CCR4. CCL22/CCR4 expression was increased in osteoarthritic cartilage injury and participated in the inflammation and cartilage degradation of chondrocytes.

Involvement of various chemokine/chemokine receptor axes in trafficking and oriented locomotion of mesenchymal stem cells in multiple sclerosis patients

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a specific type of chronic immune-mediated disease in which the immune responses are almost run against the central nervous system (CNS). Despite intensive research, a known treatment for MS disease yet to be introduced. Thus, the development of novel and safe medications needs to be considered for the disease management. Application of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) as an emerging approach was recruited forthe treatment of MS. MSCs have several sources and they can be derived from the umbilical cord, adipose tissue, and bone marrow. Chemokines are low molecular weight proteins that their functional activities are achieved by binding to the cell surface G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Chemokine and chemokine receptors are of the most important and effective molecules in MSC trafficking within the different tissues in hemostatic and non-hemostatic circumstances. Chemokine/chemokine receptor axes play a pivotal role in the recruitment and oriented trafficking of immune cells both towards and within the CNS and it appears that chemokine/chemokine receptor signaling may be the most important leading mechanisms in the pathogenesis of MS. In this article, we hypothesized that the chemokine/chemokine receptor axes network have crucial and efficacious impacts on behavior of the MSCs, nonetheless, the exact responsibility of these axes on the targeted tropism of MSCs to the CNS of MS patients yet remained to be fully elucidated. Therefore, we reviewed the ability of MSCs to migrate and home into the CNS of MS patients via expression of various chemokine receptors in response to chemokines expressed by cells of CNS tissue, to provide a great source of knowledge.

Case Report: Plasma Biomarkers Reflect Immune Mechanisms of Guillain-Barré Syndrome

This case series reported a group of patients with Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) and their plasma cytokine changes before and after immunotherapy. We aimed to understand GBS's pathogenesis and pathophysiology through observing the interval differences of the representative cytokines, which were the thymus and activation regulated chemokine (TARC) for T-cell chemotaxis, CD40 ligand (CD40L) for cosimulation of B and T cells, activated complement component C5/C5a, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) for survival and regenerative responses to nerve injuries. The fluorescence magnetic bead-based multiplexing immunoassay simultaneously quantified the five cytokines in a single sample. From June 2018 to December 2019, we enrolled five GBS patients who had completed before–after blood cytokine measurements. One patient was diagnosed with paraneoplastic GBS and excluded from the following cytokine analysis. The BDNF level decreased consistently in all the patients and made it a potential biomarker for the acute stage of GBS. Interval changes of the other four cytokines were relatively inconsistent and possibly related to interindividual differences in the immune response to GBS triggers, types of GBS variants, and classes of antiganglioside antibodies. In summary, utilizing the multiplexing immunoassay helps in understanding the complex immune mechanisms of GBS and the variation of immune responses in GBS subtypes; this method is feasible for identifying potential biomarkers of GBS.

Clinical and Cytokine Profile in Patients with Early and Late Onset Meniere Disease

BACKGROUND

Meniere disease (MD) is an inner ear disorder associated with comorbidities such as autoimmune diseases or migraine. This study describes clinical and cytokine profiles in MD according to the age of onset of the condition.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study including 83 MD patients: 44 with early-onset MD (EOMD, <35 years old), and 39 with late-onset MD (LOMD, >50 years old), 64 patients with migraine and 55 controls was carried out. Clinical variables and cytokines levels of CCL3, CCL4, CCL18, CCL22, CXCL,1 and IL-1β were compared among the different groups.

RESULTS

CCL18 levels were higher in patients with migraine or MD than in controls. Elevated levels of IL-1β were observed in 11.4% EOMD and in 10.3% LOMD patients and these levels were not dependent on the age of individuals. EOMD had a longer duration of the disease (p = 0.004) and a higher prevalence of migraine than LOMD (p = 0.045).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with EOMD have a higher prevalence of migraine than LOMD, but migraine is not associated with any cytokine profile in patients with MD. The levels of CCL18, CCL3, and CXCL4 were different between patients with MD or migraine and controls.

Inflammatory Chemokines Expression Variations and Their Receptors in APP/PS1 Mice

BACKGROUND

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), an increase in inflammation is distinctive. Amyloid precursor protein plus presenilin-1 (APP/PS1 mice) is a model for this illness. Chemokines secreted by central nervous system (CNS) cells could play multiple important roles in AD. Data looking for the chemokines involved in inflammatory mechanisms are lacking. To understand the changes that occur in the inflammation process in AD, it is necessary to improve strategies to act on specific inflammatory targets.

OBJECTIVE

Chemokines and their receptors involved in phagocytosis, demyelination, chemotaxis, and coagulation were the objective of our study.

METHODS

Female APPswe/PS1 double-transgenic mice (B6C3-Tg) were used and cortex brain from 20-22-month-old mice obtained and used to quantify chemokines and chemokine receptors expression using RT-PCR technique.

RESULTS

Significant inflammatory changes were detected in APP/PS1 compared to wild type mice. CCR1, CCR3, CCR4, and CCR9 were elevated, and CCR2 were decreased compared with wild type mice. Their ligands CCL7, CCL11, CCL17, CCL22, CCL25, and CXCL4 showed an increase expression; however, changes were not observed in CCL2 in APP/PS1 compared to wild type mice.

CONCLUSION

This change in expression could explain the differences between AD patients and elderly people without this illness. This would provide a new strategy for the treatment of AD, with the possibility to act in specific inflammatory targets.

Cross-talk between CXC chemokine ligand 10-CXC chemokine receptor 3 axis and CC chemokine ligand 17-CC chemokine receptor 4 axis in the pathogenesis of oral lichen planus

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to determine whether a correlation existed between CXC chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10)-CXC chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3) and CC chemokine ligand 17 (CCL17)-CC chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4) in the pathogenesis of oral lichen planus (OLP).

METHODS

Peripheral blood of OLP patients (non-erosive and erosive groups) and healthy controls were collected, and T cells were isolated and purified. T cells were co-cultured with three groups: blank, anti-CXCR3, and anti-CCR4. CXCR3 and CCR4 expression were detected by flow cytometry, and CXCL10 and CCL17 were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively.

RESULTS

The purities of T cells were all >95% in the three groups (P>0.05). Receptor expression showed that CXCR3 and CCR4 in the anti-CXCR3 group was downregulated in OLP compared with the blank group (P>0.05). The level of CCR4 in the anti-CCR4 group was significantly downregulated (P<0.05), and CXCR3 was upregulated (P>0.05). Ligand analysis results showed that CXCL10 in the anti-CXCR3 group was significantly downregulated in OLP compared with the blank group (P<0.05), and CCL17 was also downregulated (P>0.05). CCL17 in the anti-CCR4 group was significantly downregulated (P<0.05), and CXCL10 was upregulated (P>0.05). The trend of receptors and ligands in controls was consistent with OLP, but no significant difference existed between the antagonistic and the blank groups (P>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Two axes interact with each other in the pathogenesis of OLP and may play different roles in its occurrence and development.

Ginger Extract Modulates the Production of Chemokines CCL17, CCL20, CCL22, and CXCL10 and the Gene Expression of Their Receptors in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells from Peptic Ulcer Patients Infected with Helicobacter pylori

Background: The imbalanced expression of chemokines plays critical role in the development of Helicobacter pylori-mediated complications. Objectives: Our aim was to determine ginger extract (GE) effects on the expression of chemokines CCL17, CCL20, CCL22, and CXCL10, as well as CCR4, CCR6, and CXCR3 receptors by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from H. pylori -infected patients with peptic ulcer (PU). Methods: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were obtained from 20 patients with H. pylori-associated PU, 20 H. pylori-infected asymptomatic subjects (HAS), and 20 non-infected healthy subjects (NHS). The PBMCs were stimulated by 10 µg/mL of H. pylori-derived crude extract (HPCE) in the presence of 0, 10, 20, and 30 µg/mL of GE. After 36 hours, the supernatant and the RNA extracted from the cells were tested for chemokine concentration and chemokine receptor expression using ELISA and real-time PCR techniques, respectively. Results: In PU patients, treating HPCE-stimulated PBMCs with 10, 20, or 30 µg/mL GE reduced the production of CXCL10 (1.47, 1.5, and 1.53 folds, respectively, P < 0.001 for all), CCL20 (1.44, 1.62, and 1.65 folds, respectively, P < 0.003), and treatment with 30 µg/mL GE increased CCL17 (1.28-fold, P < 0.001) and CCL22 (1.59-fold, P < 0.001) production compared with untreated HPCE-stimulated PBMCs. In PU patients, the HPCE-stimulated PBMCs treated with 10, 20, or 30 µg/mL GE expressed lower levels of CXCR3 (1.9, 3, and 3.5 folds, respectively, P < 0.001) and CCR6 (2.3, 2.7, and 2.8 folds, respectively, P < 0.002) while treating with 10 µg/mL GE upregulated CCR4 (1.7 fold, P = 0.003) compared with untreated HPCE-stimulated PBMCs. Conclusions: Ginger extract modulated the expression of chemokines and their receptors in the PBMCs derived from H. pylori-infected PU patients. The therapeutic potentials of ginger for treating HP-related complications need to be further explored.

Conditions Mimicking the Cancer Microenvironment Modulate the Functional Outcome of Human Chorionic Villus Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells in vitro

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells isolated from chorionic villi of human term placentae (CV-MSCs) possess unique biological characters. They exhibit self-renewal, directional migration, differentiation, and immunomodulatory effects on other cell lineages, by virtue of which they can be utilized as therapeutic carriers, for drug targeting, and therapy. Tumors display characteristic features of a damaged tissue microenvironment, which is saturated with conditions such as hypoxia, sustained inflammation, and increased oxidative stress. CV-MSCs function normally in a high oxidative stress environment induced by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and glucose and also protect endothelial cells from their damaging effects. For their therapeutic applications in a disease like cancer, it is necessary to ascertain the effects of tumor microenvironment on their functional outcome. In this study, we investigated the functional activities, of CV-MSCs in response to conditioned media (CM) obtained from the culture of breast cancer cell line MDA-231 (CM-MDA231). CV-MSCs were exposed to CM-MDA231 for different spatio-temporal conditions, and their biological functions as well as modulation in gene expression were evaluated. Effect of CM-MDA231 on factors responsible for changes in functional outcome were also investigated at the protein levels. CV-MSCs exhibited significant reduction in proliferation but increased adhesion and migration after CM-MDA231 treatment. Interestingly, there was no change in their invasion potential. CM-MDA231 treatment modulated expression of various genes involved in important cellular events including, integration, survival, message delivery and favorable outcome after transplantation. Analysis of pathways related to cell cycle regulation revealed significant changes in the expression of p53, and increased phosphorylation of Retinoblastoma (Rb) and Checkpoint Kinase 2 in CV-MSCs treated with CM-MDA231. To summarize, these data reveal that CV-MSCs retain the ability to survive, adhere, and migrate after sustained treatment with CM-MDA231, a medium that mimics the cancer microenvironment. These properties of CV-MSCs to withstand the inflammatory tumor like microenvironment prove that they may make useful candidate in a stem cell based therapy against cancer. However, further pre-clinical studies are needed to validate their therapeutic usage.

Allergen Exposure in Murine Neonates Promoted the Development of Asthmatic Lungs

We previously demonstrated that fetal allergen exposure caused T-helper 2 (Th2) cell sensitization. Although neonates are immunologically more mature than fetuses, asthmatic lungs were reportedly mitigated by neonatal allergen administration, mechanically referring to regulatory T-cells and TGF-β signaling but lacking the immunological profiles after neonatal exposure. To reappraise the immunological outcome of neonatal allergen exposure, we injected adjuvant-free ovalbumin intraperitoneally into 2-day-old BALB/c neonates, followed by aerosolized ovalbumin inhalation in adulthood. Mice were examined for the immunological profiles specifically after neonatal exposures, lung function and histology (hematoxylin-eosin or periodic acid Schiff staining), and gene expressions of intrapulmonary cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 and IFN-γ) and chemokines (CCL17, CCL22, CCL11 and CCL24). Neonatal ovalbumin exposure triggered Th2-skewed sensitization and ovalbumin-specific IgE production. Subsequent ovalbumin inhalation in adulthood boosted Th2 immunity and caused asthmatic lungs with structural and functional alterations of airways. Gender difference mainly involved airway hyperresponsiveness and resistance with greater female susceptibility to methacholine bronchospastic stimulation. In lungs, heightened chemoattractant gene expressions were only granted to neonatally ovalbumin-sensitized mice with aerosolized ovalbumin stress in adulthood, and paralleled by upregulated Th2 cytokine genes. Thus, aeroallergen stress in atopic individuals might upregulate the expression of intrapulmonary chemoattractants to recruit Th2 cells and eosinophils into the lungs, pathogenically linked to asthma development. Conclusively, murine neonates were sensitive to allergen exposures. Exposure events during neonatal stages were crucial to asthma predisposition in later life. These findings from a murine model point to allergen avoidance in neonatal life, possibly even very early in utero, as the best prospect of primary asthma prevention.

CCL17-CCR4 axis contributes to the onset of vitiligo in mice

BACKGROUND

Destruction of melanocytes mediated by autoimmunity is currently believed as the main cause of vitiligo. This article aims to identify the role of CC chemokine ligand 17 (CCL17)-CC chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4) axis in vitiligo and provide new possibilities for the clinical treatment of vitiligo.

METHODS

A total of 30 patients with vitiligo from Affiliated Huaian No. 1 People's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University were recruited based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Trephine was used to obtain skin samples from the lesion area and its surrounding normal areas, and the expression levels of CCL17, CCR4, Tbx21, Eomes, and Blimp1 were determined by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Vitiligo mouse model was established by adoptively transferring CFP-PMEL CD8+ T cells into sublethally irradiated Krt14-Kitl* mice. Recipient mice received intraperitoneal injection of 1 × 10⁶ plaque-forming units of rVV-hPMEL on the same day of transfer. The degree of depigmentation was scored blindly by one observer 5 weeks after vitiligo induction. CFP-PMEL CD8+ T cells migration to skin, draining lymph nodes, spleen, and blood were detected by flow cytometry. CCR4 blockade was performed by intraperitoneal injection of neutralizing antibody.

RESULTS

The expression levels of CCL17, CCR4, Tbx21, Eomes, and Blimp1 in skin lesions were significantly increased compared with that in surrounding normal areas. CCL17^-/- and CCR4^-/- mice exhibited significantly lower disease scores than WT mice. The CFP-PMEL CD8+ T cells accumulation was significantly decreased in the skin of CCL17^-/- and CCR4^-/- mice, but was not changed in draining lymph nodes, spleen, and blood. Administration of CCR4 neutralizing antibody decreased the degree of depigmentation and the recruitment of CFP-PMEL CD8+ T cells to the skin, while keeping the number of T cells in draining lymph nodes unchanged.

CONCLUSION

Targeting CCL17-CCR4 axis might inhibit T cell migrating to skin and alleviate vitiligo progression.

Dendritic Cells: Neglected Modulators of Peripheral Immune Responses and Neuroinflammation in Mood Disorders?

Affective disorders (AD) including major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder (BD) are common mood disorders associated with increased disability and poor health outcomes. Altered immune responses characterized by increased serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and neuroinflammation are common findings in patients with AD and in corresponding animal models. Dendritic cells (DCs) represent a heterogeneous population of myeloid cells that orchestrate innate and adaptive immune responses and self-tolerance. Upon sensing exogenous and endogenous danger signals, mature DCs secrete proinflammatory factors, acquire migratory and antigen presenting capacities and thus contribute to neuroinflammation in trauma, autoimmunity, and neurodegenerative diseases. However, little is known about the involvement of DCs in the pathogenesis of AD. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on DCs in peripheral immune responses and neuroinflammation in MDD and BD. In addition, we consider the impact of DCs on neuroinflammation and behavior in animal models of AD. Finally, we will discuss therapeutic perspectives targeting DCs and their effector molecules in mood disorders.

Systematic expression analysis of the CELSR family reveals the importance of CELSR3 in human lung adenocarcinoma

Cadherin EGF LAG seven‐pass G‐type receptors (CELSRs) are involved in the progression of various types of cancer. CELSR3, a crucial signalling molecule in the WNT/PCP pathway, is believed to be associated with tumorigenesis and metastasis. However, its role in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) remains unclear. In this paper, we analysed the expression of CELSR family members using the Oncomine, GEPIA and UALCAN databases. We used a Kaplan‐Meier plotter to assess the effect of CELSRs on tumour prognosis. Next, gene ontology (GO), KEGG pathway, miRNA target, kinase target and transcription factor‐target enrichment were analysed by GSEA. Simultaneously, we conducted functional assays including cell viability, colony formation and transwell assays, to determine the oncogenic role of CELSR3 in LUAD. Finally, we used the TIMER and TISIDB databases to analyse the correlation between CELSR3 and immune infiltration and the potential chemokine receptor axis causing immune cell expression. High expression of CELSR3 is in LUAD predicts poor prognosis and early progression of the tumour. KEGG and GO enrichment analysis revealed the functional relationship between CELSR3 and cell adhesion, the cell cycle, and DNA replication. Down‐regulation of CELSR3 suppressed cell proliferation to a significant extent, in addition to inhibiting invasion and migration in LUAD cells. Finally, CELSR3 expression was significantly correlated with the infiltration level of CD8+T cells through the CCL17/CCR4 axis in LUAD. These results indicate that CELSR3 can serve as a prognostic biomarker for determining prognosis and immune infiltration in LUAD.

Possible effects of chemokine-like factor-like MARVEL transmembrane domain-containing family on antiphospholipid syndrome

Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is a systemic autoimmune disease defined by thrombotic or obstetrical events and persistent antiphospholipid antibodies (aPLs). Chemokine-like factor-like MARVEL transmembrane domain-containing family (CMTM) is widely expressed in the immune system and may closely related to APS. This review aimed to systematically summarize the possible effects of CMTM on APS. Publications were collected from PubMed and Web of Science databases up to August 2020. CKLF, CKLFSF, CMTM, antiphospholipid syndrome, immune cells, and immune molecules were used as search criteria. Immune cells, including neutrophil, dendritic cells (DCs), T-cells, B-cells, and inflammatory cytokines, play an important role in the development of APS. Chemokine-like factor 1 (CKLF1) has a chemotactic effect on many cells and can affect the expression of inflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules through the nuclear factor-kB (NF-kB) pathway or mitogen-activated protein kinase (MARK) pathway. CKLF1 can participate in the maturation of DCs, T lymphocyte activation, and the activation of neutrophils through the MAPK pathway. CMTM1 may act on Annexin A2 by regulating Ca²⁺ signaling. CMTM2 and CMTM6 are up-regulated in neutrophils of APS patients. Some CMTM family members influence the activation and accumulation of platelets. CMTM3 and CMTM7 are binding partners of B-cell linker protein (BLNK), thereby linking B cell receptor (BCR) and activating BLNK-mediated signal transduction in B cells. Moreover, CMTM3 and CMTM7 can act on DCs and B-1a cell development, respectively. CMTM may have potential effects on the development of APS by acting on immune cells and immune molecules. Thus, CMTM may act as a novel prognostic factor or immunomodulatory treatment option of APS.