The Endocannabinoid System: A Potential Target for the Treatment of Various Diseases

Fatty acid amide hydrolase gene inactivation induces hetero-cellular potentiation of microglial function in the 5xFAD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Neuroinflammation has recently emerged as a crucial factor in Alzheimer's disease (AD) etiopathogenesis. Microglial cells play an important function in the inflammatory response; specifically, the emergence of disease-associated microglia (DAM) has offered new insights into the conflicting perspectives on the detrimental or beneficial roles of microglia. We previously showed that modulating the endocannabinoid tone by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inactivation renders beneficial effects in an amyloidosis context, paradoxically accompanied by an exacerbated neuroinflammatory response and the enrichment of DAM population. Here, we aim to elucidate the role of microglial cells in FAAH-lacking mice in the 5xFAD mouse model of AD by using RNA-sequencing analysis, molecular determinations, and morphological studies by using in vivo multiphoton microscopy. FAAH-lacking AD mice displayed upregulated inflammatory genes and exhibited a DAM genetic profile. Conversely, genes linked to AD were downregulated. Depleting microglia using PLX5622 revealed that plaque-associated microglia in FAAH-deficient AD mice had a more stable, ramified morphology and increased Aβ uptake, leading to reduced plaque growth compared to control mice. Importantly, FAAH expression was negligible in microglial cells, thus suggesting a role for FAAH in the cellular interplay in the central nervous system. Our findings show that Faah gene inactivation triggers a hetero-cellular enhancement of microglial function that was paradoxically paralleled by an exacerbated inflammatory response. Taken together, the present data highlight FAAH as a potential therapeutic target in AD.

Endocannabinoid receptor 2 is a potential biomarker and therapeutic target for the lysosomal storage disorders

Herein, we studied the expression of endocannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2R), a known inflammation mediator, in several lysosomal storage disorder (LSD) animal models and evaluated it as a potential biomarker and therapeutic target for these diseases. CB2R was highly elevated in the plasma of Farber disease and mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) type IIIA mice, followed by Fabry disease and MPS type I mice. Mice with acid sphingomyelinase-deficient Niemann-Pick disease (ASMD) and rats with MPS type VI exhibited little or no plasma CB2R elevation. High-level expression of CB2R was also observed in tissues of Farber and MPS IIIA mice. Treatment of MPS IIIIA patient cells with CB2R agonists led to a reduction of CB2R and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), a chemotactic factor that is elevated in this LSD. Treatment of MPS IIIA mice with one of these agonists (JWH133) led to a reduction of plasma and tissue CB2R and MCP-1, a reduction of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in the brain, and an improvement in hanging test performance. JWH133 treatment of Farber disease mice also led to a reduction of MCP-1 in tissues and plasma, and treatment of these mice by enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) led to a reduction of plasma CB2R, indicating its potential to monitor treatment response. Overall, these findings suggest that CB2R should be further examined as a potential therapeutic target for the LSDs and may also be a useful biomarker to monitor the impact of therapies.

Thermodynamic role of receptor phosphorylation barcode in cannabinoid receptor desensitization

The endocannabinoid signaling system is comprised of CB1 and CB2 G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). CB2 receptor subtype is predominantly expressed in the immune cells and signals through its transducer proteins (Gi protein and β-arrestin-2). Arrestins are signaling proteins that bind to many GPCRs after receptor phosphorylation to terminate G protein signaling (desensitization) and to initiate specific G protein-independent arrestin-mediated signaling pathways via a "phosphorylation barcode", that captures sequence patterns of phosphorylated Ser/Thr residues in the receptor's intracellular domains and can lead to different signaling effects. The structural basis for how arrestins and G proteins compete with the receptor for biased signaling and how different barcodes lead to different signaling profiles is not well understood as there is a lack of phosphorylated receptor structures in complex with arrestins. In this work, structural models of β-arrestin-2 were built in complex with the phosphorylated and unphosphorylated forms of the CB2 receptor. The complex structures were relaxed in the lipid bilayer environment with molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and analyzed structurally and thermodynamically. The β-arrestin-2 complex with the phosphorylated receptor was more stable than the non-phosphorylated one, highlighting the thermodynamic role of the receptor phosphorylation. It was also more stable than any of the G protein complexes with CB2 suggesting that phosphorylation signals receptor desensitization (end of G protein signaling) and arrest of the receptor by arrestins. These models are beginning to provide the thermodynamic landscape of CB2 signaling, which can help bias signaling towards therapeutically beneficial pathways in drug discovery applications.

The endocannabinoid system in the brain undergoes long-lasting changes following neuropathic pain

The endocannabinoid system (ECS), which is composed of endocannabinoids (eCBs), cannabinoid receptors (CBRs), and associated signaling molecules, has been identified within the brain. In neuropathic pain animal models and patients, long-lasting alterations in the ECS have been observed. These changes of neurons and glial cells in the ECS contribute to the modulation of neuropathic pain. Intervention strategies such as the activation of CBRs, the enhancement of hydrolytic enzyme function, and the inhibition of synthetizing enzymes typically alleviate neuropathic pain through CBR-dependent mechanisms. Additionally, emotions such as fear, anxiety, and depression are frequently experienced with neuropathic pain. Exogenous cannabinoids can mitigate these mood disorders via CBR signaling pathways. Therefore, the targeting of long-lasting ECS alterations represents a potential therapeutic approach for both neuropathic pain and emotional disorders. In this review, the long-lasting variations in neurons and glial cells in the ECS related to neuropathic pain and the accompanying emotional comorbidities are elucidated. Furthermore, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying synaptic plasticity and neural circuit activities in the brain are reviewed.

Endometriosis: cannabidiol therapy for symptom relief

Endometriosis is a common, chronic, incurable condition the hallmark of which is the presence of lesions (tissue resembling endometrium) in sites outside the womb, with symptoms including chronic debilitating pain and fatigue. However, current therapeutic options are limited. Recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms that contribute to the development of lesions and pain experience in endometriosis as well as surveys of patients have increased interest in testing recently approved formulations containing cannabidiol (CBD) in this patient group. In this review, we summarise data from patient samples and animals models focussed on the pathophysiology of endometriosis, including pathways where CBD has activity. We consider the available formulations of CBD-containing products, their pharmacokinetics (PK), and their use in ongoing clinical trials in endometriosis and other pain conditions.

Formoterol dynamically alters endocannabinoid tone in the periaqueductal gray inducing headache

BACKGROUND

Headache is a pain disorder present in populations world-wide with a higher incidence in females. Specifically, the incidences of medication overuse headache (MOH) have increased worldwide. Comorbidities of MOH include photosensitivity, anxiety, "brain fog", and decreased physical activity. The FDA-approved long-lasting selective β2-adrenergic receptor agonist, formoterol, is currently approved for use in severe asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Recently, interest in repurposing formoterol for use in other disorders including Alzheimer's disease, and neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury and traumatic brain injury has gained traction. Thus, revisiting known side-effects of formoterol, like headache and anxiety, could inform treatment paradigms. The endocannabinoid (eCB) system is implicated in the etiology of preclinical headache, with observed decreases in the circulating levels of endogenous cannabinoids, referred to as Clinical Endocannabinoid Deficiency. As cross-talk between the eCB system and adrenergic receptors has been reported, this study investigated the role of the eCB system and ability of formoterol to induce headache-like periorbital allodynic behavior.

METHODS

Female 8-week-old C57Bl/6J mice were treated daily with formoterol (0.3 mg/kg, i.p.) for up to 42-days, during which they were assessed for periorbital allodynia, open field/novel object recognition, and photosensitivity. At the end of the study, the periaqueductal grey (PAG), a brain region known to contribute to both headache induction and maintenance, was collected and subjected to LC-MS to quantify endocannabinoid levels.

RESULTS

Mice exhibited periorbital allodynia at nearly all time points tested and photosensitivity from 28-days onward. Levels of endocannabinoids, anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), along with cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R) expression were altered by both age and upon treatment with formoterol. Administration of FAAH/MAGL inhibitors, to target the eCB system, and a non-selective cannabinoid receptor agonist, WIN 55,212 reversed the formoterol-induced periorbital allodynia.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that formoterol is dysregulates eCB tone to drive headache-like periorbital allodynic behaviors. These results could help inform preventative treatment options for individuals receiving formoterol, as well as provide information on the interaction between the eCB and adrenergic system.

Electroacupuncture Regulates Cannabinoid Receptor 1 Expression in a Mouse Fibromyalgia Model: Pharmacological and Chemogenetic Modulation

Fibromyalgia is a chronic illness usually accompanied by long-lasting, general pain throughout the body, often accompanied by anxiety, depression, fatigue, and sleep disruption. Meanwhile, doctors and scientists have not entirely discovered detailed mechanisms; patients always have an exaggerated sensation to pervasive pain without satisfied medical service. Given the lack of knowledge on its underlying mechanism, current treatments aim to provide pain and/or symptom relief. The present study aimed to clarify the role of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) signaling in a mouse fibromyalgia pain model. To develop the mouse fibromyalgia model, mice were subjected to intermittent cold stress (ICS). Our results indicated that mechanical (2.09 ± 0.09 g) and thermal hyperalgesia (4.77 ± 0.29 s), which were evaluated by von Frey and Hargraves' tests, were induced by ICS, suggesting successful modeling. The hurting replies were then provoked by electroacupuncture (EA) but not for sham EA mice. Further, in a Western blot analysis, we found significantly decreased CB1 protein levels in the thalamus, somatosensory cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex. In addition, the levels of pain-related protein kinases and transcription factor were increased. Treatment with EA reliably increased CB1 expression in various brain regions sequentially alleviated by nociceptive mediators. Furthermore, the administration of a CB1 agonist significantly attenuated fibromyalgia pain, reversed EA analgesia by the CB1 antagonist, and further reversed the chemogenetic inhibition of SSC. Our innovative findings evidence the role of CB1 signaling in the interaction of EA and fibromyalgia, suggesting its potential for clinical trials and as a treatment target.

Hippocampal cannabinoid type 2 receptor alleviates chronic neuropathic pain-induced cognitive impairment via microglial DUSP6 pathway in rats

Approximately 50% of patients with chronic neuropathic pain experience cognitive impairment, which negatively impacts their quality of life. The cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2R) may be involved in hippocampal cognitive processes. However, its role in chronic neuropathic pain-induced cognitive impairment remains elusive. Spared nerve injury (SNI) was used to induce chronic neuropathic pain in rats, while the novel-object recognition test and the Y-maze test were employed to assess cognitive function. Immunofluorescence, western blotting, and stereotaxic hippocampal microinjection were utilized to elucidate the potential mechanisms. We observed a reduction in mechanical pain threshold and cognitive impairment in SNI rats. This was accompanied by a tendency for hippocampal microglia to adopt pro-inflammatory functions. Notably, no changes were detected in CB2R expression. However, downregulation of the endogenous ligands AEA and 2-AG was evident. Hippocampal microinjection of a CB2R agonist mitigated cognitive impairment in SNI rats, which correlated with a tendency for microglia to adopt anti-inflammatory functions. Additionally, SNI-induced activation of the p-ERK/NFκB pathway in the hippocampus. Activation of CB2R reversed this process by upregulating DUSP6 expression in microglia. The effects elicited by CB2R activation could be inhibited through the downregulation of microglial DUSP6 via hippocampal adeno-associated virus (AAV) microinjection. Conversely, overexpression of hippocampal DUSP6 using AAV ameliorated the cognitive deficits observed in SNI rats, which remained unaffected by the administration of a CB2R antagonist. Our findings demonstrate that activation of hippocampal CB2R can mitigate chronic neuropathic pain-induced cognitive impairment through the modulation of the DUSP6/ERK/NFκB pathway.

Clinical effectiveness of medical marijuana in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Following legalization, Medical Marijuana (MM), has been used to treat the symptoms of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), yet data regarding Medical Marijuana's efficacy is lacking. Thus, we conducted a retrospective cohort study to assess Medical Marijuana's impact on ALS symptoms and progression. We reviewed the charts of all ALS patients treated in our clinic over a two-year period to collect data related to the primary outcome measures of symptoms of pain, poor appetite, anxiety, spasticity, insomnia, ALSFRS-R score, BMI, and MM use. Two groups were defined: a control group with target symptoms but no MM prescription, and a test group that filled a MM prescription, including a subgroup on MM for ≥3 visits. Outcomes were correlations between MM usage and symptom prevalence, and between MM usage and BMI and ALSFRS-R decline slope, analyzed using descriptive statistics and qualitative analysis via local regression. Data included 344 ALS patients. We found MM use correlated with alleviation of pain, poor appetite, and anxiety in the short term, but not with spasticity or insomnia. There was no correlation between MM use BMI maintenance. Notably, MM usage correlated with faster ALS progression, although patients using MM exhibited higher symptom burden and progressed faster than controls even pre-MM prescription. In conclusion, MM shows correlation with managing pain, poor appetite, and short-term anxiety in ALS, but is also correlated with faster disease progression based on ALSFRS-R scores. We suggest a multi-center, randomized controlled trial to evaluate both the clinical efficacy and safety of MM in the treatment of ALS.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Cannabis Use, and the Endocannabinoid System: A Scoping Review

There is emerging evidence that the endocannabinoid system (ECS) plays a significant role in the pathophysiology of many psychiatric disorders, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Increasing evidence suggests that a number of neurobiological correlates between endogenous cannabinoid function and cognitive dysfunction are seen in ADHD, making the ECS a possible target for therapeutic interventions. Cannabis use and cannabis use disorder are more prevalent in individuals with ADHD, compared to the general population, and there is growing popular perception that cannabis is therapeutic for ADHD. However, the relationship between cannabis use and ADHD symptomology is poorly understood. Further understanding of the role of the ECS in ADHD pathophysiology and the molecular alterations that may be a target for treatment is needed. To further the science on this emerging area of research, this scoping review describes the preclinical and clinical evidence seeking to understand the relationship between the ECS and ADHD.

New peripherally-restricted CB1 receptor antagonists, PMG-505-010 and -013 ameliorate obesity-associated NAFLD and fibrosis

The endocannabinoid system plays a crucial role in metabolic regulation, prompting the investigation of cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1R) antagonists for obesity and its complications like non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Concerns over psychiatric side effects led to the development of peripheral CB1R antagonists that circumvent the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In this study, we synthesized PMG-505-010 and PMG-505-013 as peripherally restricted CB1 receptor antagonists by modifying rimonabant to minimize BBB penetration. Physicochemical analysis confirmed their reduced lipophilicity and increased polarity compared to rimonabant, indicating limited brain exposure. Molecular docking studies revealed similar binding modes to rimonabant at CB1R, characterized by robust hydrophobic interactions. Functionally, they acted as CB1R antagonists and inverse agonists, effectively reversing CP55,940-induced cAMP inhibition. In a murine model of obesity-related NAFLD, PMG-505-010 and -013 improved metabolic profiles, including fasting blood glucose levels and dyslipidemia. They also ameliorated hepatic injury, steatosis, and inflammation, evidenced by reduced liver enzymes, lipid peroxidation, hepatic lipid levels, and inflammatory cytokine levels. Notably, these compounds inhibited hepatic fibrosis by reducing extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition and altering fibrosis-related gene and protein expressions. In conclusion, PMG-505-010 and PMG-505-013 hold promise for treating obesity-related liver diseases, including NAFLD and fibrosis, through selective peripheral CB1R targeting, potentially avoiding CNS-related side effects seen with earlier CB1R antagonists.

Anticancer effect of minor phytocannabinoids in preclinical models of multiple myeloma

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a blood cancer caused by uncontrolled growth of clonal plasmacells. Bone disease is responsible for the severe complications of MM and is caused by myeloma cells infiltrating the bone marrow and inducing osteoclast activation. To date, no treatment for MM is truly curative since patients relapse and become refractory to all drug classes. Cannabinoids are already used as palliative in cancer patients. Furthermore, their proper anticancer effect was demonstrated in many cancer models in vitro, in vivo, and in clinical trials. Anyway, few information was reported on the effect of cannabinoids on MM and no data has been provided on minor phytocannabinoids such as cannabigerol (CBG), cannabichromene (CBC), cannabinol (CBN), and cannabidivarin (CBDV). Scientific literature also reported cannabinoids beneficial effect against bone disease. Here, we examined the cytotoxic activity of CBG, CBC, CBN, and CBDV in vitro in MM cell lines, their effect in modulating MM cells invasion toward bone cells and the bone resorption. Subsequently, according to the in vitro results, we selected CBN for in vivo study in a MM xenograft mice model. Results showed that the phytocannabinoids inhibited MM cell growth and induced necrotic cell death. Moreover, the phytocannabinoids reduced the invasion of MM cells toward osteoblast cells and bone resorption in vitro. Lastly, CBN reduced in vivo tumor mass. Together, our results suggest that CBG, CBC, CBN, and CBDV can be promising anticancer agents for MM.

Exploring Endocannabinoid System: Unveiling New Roles in Modulating ER Stress

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the organelle mainly involved in maintaining cellular homeostasis and driving correct protein folding. ER-dependent defects or dysfunctions are associated with the genesis/progression of several pathological conditions, including cancer, inflammation, and neurodegenerative disorders, that are directly or indirectly correlated to a wide set of events collectively named under the term "ER stress". Despite the recent increase in interest concerning ER activity, further research studies are needed to highlight all the mechanisms responsible for ER failure. In this field, recent discoveries paved the way for the comprehension of the strong interaction between ER stress development and the endocannabinoid system. The activity of the endocannabinoid system is mediated by the activation of cannabinoid receptors (CB), G protein-coupled receptors that induce a decrease in cAMP levels, with downstream anti-inflammatory effects. CB activation drives, in most cases, the recovery of ER homeostasis through the regulation of ER stress hallmarks PERK, ATF6, and IRE1. In this review, we focus on the CB role in modulating ER stress, with particular attention to the cellular processes leading to UPR activation and oxidative stress response extinguishment, and to the mechanisms underlying natural cannabinoids' modulation of this complex cellular machine.

Cannabis-Based Phytocannabinoids: Overview, Mechanism of Action, Therapeutic Application, Production, and Affecting Environmental Factors

This review provides an overview of cannabis-based phytocannabinoids, focusing on their mechanisms of action, therapeutic applications, and production processes, along with the environmental factors that affect their quality and efficacy. Phytocannabinoids such as THC (∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol), CBD (cannabidiol), CBG (cannabigerol), CBN (cannabinol), and CBC (cannabichromene) exhibit significant therapeutic potential in treating various physical and mental health conditions, including chronic pain, epilepsy, neurodegenerative diseases, skin disorders, and anxiety. The cultivation of cannabis plays a crucial role in determining cannabinoid profiles, with indoor cultivation offering more control and consistency than outdoor methods. Environmental factors such as light, water, temperature, humidity, nutrient management, CO2, and the drying method used are key to optimizing cannabinoid content in inflorescences. This review outlines the need for broader data transfer between the health industry and technological production, especially in terms of what concentration and cannabinoid ratios are effective in treatment. Such data transfer would provide cultivators with information on what environmental parameters should be manipulated to obtain the required final product.

KLS-13019, a Novel Structural Analogue of Cannabidiol and GPR55 Receptor Antagonist, Prevents and Reverses Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy in Rats

Neuropathic pain is a form of chronic pain that develops because of damage to the nervous system. Treatment of neuropathic pain is often incompletely effective, and most available therapeutics have only moderate efficacy and present side effects that limit their use. Opioids are commonly prescribed for the management of neuropathic pain despite equivocal results in clinical studies and significant abuse potential. Thus, neuropathic pain represents an area of critical unmet medical need, and novel classes of therapeutics with improved efficacy and safety profiles are urgently needed. The cannabidiol structural analog and novel antagonist of GPR55, KLS-13019, was screened in rat models of neuropathic pain. Tactile sensitivity associated with chemotherapy exposure was induced in rats with once-daily 1-mg/kg paclitaxel injections for 4 days or 5 mg/kg oxaliplatin every third day for 1 week. Rats were then administered KLS-13019 or comparator drugs on day 7 in an acute dosing paradigm or days 7-10 in a chronic dosing paradigm, and mechanical or cold allodynia was assessed. Allodynia was reversed in a dose-dependent manner in the rats treated with KLS-13019, with the highest dose reverting the response to prepaclitaxel injection baseline levels with both intraperitoneal and oral administration after acute dosing. In the chronic dosing paradigm, four consecutive doses of KLS-13019 completely reversed allodynia for the duration of the phenotype in control animals. Additionally, coadministration of KLS-13019 with paclitaxel prevented the allodynic phenotype from developing. Together, these data suggest that KLS-13019 represents a potential new drug for the treatment of neuropathic pain. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) is a common, debilitating side effect of cancer treatment with no known cure. The GPR55 antagonist KLS-13019 represents a novel class of drug for this condition that is a potent, durable inhibitor of allodynia associated with CIPN in rats in both prevention and reversal-dosing paradigms. This novel therapeutic approach addresses a critical area of unmet medical need.

Cannabinoids-Multifunctional Compounds, Applications and Challenges-Mini Review

Cannabinoids represent a highly researched group of plant-derived ingredients. The substantial investment of funds from state and commercial sources has facilitated a significant increase in knowledge about these ingredients. Cannabinoids can be classified into three principal categories: plant-derived phytocannabinoids, synthetic cannabinoids and endogenous cannabinoids, along with the enzymes responsible for their synthesis and degradation. All of these compounds interact biologically with type 1 (CB1) and/or type 2 (CB2) cannabinoid receptors. A substantial body of evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies has demonstrated that cannabinoids and inhibitors of endocannabinoid degradation possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumour and antifibrotic properties with beneficial effects. This review, which spans the period from 1940 to 2024, offers an overview of the potential therapeutic applications of natural and synthetic cannabinoids. The development of these substances is essential for the global market of do-it-yourself drugs to fully exploit the promising therapeutic properties of cannabinoids.

Endocannabinoid analysis in GlucoEXACT plasma: Method validation and sample handling recommendations

Endocannabinoids (ECs), such as anandamide and 2-arachidonyl glycerol (2-AG), contribute to the pathology of inflammatory, malignant, cardiovascular, metabolic and mental diseases. The reliability of quantitative analyses in biological fluids of ECs and endocannabinoid-like (EC-like) substances depends on pre-analytical conditions such as temperature and "time-to-centrifugation". Standardization of these parameters is critical for valid quantification and implementation in clinical research. In this study, we compared concentrations obtained with GlucoEXACT blood collection tubes versus K3EDTA tubes and employed the optimized procedure to assess ECs profiles in patients with inflammatory skin disease and healthy controls. A UHPLC-MS/MS method was validated for human plasma from GlucoEXACT blood collection tubes according to EMA and FDA guidelines, and pre-analytical conditions were systematically modified to assess analyte stability and optimize the procedures. The results showed significantly lower concentrations of ECs and EC-like substance concentrations with GlucoEXACT tubes compared with K3EDTA tubes, and GlucoEXACT extended the time window of stable concentrations. The strongest method-disagreement occurred for 1/2-AG suggesting that GlucoEXACT delayed ex vivo isomer rearrangement. Hence, GlucoExact tubes were superior in terms of stability and reliability. However, although absolute concentrations obtained with GlucoExact and K3EDTA differed, linear regression studies showed high agreement (except for 1/2-AG), and both methods showed similar EC profiles and similar disease-dependent pro-inflammatory patterns in dermatology patients. Hence, despite the obstacles in EC analyses, implementation of optimized pre-analytical blood collection and sample processing procedures provide reliable insight into peripheral ECs.

Exploring the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids in cancer by modulating signaling pathways and addressing clinical challenges

For centuries, cannabinoids have been utilized for their medicinal properties, particularly in Asian and South-Asian countries. Cannabis plants, known for their psychoactive and non-psychoactive potential, were historically used for spiritual and remedial healing. However, as cannabis became predominantly a recreational drug, it faced prohibition. Recently, the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids has sparked renewed research interest, extending their use to various medical conditions, including cancer. This review aims to highlight current data on the involvement of cannabinoids in cancer signaling pathways, emphasizing their potential in cancer therapy and the need for further investigation into the underlying mechanisms. A comprehensive literature review was conducted using databases such as PubMed/MedLine, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, and Embase. The search focused on peer-reviewed articles, review articles, and clinical trials discussing the anticancer properties of cannabinoids. Inclusion criteria included studies in English on the mechanisms of action and clinical efficacy of cannabinoids in cancer. Cannabinoids, including Δ9-THC, CBD, and CBG, exhibit significant anticancer activities such as apoptosis induction, autophagy stimulation, cell cycle arrest, anti-proliferation, anti-angiogenesis, and metastasis inhibition. Clinical trials have demonstrated cannabinoids' efficacy in tumor regression and health improvement in palliative care. However, challenges such as variability in cannabinoid composition, psychoactive effects, regulatory barriers, and lack of standardized dosing remain. Cannabinoids show promising potential as anticancer agents through various mechanisms. Further large-scale, randomized controlled trials are essential to validate these findings and establish standardized therapeutic protocols. Future research should focus on elucidating detailed mechanisms, optimizing dosing, and exploring cannabinoids as primary chemotherapeutic agents.

The Endocannabinoid System of the Nervous and Gastrointestinal Systems Changes after a Subnoxious Cisplatin Dose in Male Rats

Background/Objectives: Cisplatin, a common chemotherapy agent, is well known to cause severe side effects in the gastrointestinal and nervous systems due to its toxic and pro-inflammatory effects. Although pharmacological manipulation of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) can alleviate these side effects, how chemotherapy affects the ECS components in these systems remains poorly understood. Our aim was to evaluate these changes. Methods: Male Wistar rats received cisplatin (5 mg/kg, i.p.) or saline on day 0 (D0). Immediately after, serial X-rays were taken for 24 h (D0). Body weight was recorded (D0, D1, D2 and D7) and behavioural tests were performed on D4. On D7, animals were euthanized, and gastrointestinal tissue, dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) and brain areas were collected. Expression of genes related to the ECS was assessed via Rt-PCR, while LC-MS/MS was used to analyse endocannabinoid and related N-acylethanolamine levels in tissue and plasma. Results: Animals treated with cisplatin showed a reduction in body weight. Cisplatin reduced gastric emptying during D0 and decreased MAGL gene expression in the antrum at D7. Despite cisplatin not causing mechanical or heat sensitivity, we observed ECS alterations in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and DRGs similar to those seen in other chronic pain conditions, including an increased CB1 gene expression in L4/L5 DRGs and a decreased MAGL expression in PFC. Conclusions: A single dose of cisplatin (5 mg/kg, i.p.), subnoxious, but capable of inducing acute gastrointestinal effects, caused ECS changes in both gastrointestinal and nervous systems. Modulating the ECS could alleviate or potentially prevent chemotherapy-induced toxicity.

Cannabis, cannabinoids and health: a review of evidence on risks and medical benefits

The legalization of cannabis for medical and recreational purposes has progressed internationally. Cannabis and cannabinoids are advocated for a plethora of medical indications. An increasing number of medical and nonmedical users regularly consume large doses of delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main active component of cannabis. Aim: to summarize the evidence on (1) risks of recreational cannabis use and (2) effectiveness and safety of medicinal cannabis. Findings on recreational use: Cannabis is mostly used to experience its acute rewarding effects. Regular use of high THC products can produce addiction (cannabis use disorder or CUD). Acute consumption of high THC doses (including unintentionally) can cause time-limited mental, gastrointestinal, and cardiovascular problems and motor vehicle accidents. Chronic patterns of cannabis use have been associated with multiple adverse outcomes that are of particular concern among adolescents and young adults, such as, disrupted learning, impaired cognitive performance, reduced educational attainment and an increased risk of CUD, psychosis/schizophrenia, mood and anxiety disorders and suicidal behaviors. There is debate about the extent to which cannabis use is a cause of these adverse outcomes. Physical health risks (e.g., respiratory and cardiovascular, prematurity and restricted fetal growth, hyperemesis syndrome among others) have also been linked with repeated consumption of cannabis with a high THC content. Findings on medical cannabis use: Herbal cannabis, medicines from extracted or synthetized cannabinoids-often used as adjuvants to standard medicines-may produce small to modest benefits. This is primarily the case in treating chronic pain, muscle spasticity, chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, and refractory epilepsy (in the case of cannabidiol, CBD). The evidence is inconclusive on their value in treating mental disorders and other medical conditions. Safety: Cannabis-based medicine is generally well tolerated. There is a risk of mild to moderate adverse effects and CUD.

Associations of Cannabis Use, Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease, and Liver Fibrosis in U.S. Adults

Introduction: Following the introduction of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) as a replacement term for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, the relationship between MASLD and cannabis use has yet to be established. With the global rise in cannabis consumption, understanding its impact on MASLD is critical for clinical guidance. Our study investigated the association between cannabis use, MASLD, and clinically significant fibrosis (CSF) among U.S. adults. Methods: Data were collected from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for the period 2017 to 2018 to conduct a cross-sectional analysis. The diagnosis of hepatic steatosis and CSF was based on median values of the controlled attenuation parameter and liver stiffness measurement, with thresholds of 285 dB/m and 8.6 kPa, respectively. Information on cannabis use was obtained through self-report questionnaires. Multinomial logistic regression models and subgroup analyses were used to investigate the association between cannabis use and MASLD with CSF. Results: Our study assessed data from 2,756 U.S. adults (51.1% female; 32.2% white; mean age 39.41 ± 11.83 years), who had complete information on liver stiffness measurements through transient elastography alongside reported cannabis use. Results indicated that cannabis use overall was not associated with liver stiffness in patients with MASLD. However, among females, cannabis use was associated with MASLD accompanied by CSF, with an adjusted odds ratio (OR) of 0.47 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.24-0.91). Heavy cannabis use (9 to 30 times per month) was associated with MASLD accompanied by CSF among female participants, with an adjusted OR of 0.12 (95% CI: 0.02-0.88). Conclusion: In our study, cannabis use did not show a significant association with liver stiffness in patients diagnosed with MASLD. However, heavy cannabis consumption in women was associated with MASLD accompanied by CSF. These findings suggest that the effects of cannabis on liver health may differ based on gender and frequency of cannabis use, emphasizing the need for further research in this area.

Endometrial Cell-Type Specific Regulation of the Endocannabinoids System and the Impact of Menstrual Cycle and Endometriosis

Introduction: Anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol are endogenous agonists of the cannabinoid receptors and regulate and control many cellular functions. Their activities are governed by enzymes and proteins that regulate their synthesis, receptor binding, transport, and degradation, which are known as the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The aim of this study was to investigate the regulation of endocannabinoid activity in the endometrium by studying the RNA and protein expression of the ECS within endometrial cell types and during different menstrual cycle stages and the impact of endometriosis. Materials and Methods: The RNA expression of 70 ECS genes was assessed using RNA sequencing of isolated endometrial epithelial and stromal cells. Subsequent immunofluorescence-stained endometrial samples on ECS components of interest were objectively analyzed via an agnostic and automated image analysis pipeline to extract quantitative information. Differential gene and protein expression was investigated between the two cell types, menstrual cycle phases, and endometriosis cases and controls. Results: Sufficient RNA expression was detected for 45 genes, and 17 (38%) genes were significantly different between epithelial and stromal cells. FAAH RNA was significantly higher in epithelial cells compared with stromal cells. Protein expression analysis of the main synthesizing (NAPE-PLD) and catabolizing (FAAH and NAAA) enzymes of AEA revealed a significantly stronger epithelial expression compared to stromal cells. The RNA and protein expression of CB1 receptors was very low with no significant difference between epithelial and stromal cells. Eleven ECS genes were regulated across the menstrual cycle, and there was no gene with significant difference between endometriosis cases and controls in epithelial cells. Discussion: Differential expression of ECS genes supports a cell type-specific endocannabinoid activity in the endometrium. As endocannabinoids are short-lived signaling molecules, higher RNA and protein expression of FAAH in the epithelial cells suggests an active regulation of endocannabinoid activity in epithelial cells within the endometrium.

Associations Between Motivations for Cannabis Use and "the Munchies": Construct Validity of the Cannabinoid Eating Experience Questionnaire

BACKGROUND

The Cannabis Eating Experience Questionnaire (CEEQ) was developed and validated with a two-factor structure for the assessment of cannabis effects on both the appetitive factors that initiate eating and the hedonic factors that maintain an eating episode. The relationship between the CEEQ and cannabis use motives has not yet been considered. The study aimed to confirm the two-factor structure of the CEEQ and explore associations with the five-factor Marijuana Motives Questionnaire (MMQ).

METHOD

Cannabis users (N = 546) completed the CEEQ alongside the MMQ in an online survey.

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed the two-factor structure of the CEEQ and the five-factor structure of the MMQ. Structural equation modeling (SEM) tested associations between each factor of the CEEQ and cannabis use motives. Cannabis use motives of "enhancement" and "conformity" were both positively associated with "hedonic" and "appetitive" subscales of the CEEQ, and "coping" was associated with increased "appetitive" scores. The "social" cannabis use motive was negatively associated with both "hedonic" and "appetitive" subscales on CEEQ, and "expansion" was negatively associated with the "appetitive" subscale.

CONCLUSION

We provide further support for the construct validity of the CEEQ that provides a useful assessment of cannabis effects on hedonic and appetitive aspects of eating and show for the first time that cannabis use motives influence eating experiences in distinct ways. Further understanding of the relationship between cannabis use motives and the effects of cannabis on appetite may prove a useful for informing therapeutic applications of cannabis stimulating appetite or promoting weight gain.

The endocannabinoid system as a therapeutic target in neuropathic pain: a review

INTRODUCTION

This review highlights the critical role of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in regulating neuropathic pain and explores the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids. Understanding the mechanisms of the ECS, including its receptors, endogenous ligands, and enzymatic routes, can lead to innovative treatments for chronic pain, offering more effective therapies for neuropathic conditions. This review bridges the gap between preclinical studies and clinical applications by emphasizing ECS modulation for better pain management outcomes.

AREAS COVERED

A review mapped the existing literature on neuropathic pain and the effects of modulating the ECS using natural and synthetic cannabinoids. This analysis examined ECS components and their alterations in neuropathic pain, highlighting the peripheral, spinal, and supraspinal mechanisms. This review aimed to provide a thorough understanding of the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids in the management of neuropathic pain.

EXPERT OPINION

Advances in cannabinoid research have shown significant potential for the management of chronic neuropathic pain. The study emphasizes the need for high-quality clinical trials and collaborative efforts among researchers, clinicians, and regulatory bodies to ensure safe and effective integration of cannabinoids into pain management protocols. Understanding the mechanisms and optimizing cannabinoid formulations and delivery methods are crucial for enhancing therapeutic outcomes.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of naphthyl amide derivatives as reversible monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) inhibitors

Monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is a key enzyme responsible for the metabolism of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), and has attracted great interest due to its involvement in various physiological and pathological processes, such as cancer progression. In the past, a number of covalent irreversible inhibitors have been reported for MAGL, however, experimental evidence highlighted some drawbacks associated with the use of these irreversible agents. Therefore, efforts were mainly focused on the development of reversible MAGL inhibitor in recent years. Here, we designed and synthesized a series of naphthyl amide derivatives (12-39) as another type of reversible MAGL inhibitors, exemplified by ± 34, which displayed good MAGL inhibition with a pIC50 of 7.1, and the potency and selectivity against endogenous MAGL were further demonstrated by competitive ABPP. Moreover, the compound showed appreciable antiproliferative activities against several cancer cells, including H460, HT29, CT-26, Huh7 and HCCLM-3. The investigations culminated in the discovery of the naphthyl amide derivative ± 34, and it may represent as a new scaffold for MAGL inhibitor development, particularly for the reversible ones.

Cannabinoids in the Inflamed Synovium Can Be a Target for the Treatment of Rheumatic Diseases

The management of rheumatic diseases has noticeably changed in recent years with the development of targeted therapeutic agents, namely, biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs. Identifying essential signaling pathways and factors crucial for the development and progression of these diseases remains a significant challenge. Therapy could be used to delay the onset or reduce harm. The endocannabinoid system's presence within the synovium can be identified as a suggested target for therapeutic interventions due to its role in modulating pain, inflammation, and joint metabolism. This review brings together the most pertinent information concerning the actions of the endocannabinoid system present in inflamed synovial tissue and its interaction with phytocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids, which can be used from a therapeutic perspective to minimize the inflammatory and pain processes typical of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.

Cannabis sativa L. Extract Alleviates Neuropathic Pain and Modulates CB1 and CB2 Receptor Expression in Rat

INTRODUCTION

Cannabis sativa L. (CSL) extract has pain-relieving potential due to its cannabinoid content, so the effects of two CSL extracts on alleviating neuropathic pain were investigated in vivo. Methods and groups: Male Wistar rats (n = 130) were divided into groups and received vincristine (0.1 mg/kg) and gabapentin (60 mg/kg) to induce and relieve neuropathic pain or CSL extracts (D and B). The mRNA and protein expression of the cannabinoid receptors type 1 and 2 (CB1R, CB2R) were evaluated in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and lymphocytes. Behavioural tests (Tail-Flick and von Frey) were performed on all animals.

RESULTS

VK-induced neuropathic pain was accompanied by decreased CB1R protein level and CB2R mRNA expression in the cortex. Gabapentin relieved pain and increased CB1R protein levels in the hippocampus compared to the vincristine group. Hippocampus CB1R protein expression increased with the administration of extract D (10 mg/kg, 40 mg/kg) and extract B (7.5 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg) compared to VK group. In the cerebral cortex CSL decreased CB1R protein expression (10 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg, 40 mg/kg of extract B) and mRNA level (5 mg/kg, 7.5 mg/kg of extract B; 20 mg/kg of extract D) compared to the VK-group.CB2R protein expression increased in the hippocampus after treatment with extract B (7.5 mg/kg) compared to the VK-group. In the cerebral cortex extract B (10 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg) increased CB2R protein expression compared to VK-group.

CONCLUSION

Alterations in cannabinoid receptor expression do not fully account for the observed behavioural changes in rats. Therefore, additional signalling pathways may contribute to the initiation and transmission of neuropathic pain. The Cannabis extracts tested demonstrated antinociceptive effects comparable to gabapentin, highlighting the antinociceptive properties of Cannabis extracts for human use.

The State of Synthetic Cannabinoid Medications for the Treatment of Pain

Synthetic cannabinoids are compounds made in the laboratory to structurally and functionally mimic phytocannabinoids from the Cannabis sativa L. plant, including delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) can signal via the classical endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS) and the greater endocannabidiome network, highlighting their signalling complexity and far-reaching effects. Dronabinol and nabilone, which mimic THC signalling, have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treating nausea associated with cancer chemotherapy and/or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). However, there is ongoing interest in these two drugs as potential analgesics for a variety of other clinical conditions, including neuropathic pain, spasticity-related pain, and nociplastic pain syndromes including fibromyalgia, osteoarthritis, and postoperative pain, among others. In this review, we highlight the signalling mechanisms of FDA-approved synthetic cannabinoids, discuss key clinical trials that investigate their analgesic potential, and illustrate challenges faced when bringing synthetic cannabinoids to the clinic.

The interaction between cannabinoids and long-term synaptic plasticity: A survey on memory formation and underlying mechanisms

Synaptic plasticity, including long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), is an essential phenomenon in memory formation as well as maintenance along with many other cognitive functions, such as those needed for coping with external stimuli. Synaptic plasticity consists of gradual changes in the biochemistry and morphology of pre- and postsynaptic neurons, particularly in the hippocampus. Consuming marijuana as a primary source of exocannabinoids immediately impairs attention and working memory-related tasks. Evidence regarding the effects of cannabinoids on LTP and memory is contradictory. While cannabinoids can affect a variety of specific cannabinoid receptors (CBRs) and nonspecific receptors throughout the body and brain, they exert miscellaneous systemic and local cerebral effects. Given the increasing use of cannabis, mainly among the young population, plus its potential adverse long-term effects on learning and memory processes, it could be a future global health challenge. Indeed, the impact of cannabinoids on memory is multifactorial and depends on the dosage, timing, formula, and route of consumption, plus the background complex interaction of the endocannabinoids system with other cerebral networks. Herein, we review how exogenously administrated organic cannabinoids, CBRs agonists or antagonists, and endocannabinoids can affect LTP and synaptic plasticity through various receptors in interaction with other cerebral pathways and primary neurotransmitters.

From bench to bedside: the application of cannabidiol in glioma

Glioma is the most common malignant tumor in central nervous system, with significant health burdens to patients. Due to the intrinsic characteristics of glioma and the lack of breakthroughs in treatment modalities, the prognosis for most patients remains poor. This results in a heavy psychological and financial load worldwide. In recent years, cannabidiol (CBD) has garnered widespread attention and research due to its anti-tumoral, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. This review comprehensively summarizes the preclinical and clinical research on the use of CBD in glioma therapy, as well as the current status of nanomedicine formulations of CBD, and discusses the potential and challenges of CBD in glioma therapy in the future.

Genetic Evidence of Endocannabinoid System on Perceived Stress and Restricted Food Intake: The Role of Variants rs324420 in FAAH Gene and rs1049353 in CNR1 Gene

Background: The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is active in brain regions involved in stress, food intake, and emotional regulation. The CB1 receptor and the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) enzyme regulate the ECS. Genetic variants in the FAAH gene (rs324420) and in the CNR1 gene (rs1049353) have been involved in both chronic stress and obesity. As a maladaptive strategy to evade the stress, three dysfunctional eating patterns may appear: cognitive restriction, disinhibition, and emotional eating. Aim: To evaluate the association of variants rs324420 in the FAAH gene and rs1049353 in the CNR1 gene with perceived stress, dysfunctional eating patterns, and anthropometric and body composition variables. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 189 participants from western Mexico. The Spanish version of the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire and the Perceived Stress Scale were applied. Genotyping was performed with TaqMan® probes. Results: It was found that subjects with CA/AA genotypes in FAAH had a higher risk of presenting high scores in stress perception than CC genotype carriers (odds ratio [OR] 1.85, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.007-3.339; p = 0.048); in addition, the CC genotype of this genetic variant was related to higher body weight and body fat, but no association was found with dysfunctional eating patterns. As for the CNR1 single-nucleotide polymorphism, this variant showed no significant association with stress perception scores, but subjects with GA/AA genotypes in CNR1 had a lower risk of presenting high scores of restriction in food intake compared with GG genotype carriers (OR 0.11, 95% CI 0.046-0.322; p < 0.001). Therefore, this study suggests a differential role of the ECS genes FAAH and CNR1 in perceived stress and dysfunctional eating patterns, respectively. Further studies in other populations are required.

Fatty Acid Amides Suppress Proliferation via Cannabinoid Receptors and Promote the Apoptosis of C6 Glioma Cells in Association with Akt Signaling Pathway Inhibition

A glioma is a type of tumor that acts on the Central Nervous System (CNS) in a highly aggressive manner. Gliomas can occasionally be inaccurately diagnosed and treatments have low efficacy, meaning that patients exhibit a survival of less than one year after diagnosis. Due to factors such as intratumoral cell variability, inefficient chemotherapy drugs, adaptive resistance development to drugs and tumor recurrence after resection, the search continues for new drugs that can inhibit glioma cell growth. As such, analogues of endocannabinoids, such as fatty acid amides (FAAs), represent interesting alternatives for inhibiting tumor growth, since FAAs can modulate several metabolic pathways linked to cancer and, thus, may hold potential for managing glioblastoma. The aim of this study was to investigate the in vitro effects of two fatty ethanolamides (FAA1 and FAA2), synthetized via direct amidation from andiroba oil (Carapa guianensis Aublet), on C6 glioma cells. FAA1 and FAA2 reduced C6 cell viability, proliferation and migratory potential in a dose-dependent manner and were not toxic to normal retina glial cells. Both FAAs caused apoptotic cell death through the loss of mitochondrial integrity (ΔΨm), probably by activating cannabinoid receptors, and inhibiting the PI3K/Akt pathway. In conclusion, FAAs derived from natural products may have the potential to treat glioma-type brain cancer.

Unraveling the molecular basis of cannabidiolic acid methyl Ester's anti-depressive effects in a rat model of treatment-resistant depression

Major depressive disorder (MDD) stands as a significant cause of disability globally. Cannabidiolic Acid-Methyl Ester (CBDA-ME) (EPM-301, HU-580), a derivative of Cannabidiol, demonstrates immediate antidepressant-like effects, yet it has undergone only minimal evaluation in psychopharmacology. Our goal was to investigate the behavioral and potential molecular mechanisms associated with the chronic oral administration of this compound in the Wistar Kyoto (WKY) genetic model of treatment-resistant depression. Male WKY rats were subjected to behavioral assessments before and after receiving chronic (14-day) oral doses of CBDA-ME (0.5 mg/kg), 15 mg/kg of imipramine or vehicle. At the end of the study, plasma corticosterone levels and mRNA expression of various genes in the medial Prefrontal Cortex and Hippocampus were measured. Behavioral outcomes from CBDA-ME treatment indicated an antidepressant-like effect similar to imipramine, as oral ingestion reduced immobility and increased swimming duration in the Forced Swim Test. Neither treatment influenced locomotion in the Open Field Test nor preference in the Saccharin Preference Test. The behavioral impact in WKY rats coincided with reduced corticosterone serum levels, upregulated mRNA expression of Cannabinoid receptor 1, Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase, and Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptor 1, alongside downregulation of the Serotonin Transporter in the hippocampus. Additionally, there was an upregulation of CB1 mRNA expression and downregulation of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in the mPFC. These findings contribute to our limited understanding of the antidepressant effects of CBDA-ME and shed light on its potential psychopharmacological mechanisms. This discovery opens up possibilities for utilizing cannabinoids in the treatment of major depressive disorder and related conditions.

The Perspective of Cannabidiol in Psoriasis Therapy

Psoriasis is a chronic skin condition that can significantly impact the quality of life of those affected. As an autoimmune disease, it can lead to itchy, painful, and scaly patches on the skin. Although various treatments, including topical creams, phototherapy, and systemic medications, are currently available, they may not always offer effective relief and can have side effects. Researchers have thus been exploring the potential benefits of non-psychoactive compounds such as CBD, found in Cannabis sativa plants, for treating psoriasis. CBD treatment may reduce inflammation, oxidative stress, itching, abnormal proliferation of keratinocytes, and may increase hydration. This review aims to provide an overview of the existing literature on the potential uses of CBD for psoriasis treatment.

Exploring the versatile roles of the endocannabinoid system and phytocannabinoids in modulating bacterial infections

The endocannabinoid system (ECS), initially identified for its role in maintaining homeostasis, particularly in regulating brain function, has evolved into a complex orchestrator influencing various physiological processes beyond its original association with the nervous system. Notably, an expanding body of evidence emphasizes the ECS's crucial involvement in regulating immune responses. While the specific role of the ECS in bacterial infections remains under ongoing investigation, compelling indications suggest its active participation in host-pathogen interactions. Incorporating the ECS into the framework of bacterial pathogen infections introduces a layer of complexity to our understanding of its functions. While some studies propose the potential of cannabinoids to modulate bacterial function and immune responses, the outcomes inherently hinge on the specific infection and cannabinoid under consideration. Moreover, the bidirectional relationship between the ECS and the gut microbiota underscores the intricate interplay among diverse physiological processes. The ECS extends its influence far beyond its initial discovery, emerging as a promising therapeutic target across a spectrum of medical conditions, encompassing bacterial infections, dysbiosis, and sepsis. This review comprehensively explores the complex roles of the ECS in the modulation of bacteria, the host's response to bacterial infections, and the dynamics of the microbiome. Special emphasis is placed on the roles of cannabinoid receptor types 1 and 2, whose signaling intricately influences immune cell function in microbe-host interactions.

Endocannabinoid Hydrolase Inhibitors: Potential Novel Anxiolytic Drugs

Over the past decade, the idea of targeting the endocannabinoid system to treat anxiety disorders has received increasing attention. Previous studies focused more on developing cannabinoid receptor agonists or supplementing exogenous cannabinoids, which are prone to various adverse effects due to their strong pharmacological activity and poor receptor selectivity, limiting their application in clinical research. Endocannabinoid hydrolase inhibitors are considered to be the most promising development strategies for the treatment of anxiety disorders. More recent efforts have emphasized that inhibition of two major endogenous cannabinoid hydrolases, monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), indirectly activates cannabinoid receptors by increasing endogenous cannabinoid levels in the synaptic gap, circumventing receptor desensitization resulting from direct enhancement of endogenous cannabinoid signaling. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the anxiolytic effects of MAGL and FAAH inhibitors and their potential pharmacological mechanisms, highlight reported novel inhibitors or natural products, and provide an outlook on future directions in this field.

Cannabinoid levels description in a cohort of patients with chronic and neuropathic pain treated with Cannabis decoction: A possible role of TDM

The phytocomplex of Cannabis is made up of approximately 500 substances: terpeno-phenols metabolites, including Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol, exhibit pharmacological activity. Medical Cannabis has several pharmacological potential applications, in particular in the management of chronic and neuropathic pain. In the literature, a few data are available concerning cannabis pharmacokinetics, efficacy and safety. Thus, aim of the present study was the evaluation of cannabinoid pharmacokinetics in a cohort of patients, with chronic and neuropathic pain, treated with inhaled medical cannabis and decoction, as a galenic preparation. In this study, 67 patients were enrolled. Dried flower tops with different THC and CBD concentrations were used: Bedrocan® medical cannabis with THC level standardized at 19% and with a CBD level below 1%, Bediol® medical cannabis with THC and CBD level standardized at similar concentration of 6.5% and 8%, respectively. Cannabis was administered as a decoction in 47 patients and inhaled in 11 patients. The blood withdrawn was obtained before the new dose administration at the steady state and metabolites plasma concentrations were measured with an UHPLC-MS/MS method. Statistically significant differences were found in cannabinoids plasma exposure between inhaled and oral administration of medical cannabis, between male and female and cigarette smokers. For the first time, differences in cannabinoid metabolites exposures between different galenic formulations were suggested in patients. Therapeutic drug monitoring could be useful to allow for dose adjustment, but further studies in larger cohorts of patients are required in order to confirm these data.

Exploring Acne Treatments: From Pathophysiological Mechanisms to Emerging Therapies

Acne vulgaris is a common dermatological condition that can present across different ages but predominantly affects adolescents and young adults. Characterized by various lesion types, the pathogenesis of acne is complex, involving genetic, hormonal, microbial, and inflammatory factors. This review comprehensively addresses current and emerging acne management strategies, emphasizing both topical and systemic treatments, procedural therapies, and dietary modifications. Key topical agents include retinoids, benzoyl peroxide, antibiotics, and other specialized compounds. Systemic options like antibiotics, hormonal therapies, and retinoids offer significant therapeutic benefits, particularly for moderate to severe cases. Procedural treatments such as laser devices, photodynamic therapy, chemical peels, and intralesional injections present viable alternatives for reducing acne symptoms and scarring. Emerging therapies focus on novel biologics, bacteriophages, probiotics, and peptides, providing promising future options. This review underscores the importance of personalized approaches to treatment due to the multifaceted nature of acne, highlighting the potential of innovative therapies for improving patient outcomes.

Single-Nucleus Transcriptome Profiling from the Hippocampus of a PTSD Mouse Model and CBD-Treated Cohorts

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the most common psychiatric disorder after a catastrophic event; however, the efficacious treatment options remain insufficient. Increasing evidence suggests that cannabidiol (CBD) exhibits optimal therapeutic effects for treating PTSD. To elucidate the cell-type-specific transcriptomic pathology of PTSD and the mechanisms of CBD against this disease, we conducted single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) in the hippocampus of PTSD-modeled mice and CBD-treated cohorts. We constructed a mouse model by adding electric foot shocks following exposure to single prolonged stress (SPS+S) and tested the freezing time, anxiety-like behavior, and cognitive behavior. CBD was administrated before every behavioral test. The PTSD-modeled mice displayed behaviors resembling those of PTSD in all behavioral tests, and CBD treatment alleviated all of these PTSD-like behaviors (n = 8/group). Three mice with representative behavioral phenotypes were selected from each group for snRNA-seq 15 days after the SPS+S. We primarily focused on the excitatory neurons (ExNs) and inhibitory neurons (InNs), which accounted for 68.4% of the total cell annotations. A total of 88 differentially upregulated genes and 305 differentially downregulated genes were found in the PTSD mice, which were found to exhibit significant alterations in pathways and biological processes associated with fear response, synaptic communication, protein synthesis, oxidative phosphorylation, and oxidative stress response. A total of 63 overlapping genes in InNs were identified as key genes for CBD in the treatment of PTSD. Subsequent Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses revealed that the anti-PTSD effect of CBD was related to the regulation of protein synthesis, oxidative phosphorylation, oxidative stress response, and fear response. Furthermore, gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) revealed that CBD also enhanced retrograde endocannabinoid signaling in ExNs, which was found to be suppressed in the PTSD group. Our research may provide a potential explanation for the pathogenesis of PTSD and facilitate the discovery of novel therapeutic targets for drug development. Moreover, it may shed light on the therapeutic mechanisms of CBD.

A UPLC-MS/MS method for simultaneous determination of arachidonic acid, stearic acid, and related endocannabinoids in human plasma

Endocannabinoids (eCBs) exert considerable influence over energy metabolism, lipid metabolism, and glucose metabolism within the human body. Among the most biologically active cannabinoids identified thus far are 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), arachidonoyl ethanolamide (AEA), 1-stearoylglycerol (1-SRG), and stearoyl ethanolamide (SEA), which are derived from arachidonic acid (AA) and stearic acid (SA). However, despite the unique in bioactivities exhibited by eCBs, their determination in plasma has been hindered by the lack of sensitive analytical methods. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a highly sensitive and rapid method using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) for accurate measurement of AEA, SEA, 2-AG, 1-SRG, AA, and SA levels in human plasma samples. Sample preparation involved a protein precipitation method and a methyl tert-butyl ether liquid-liquid extraction method. Chromatographic separation was accomplished by utilizing an ACQUITY UPLC BEH C8 column with a mobile phase of acetonitrile containing 0.1% formic acid and water containing 0.1% formic acid, flowing at a rate of 0.35 mL/min. AA-d8, 2-AG-d5, and AEA-d8 were selected as deuterated internal standards. The analytes were determined with MRM in both positive and negative ion mode. The lower limit of quantification ranged from 0.1 to 400 ng/mL, and the correlation coefficient (R2) was >0.99. Inter-day and intra-day precision exhibited values of 0.55-13.29% and 0.62%-13.90%, respectively. Recovery and matrix effect were within the range of 77.7%-109.7%, and 90.0%-113.5%, respectively. Stability tests confirmed the acceptability of all analytes. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the approach, it was implemented to assess and compare plasma samples from healthy volunteers (n = 49) and individuals with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) (n = 62). The study revealed significant differences in AEA, SEA, AA, and SA levels between the two groups.

Potential Therapeutic Targets to Modulate the Endocannabinoid System in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common neurodegenerative disease (NDD), is characterized by chronic neuronal cell death through progressive loss of cognitive function. Amyloid beta (Aβ) deposition, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and hyperphosphorylated tau proteins are considered the hallmarks of AD pathology. Different therapeutic approaches approved by the Food and Drug Administration can only target a single altered pathway instead of various mechanisms that are involved in AD pathology, resulting in limited symptomatic relief and almost no effect in slowing down the disease progression. Growing evidence on modulating the components of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) proclaimed their neuroprotective effects by reducing neurochemical alterations and preventing cellular dysfunction. Recent studies on AD mouse models have reported that the inhibitors of the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol (MAGL), hydrolytic enzymes for N-arachidonoyl ethanolamine (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), respectively, might be promising candidates as therapeutical intervention. The FAAH and MAGL inhibitors alone or in combination seem to produce neuroprotection by reversing cognitive deficits along with Aβ-induced neuroinflammation, oxidative responses, and neuronal death, delaying AD progression. Their exact signaling mechanisms need to be elucidated for understanding the brain intrinsic repair mechanism. The aim of this review was to shed light on physiology and pathophysiology of AD and to summarize the experimental data on neuroprotective roles of FAAH and MAGL inhibitors. In this review, we have also included CB1R and CB2R modulators with their diverse roles to modulate ECS mediated responses such as anti-nociceptive, anxiolytic, and anti-inflammatory actions in AD. Future research would provide the directions in understanding the molecular mechanisms and development of new therapeutic interventions for the treatment of AD.

The Interaction of the Endocannabinoid Anandamide and Paracannabinoid Lysophosphatidylinositol during Cell Death Induction in Human Breast Cancer Cells

Endocannabinoid anandamide (AEA) and paracannabinoid lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI) play a significant role in cancer cell proliferation regulation. While anandamide inhibits the proliferation of cancer cells, LPI is known as a cancer stimulant. Despite the known endocannabinoid receptor crosstalk and simultaneous presence in the cancer microenvironment of both molecules, their combined activity has never been studied. We evaluated the effect of LPI on the AEA activity in six human breast cancer cell lines of different carcinogenicity (MCF-10A, MCF-7, BT-474, BT-20, SK-BR-3, MDA-MB-231) using resazurin and LDH tests after a 72 h incubation. AEA exerted both anti-proliferative and cytotoxic activity with EC50 in the range from 31 to 80 µM. LPI did not significantly affect the cell viability. Depending on the cell line, the response to the LPI-AEA combination varied from a decrease in AEA cytotoxicity to an increase in it. Based on the inhibitor analysis of the endocannabinoid receptor panel, we showed that for the former effect, an active GPR18 receptor was required and for the latter, an active CB2 receptor. The data obtained for the first time are important for the understanding the manner by which endocannabinoid receptor ligands acting simultaneously can modulate cancer growth at different stages.

Effect of nabiximols oromucosal spray (Sativex®) on symptoms associated with multiple sclerosis-related spasticity: a case series

Spasticity and its related symptoms of spasms, pain, sleep disturbance and bladder dysfunction are common in persons with multiple sclerosis (MS) and may be interconnected through a common pathophysiology and/or may trigger and worsen each other. Tetrahydrocannabinol-cannabidiol (nabiximols) oromucosal spray (Sativex) is an add-on treatment for adults with moderate-to-severe MS spasticity who fail to respond adequately to conventional oral medications. There is evidence that nabiximols can ameliorate spasticity-associated symptoms irrespective of its effect on spasticity. This case series describes 12 adults with MS spasticity who were evaluated for symptom evolution before and during adjunctive nabiximols treatment. Nabiximols reduced spasticity severity in 11 patients, of whom 8 had a clinically important ≥30% improvement in 0-10 Numeric Rating Scale scores during treatment. In 7 patients who reported spasms, severity was reduced or spasms were absent/unnoticeable during nabiximols treatment. Walking distance was improved in 8 patients. Pain severity was reduced in 11 patients, and sleep disorder was completely resolved in 3 patients and improved in 8. Bladder dysfunction was improved in 6 of 7 patients with baseline symptoms. Two patients arguably should have discontinued nabiximols sooner: one had a limited response and experienced adverse effects throughout 6 months of treatment; the other was a non-responder who suffered a fall due to dizziness after 7 weeks of use. Overall, this case series shows, at an individual patient level, that the benefits of nabiximols extend beyond spasticity to include spasticity-related symptoms.

Clinical Importance of Cannabinoid Type 1 Receptor (CB1R) and Cannabinoid Type 2 Receptor (CB2R) Expression in Renal Cell Carcinoma

Background and objective The purpose of our study was to assess the expression of cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1R) and cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2R), including positivity, intensity, percentage, site of distribution, and immunohistochemical score, in renal cell carcinomas (RCCs) and explore their correlation with various clinicopathological aspects. Methodology We retrospectively obtained data and specimens from 87 patients diagnosed with RCC after partial or radical nephrectomy, and the CB1R and CB2R expression was assessed immunohistochemically on paraffin-embedded tissues. The results were statistically analyzed uni- and multi-factorial along with clinicopathological parameters. Results CB1R was not expressed at all, and CB2R was highly expressed in 78 (89.7%) patients with RCC. In unifactorial analysis, no statistical significance was found in any of the analyzed parameters. However, in the multifactorial analysis, we found that patients with a papillary histologic type (P < 0.0005) were associated with a lower likelihood of expression of the CB2R in the membranous compared with those with clear-cell and were also associated with a higher likelihood of moderate or strong expression of CB2R immunohistochemical score compared with those with clear-cell (P = 0.03). Patients with stage T2 (P = 0.010) had more enhanced expression (grade 3 CB2R intensity) compared with those with stage T1. Males (beta coefficient ± standard error [SE] 13.70 ± 7.04; P = 0.056) and patients with chromophobe histologic type (beta coefficient ± SE 23.45 ± 9.86; P = 0.020) were associated with a higher percentage of CB2R expression. Conclusions Our data suggest that although the CB1R was not expressed in RCCs, CB2R was expressed in almost every patient and enhanced expression was noted in correlation with specific clinicopathological aspects of the patients. Thus, following well-designed studies, especially CB2R could be used as a prognostic marker or even as a potential therapeutic target in RCC.

Osteopathic Approach in the Stimulation of the Endocannabinoid System: A Case Report

The endocannabinoid system is an important neuromodulatory system responsible for maintaining homeostasis in the biological system. Similarly, the autonomic nervous system is important to control involuntary bodily functions such as thermoregulation, regulation of heart rate and sleep latency. The endocannabinoid system and the autonomic nervous system can be modified by osteopathic manipulative techniques. In this report, we present a case of a 53-year-old patient with comorbidities, habitual cannabis use, and disorders associated with the endocannabinoid system and autonomic nervous system, on whom the cranial technique of the fourth ventricle (CV4) was performed. The results obtained from the Pittsburgh Questionnaire and the Health Survey 36 (SF-36) Questionnaire were encouraging. The patient decreased tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) consumption. Her sleep quality and health improved, thus improving her quality of life. CV4 aimed to influence the functioning of the patient's autonomic nervous system and consequently the endocannabinoid system. Further research using randomized controlled trials will be important to have measurable and objective data on this topic.

CBD: A Potential Lead against Hair Loss, Alopecia, and its Potential Mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Nowadays, the majority of the population suffers from the problem of hair loss. It leads to disturbed mental health, lower self-confidence, and a lot more problems. A lot of the hair loss therapies available are not reliable and lead to recurrence and side effects after some time. Cannabinoids (CBD) have recently become quite popular for their benefits against hair loss. CBD oil preparations have been used both internally and externally for oral and topical use, respectively. Due to the presence of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in the body, which naturally targets CB1 and CB2 receptors, the control of hair fall is possible. CBD is used topically for hair loss, whereas it is administered orally for the treatment and management of a medical condition, i.e., alopecia.

AIM/OBJECTIVE

The present review aimed to provide an in-depth study on hair loss and its management using CBD and its associated mechanisms.

METHODS

Electronic databases, such as ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, PubMed, Wiley, Springer, and Scopus, were thoroughly searched for information about how CBD is used, how it works, and what role it plays in treating alopecia and hair loss.

RESULTS

This review has highlighted the use of CBD-based hair loss therapy, and described various types of hair loss and their treatments. This review also details the phytocannabinoids and the potential mechanisms of CBD's activity against hair loss and alopecia.

CONCLUSION

The data obtained from the literature regarding CBD and hair loss provide a scientific basis for CBD use in alopecia. Additionally, a more precise and comprehensive study concerning CBD needs to be carried out at the pre-clinical and clinical levels.

Cannabinoids in anesthesia and chronic pain: Where do we stand?

Cannabis derivatives have been conventionally employed globally for their curative and restorative properties for various ailments. However, its recreational use and consequent legal restrictions have substantially cramped its scientific research. An emerging interest regarding the profound therapeutic potential of cannabinoids has been observed among clinicians. Despite a rich cultural background, high-quality research on cannabinoids is lacking in the Indian scenario. This review readdresses the challenges on this front and brings an insight into the current status of cannabinoids and their utility in scientific exploration. Cannabinoids have a significant medicinal value in various clinical disorders. Its use so far has been based on scarce resources and corroborations, as evidence-based substantiation is limited. Through this review article, we emphasize the remarkable role enacted by cannabinoids in the treatment of various clinical disorders and an utterly significant need to formulate stringent research methodologies to promote its systematic investigation.

Cannabinoids in Treating Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting, Cancer-Associated Pain, and Tumor Growth

Cannabis has been used as an herbal remedy for thousands of years, and recent research indicates promising new uses in medicine. So far, some studies have shown cannabinoids to be safe in helping mitigate some cancer-associated complications, including chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, cancer-associated pain, and tumor growth. Researchers have been particularly interested in the potential uses of cannabinoids in treating cancer due to their ability to regulate cancer-related cell cycle pathways, prompting many beneficial effects, such as tumor growth prevention, cell cycle obstruction, and cell death. Cannabinoids have been found to affect tumors of the brain, prostate, colon and rectum, breast, uterus, cervix, thyroid, skin, pancreas, and lymph. However, the full potential of cannabinoids is yet to be understood. This review discusses current knowledge on the promising applications of cannabinoids in treating three different side effects of cancer-chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, cancer-associated pain, and tumor development. The findings suggest that cannabinoids can be used to address some side effects of cancer and to limit the growth of tumors, though a lack of supporting clinical trials presents a challenge for use on actual patients. An additional challenge will be examining whether any of the over one hundred naturally occurring cannabinoids or dozens of synthetic compounds also exhibit useful clinical properties. Currently, clinical trials are underway; however, no regulatory agencies have approved cannabinoid use for any cancer symptoms beyond antinausea.

Interplay between the Glymphatic System and the Endocannabinoid System: Implications for Brain Health and Disease

The intricate mechanisms governing brain health and function have long been subjects of extensive investigation. Recent research has shed light on two pivotal systems, the glymphatic system and the endocannabinoid system, and their profound role within the central nervous system. The glymphatic system is a recently discovered waste clearance system within the brain that facilitates the efficient removal of toxic waste products and metabolites from the central nervous system. It relies on the unique properties of the brain's extracellular space and is primarily driven by cerebrospinal fluid and glial cells. Conversely, the endocannabinoid system, a multifaceted signaling network, is intricately involved in diverse physiological processes and has been associated with modulating synaptic plasticity, nociception, affective states, appetite regulation, and immune responses. This scientific review delves into the intricate interconnections between these two systems, exploring their combined influence on brain health and disease. By elucidating the synergistic effects of glymphatic function and endocannabinoid signaling, this review aims to deepen our understanding of their implications for neurological disorders, immune responses, and cognitive well-being.