The Machinery of Exosomes: Biogenesis, Release, and Uptake

Nuclear and degradative functions of the ESCRT-III pathway: implications for neurodegenerative disease

The ESCRT machinery plays a pivotal role in membrane-remodeling events across multiple cellular processes including nuclear envelope repair and reformation, nuclear pore complex surveillance, endolysosomal trafficking, and neuronal pruning. Alterations in ESCRT-III functionality have been associated with neurodegenerative diseases including Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD), Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), and Alzheimer's Disease (AD). In addition, mutations in specific ESCRT-III proteins have been identified in FTD/ALS. Thus, understanding how disruptions in the fundamental functions of this pathway and its individual protein components in the human central nervous system (CNS) may offer valuable insights into mechanisms underlying neurodegenerative disease pathogenesis and identification of potential therapeutic targets. In this review, we discuss ESCRT components, dynamics, and functions, with a focus on the ESCRT-III pathway. In addition, we explore the implications of altered ESCRT-III function for neurodegeneration with a primary emphasis on nuclear surveillance and endolysosomal trafficking within the CNS.

Exosomal LncRNAs and CircRNAs in lung cancer: Emerging regulators and potential therapeutic targets

Lung cancer remains one of the most prevalent and lethal malignancies globally, characterized by high incidence and mortality rates among all cancers. The delayed diagnosis of lung cancer at intermediate to advanced stages frequently leads to suboptimal treatment outcomes. To improve the management of this disease, it is imperative to identify new, highly sensitive prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers. Exosomes, extracellular vesicles with a lipid-bilayer structure and a size range of 30-150 nm, are pivotal in intercellular communication and play significant roles in lung cancer progression. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs), are highly prevalent within exosomes and play a crucial role in various pathophysiological processes mediated by these extracellular vesicles. Beyond their established functions in miRNA and protein sequestration, these ncRNAs are involved in regulating translation and interactions within exosomes. Numerous studies have highlighted the importance of exosomal lncRNAs and circRNAs in influencing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), angiogenesis, proliferation, invasion, migration, and metastasis in lung cancer. Due to their unique functional characteristics, these molecules are promising therapeutic targets and biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis. This review provides a succinct summary of the formation of exosomal lncRNAs and circRNAs, clarifies their biological roles, and thoroughly explains the mechanisms by which they participate in the progression of lung cancer. Finally, we discuss the potential clinical applications and challenges associated with exosomal lncRNAs and circRNAs in lung cancer.

Food-derived vesicles as immunomodulatory drivers: Current knowledge, gaps, and perspectives

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bound membrane vesicles released from cells, containing active compounds, which can be found in different foods. In this review, the role of food-derived vesicles (FDVs) as immunomodulatory drivers is summarized, with a focus on sources, isolation techniques and yields, as well as bioavailability and potential health implications. In addition, gaps and perspectives detected in this research field have been highlighted. FDVs have been efficiently extracted from different sources, and differential ultracentrifugation seems to be the most adequate isolation technique, with yields ranging from 108 to 1014 EV particles/mL. Animal studies show promising results in how these FDVs might regulate different pathways related to inflammation. Further investigation on the production of stable components in a cost-effective way, as well as human studies demonstrating safety and health-promoting properties, since scarce information has been reported until now, in the context of modulating the immune system are needed.

The potential therapeutic effect of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a chronic lung disease of preterm infants, with its incidence rising due to improved survival rates of these infants. BPD results from a combination of prenatal and postnatal factors, such as mechanical ventilation, oxygen toxicity, and infections, all of which significantly impact the prognosis and growth of affected infants. Current treatment options for BPD are largely supportive and do not address the underlying pathology. Exosomes are cell-derived bilayer-enclosed membrane structures enclosing proteins, lipids, RNAs, growth factors, cytokines and metabolites. They have become recognized as crucial regulators of intercellular communication in various physiological and pathological processes. Previous studies have revealed the therapeutic potential of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells-derived exosomes (HUCMSCs-Exos) in promoting tissue repair and regeneration. Therefore, HUCMSCs-Exos maybe a promising and effective therapeutic modality for BPD. In this review, we firstly provide a comprehensive overview of BPD, including its etiology and the mechanisms of lung injury. Then we detail the isolation, characterization, and contents of HUCMSCs-Exos, and discuss their potential mechanisms of HUCMSCs-Exos in BPD treatment. Additionally, we summarize current clinical trials and discuss the challenges in translating these findings from bench to bedside. This review aims to lay the groundwork for future clinical applications of HUCMSCs-Exos in treating BPD.

Ischemic-Preconditioning Induced Serum Exosomal miR-133a-3p Improved Post-Myocardial Infarction Repair via Targeting LTBP1 and PPP2CA

Background

Ischemic preconditioning-induced serum exosomes (IPC-exo) protected rat heart against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury. However, whether IPC-exo regulate replacement fibrosis after myocardial infarction (MI) and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. MicroRNAs (miRs) are important cargos of exosomes and play an essential role in cardioprotection. We aim to investigate whether IPC-exo regulate post-MI replacement fibrosis by transferring cardioprotective miRs and its action mechanism.

Methods

Exosomes obtained from serum of adult rats in control (Con-exo) and IPC groups were identified and analyzed, subsequently intracardially injected into MI rats following ligation. Their miRs profiles were identified using high-throughput miR sequencing to identify target miRs for bioinformatics analysis. Luciferase reporter assays confirmed target genes of selected miRs. IPC-exo transfected with selected miRs antagomir or NC were intracardially administered to MI rats post-ligation. Cardiac function and degree of replacement fibrosis were detected 4 weeks post-MI.

Results

IPC-exo exerted cardioprotective effects against excessive replacement fibrosis. MiR sequencing and RT-qPCR identified miR-133a-3p as most significantly different between IPC-exo and Con-exo. MiR-133a-3p directly targeted latent transforming growth factor beta binding protein 1 (LTBP1) and protein phosphatase 2, catalytic subunit, alpha isozyme (PPP2CA). KEGG analysis showed that transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) was one of the most enriched signaling pathways with miR-133a-3p. Comparing to injection of IPC-exo transfected with miR-133a-3p antagomir NC, injecting IPC-exo transfected with miR-133a-3p antagomir abolished protective effects of IPC-exo on declining excessive replacement fibrosis and cardiac function enhancement, while increasing the messenger RNA and protein expression of LTBP1, PPP2CA, and TGF-β1in MI rats.

Conclusion

IPC-exo inhibit excessive replacement fibrosis and improve cardiac function post-MI by transferring miR-133a-3p, the mechanism is associated with directly targeting LTBP1 and PPP2CA, and indirectly regulating TGF-β pathway in rats. Our finding provides potential therapeutic effect of IPC-induced exosomal miR-133a-3p for cardiac repair.

Dual Role of Extracellular Vesicles as Orchestrators of Emerging and Reemerging Virus Infections

Current decade witnessed the emergence and re-emergence of many viruses, which affected public health significantly. Viruses mainly utilize host cell machinery to promote its growth, and spread of these diseases. Numerous factors influence virus-host cell interactions, of which extracellular vesicles play an important role, where they transfer information both locally and distally by enclosing viral and host-derived proteins and RNAs as their cargo. Thus, they play a dual role in mediating virus infections by promoting virus dissemination and evoking immune responses in host organisms. Moreover, it acts as a double-edged sword during these infections. Advances in extracellular vesicles regulating emerging and reemerging virus infections, particularly in the context of SARS-CoV-2, Dengue, Ebola, Zika, Chikungunya, West Nile, and Japanese Encephalitis viruses are discussed in this review.

A Perspective on the Characterization of Early Neural Progenitor Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles for Targeted Delivery to Neuroblastoma Cells

As an element of the cellular signaling systems, extracellular vesicles (EVs) exhibit many desirable traits for usage as targeted delivery vehicles. When administered, EVs cause little to no toxic or immune response, stay in circulation for longer periods compared to synthetic carriers, preferentially accumulate in tissues that are the same or similar to their cell-of-origin and can pass through the blood-brain barrier. Combined, these traits make neural EVs a particularly promising tool for delivering drugs to the brain. This study aims to combine tissue and EVs engineering to prepare neural differentiated cells derived EVs that exhibit neural properties, to develop an effective, tissue-homing drug and gene delivery platform for the brain. Early neural differentiated cell-derived EVs were produced with neural characteristics from neural differentiated human neonatal dermal fibroblasts. The EVs carried key neural proteins such as Nestin, Sox2 and Doublecortin. The cellular uptake of early neural differentiated cell-derived EVs was higher compared to non-neural EVs during in vitro uptake assays on neuroblastoma cells. Moreover, eND-EVs were significantly decreased the viability of neuroblastoma cells. In conclusion, this study revealed that early neural differentiated cell-derived EVs have potential as a promising drug carrier for the treatment of various neural disorders.

Optimized workflow of EV enrichment from human plasma samples for downstream mass spectrometry analysis

To improve the prognosis of bladder and prostate cancer, highly specific and sensitive biomarkers are needed for early detection, prognosis prediction, and therapeutic stratification. Extracellular vesicles (EV) from plasma could fill this gap due to their potential to serve as cancer biomarkers. However, the enrichment of EV is a major challenge, because the highly abundant plasma proteins are interfering with analytical downstream applications like mass spectrometry (MS). Therefore, the purity requirements of the EV samples must be carefully considered when selecting or developing a suitable EV enrichment method. The aim of this study was to compare a self-designed EV enrichment method based on density cushion centrifugation (DCC) combined with size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and concentration (method 1) with the exoRNeasy midi kit from Qiagen (method 2) and with unprocessed plasma. Furthermore, the single steps of method 1 were evaluated for their effectiveness to enrich EV from plasma. The results showed that the EV samples enriched with method 1 contained the highest levels of EV and exosome markers with simultaneously low levels of highly abundant plasma proteins. In summary, the combination of DCC, SEC and concentration proved to be a promising approach to discover EV-based biomarkers from plasma of cancer patients.

Stem cell and exosome therapies for regenerating damaged myocardium in heart failure

Finding novel treatments for cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) is a hot topic in medicine; cell-based therapies have reported promising news for controlling dangerous complications of heart disease such as myocardial infarction (MI) and heart failure (HF). Various progenitor/stem cells were tested in various in-vivo, in-vitro, and clinical studies for regeneration or repairing the injured tissue in the myocardial to accelerate the healing. Fetal, adult, embryonic, and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) have revealed the proper potency for cardiac tissue repair. As an essential communicator among cells, exosomes with specific contacts (proteins, lncRNAs, and miRNAs) greatly promote cardiac rehabilitation. Interestingly, stem cell-derived exosomes have more efficiency than stem cell transplantation. Therefore, stem cells induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), embryonic stem cells (ESCs), cardiac stem cells (CDC), and skeletal myoblasts) and their-derived exosomes will probably be considered an alternative therapy for CVDs remedy. In addition, stem cell-derived exosomes have been used in the diagnosis/prognosis of heart diseases. In this review, we explained the advances of stem cells/exosome-based treatment, their beneficial effects, and underlying mechanisms, which will present new insights in the clinical field in the future.

Strategies for Targeting Peptide-Modified Exosomes and Their Applications in the Lungs

Exosomes belong to a subgroup of extracellular vesicles secreted by various cells and are involved in intercellular communication and material transfer. In recent years, exosomes have been used as drug delivery carriers because of their natural origin, high stability, low immunogenicity and high engineering ability. However, achieving targeted drug delivery with exosomes remains challenging. In this paper, a phage display technology was used to screen targeted peptides, and different surface modification strategies of targeted peptide exosomes were reviewed. In addition, the application of peptide-targeted exosomes in pulmonary diseases was also summarised.

The role of ncRNAs and exosomes in the development and progression of endometrial cancer

Endometrial cancer (EC) is one of the most common gynecologic cancers. In recent years, research has focused on the genetic characteristics of the tumors to detail their prognosis and tailor therapy. In the case of EC, genetic mutations have been shown to underlie their formation. It is very important to know the mechanisms of EC formation related to mutations induced by estrogen, among other things. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), composed of nucleotide transcripts with very low protein-coding capacity, are proving to be important. Their expression patterns in many malignancies can inhibit tumor formation and progression. They also regulate protein coding at the epigenetic, transcriptional, and posttranscriptional levels. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), several varieties of which are associated with normal endometrium as well as its tumor, also play a particularly important role in gene expression. MiRNAs and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) affect many pathways in EC tissues and play important roles in cancer development, invasion, and metastasis, as well as resistance to anticancer drugs through mechanisms such as suppression of apoptosis and progression of cancer stem cells. It is also worth noting that miRNAs are highly precise, sensitive, and robust, making them potential markers for diagnosing gynecologic cancers and their progression. Unfortunately, as the incidence of EC increases, treatment becomes challenging and is limited to invasive tools. The prospect of using microRNAs as potential candidates for diagnostic and therapeutic use in EC seems promising. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that are released from many types of cells, including cancer cells. They contain proteins, DNA, and various types of RNA, such as miRNAs. The noncoding RNA components of exosomes vary widely, depending on the physiology of the tumor tissue and the cells from which they originate. Exosomes contain both DNA and RNA and have communication functions between cells. Exosomal miRNAs mediate communication between EC cells, tumor-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and play a key role in tumor cell proliferation and tumor microenvironment formation. Oncogenes carried by tumor exosomes induce malignant transformation of target cells. During the synthesis of exosomes, various factors, such as genetic and proteomic data are upregulated. Thus, they are considered an interesting therapeutic target for the diagnosis and prognosis of endometrial cancer by analyzing biomarkers contained in exosomes. Expression of miRNAs, particularly miR-15a-5p, was elevated in exosomes derived from the plasma of EC patients. This may suggest the important utility of this biomarker in the diagnosis of EC. In recent years, researchers have become interested in the topic of prognostic markers for EC, as there are still too few identified markers to support the limited treatment of endometrial cancer. Further research into the effects of ncRNAs and exosomes on EC may allow for cancer treatment breakthroughs.

Antioxidant Potential of Exosomes in Animal Nutrition

This review delves into the advantages of exosomes as novel antioxidants in animal nutrition and their potential for regulating oxidative stress. Although traditional nutritional approaches promote oxidative stress defense systems in mammalian animals, several issues remain to be solved, such as low bioavailability, targeted tissue efficiency, and high-dose by-effect. As an important candidate offering regulation opportunities concerned with cellular communication, disease prevention, and physiology regulation in multiple biological systems, the potential of exosomes in mediating redox status in biological systems has not been well described. A previously reported relationship between redox system regulation and circulating exosomes suggested exosomes as a fundamental candidate for both a regulator and biomarker for a redox system. Herein, we review the effects of oxidative stress on exosomes in animals and the potential application of exosomes as antioxidants in animal nutrition. Then, we highlight the advantages of exosomes as redox regulators due to their higher bioavailability and physiological heterogeneity-targeted properties, providing a theoretical foundation and feed industry application. Therefore, exosomes have shown great potential as novel antioxidants in the field of animal nutrition. They can overcome the limitations of traditional antioxidants in terms of dosage and side effects, which will provide unprecedented opportunities in nutritional management and disease prevention, and may become a major breakthrough in the field of animal nutrition.

Harnessing exosomes as cancer biomarkers in clinical oncology

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles well known for facilitating cell-to-cell communication by distributing essential macromolecules like proteins, DNA, mRNA, lipids, and miRNA. These vesicles are abundant in fluids distributed throughout the body, including urine, blood, saliva, and even bile. They are important diagnostic tools for breast, lung, gastrointestinal cancers, etc. However, their application as cancer biomarkers has not yet been implemented in most parts of the world. In this review, we discuss how OMICs profiling of exosomes can be practiced by substituting traditional imaging or biopsy methods for cancer detection. Previous methods like extensive imaging and biopsy used for screening were expensive, mostly invasive, and could not easily provide early detection for various types of cancer. Exosomal biomarkers can be utilized for routine screening by simply collecting body fluids from the individual. We anticipate that the use of exosomes will be brought to light by the success of clinical trials investigating their potential to enhance cancer detection and treatment in the upcoming years.

Comparative Analysis of Exosomes and Extracellular Microvesicles in Healing Pathways: Insights for Advancing Regenerative Therapies

Exosomes and microvesicles bear great potential to broaden therapeutic options in the clinical context. They differ in genesis, size, cargo, and composition despite their similarities. They were identified as participating in various processes such as angiogenesis, cell migration, and intracellular communication. Additionally, they are characterized by their natural biocompatibility. Therefore, researchers concluded that they could serve as a novel curative method capable of achieving unprecedented results. Indeed, in experiments, they proved remarkably efficient in enhancing wound regeneration and mitigating inflammation. Despite immense advancements in research on exosomes and microvesicles, the time for their large-scale application is yet to come. This article aims to gather and analyze current knowledge on those promising particles, their characteristics, and their potential clinical implementations.

Regulation of exosomes as biologic medicines: Regulatory challenges faced in exosome development and manufacturing processes

With advances in medical technology, extracellular vesicles, also known as exosomes, are gaining widespread attention because of their potential therapeutic applications. However, their regulatory landscape is complex and varies across countries because of their unique intracellular mechanisms of action. The diversity of manufacturing techniques renders their standardization challenging, leading to a fragmented regulatory landscape. The current global regulatory framework of exosomes can be broadly classified into two strategies: one involves elucidating constituent components within exosomes and the other involves examining the physiological repercussions of their secretion. When using exosomes as therapeutic agents, they should be governed similarly to biological medicinal products. Similar to biologics, exosomes have been analyzed to determine their particle size and protein composition. An exosome-based therapeutic agent should be clinically approved after understanding its molecular composition and structure and demonstrating its pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy. However, demonstrating the pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy of exosomes is challenging for regulatory agencies. This article reviews the technical characteristics of exosomes, analyzes the trends in regulatory laws in various countries, and discusses the chemistry, manufacturing, and control requirements of clinical applications.

Advances in Exosome-Based Therapies for the Repair of Peripheral Nerve Injuries

Peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) are the term used to describe injuries that occur to the nerve fibers of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Such injuries may be caused by trauma, infection, or aberrant immunological response. Although the peripheral nervous system has a limited capacity for self-repair, in cases of severe damage, this process is either interrupted entirely or is only partially completed. The evaluation of variables that promote the repair of peripheral nerves has consistently been a focal point. Exosomes are a subtype of extracellular vesicles that originate from cellular sources and possess abundant proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, play a critical role in facilitating intercellular communication. Due to their modifiable composition, they possess exceptional capabilities as carriers for therapeutic compounds, including but not limited to mRNAs or microRNAs. Exosome-based therapies have gained significant attention in the treatment of several nervous system diseases due to their advantageous properties, such as low toxicity, high stability, and limited immune system activation. The objective of this review article is to provide an overview of exosome-based treatments that have been developed in recent years for a range of PNIs, including nerve trauma, diabetic neuropathy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), glaucoma, and Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS). It was concluded that exosomes could provide favorable results in the improvement of peripheral PNIs by facilitating the transfer of regenerative factors. The development of bioengineered exosome therapy for PNIs should be given more attention to enhance the efficacy of exosome treatment for PNIs.

An In-Depth Approach to the Associations between MicroRNAs and Viral Load in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis B-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Scientists study the molecular activities of the hepatitis B virus (HBV). However, in vivo experiments are scarce. Some microRNAs are HBV-related, but their exact mechanisms are unknown. Our study provides an up-to-date view of the associations between microRNAs and HBV-DNA levels in chronically infected individuals. We conducted this large-scale research on five databases according to PRISMA guidance. Joanna Briggs Institute tools and Newcastle Ottawa Quality Assessment scores helped with quality evaluations. R 4.2.2 performed statistical computations for the meta-analysis. DIANA-microT 2023 and g:Profiler enriched the predictions of liver genes associated with miR-122 and miR-192-5p. From the 1313 records, we eliminated those irrelevant to our theme, non-article methodologies, non-English entries, and duplicates. We assessed associations between microRNAs and HBV-DNA levels. Overall, the pooled correlations favoured the general idea of the connection between non-coding molecules and viremia levels. MiR-122 and miR-192-5p were the most researched microRNAs, significantly associated with HBV-DNA levels. The connections between miR-122, miR-192-5p, let-7, miR-215, miR-320, and viral loads need further in vivo assessment. To conclude, this study evaluates systematically, for the first time, the correlations between non-coding molecules and viremia levels in patients. Our meta-analysis emphasizes potentially important pathways toward new inhibitors of the viral replication cycle.

Improving Granulosa Cell Function in Premature Ovarian Failure with Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stromal Cell Exosome-Derived hsa_circ_0002021

BACKGROUND

The therapeutic potential of exosomes from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (HUMSCs-Exo) for delivering specific circular RNAs (circRNAs) in treating premature ovarian failure (POF) is not well understood. This study aimed to explore the efficacy of HUMSCs-Exo in delivering hsa_circ_0002021 for POF treatment, focusing on its effects on granulosa cell (GC) senescence and ovarian function.

METHODS

Bioinformatic analysis was conducted on circRNA profiles using the GSE97193 dataset from GEO, targeting granulosa cells from varied age groups. To simulate granulosa cell senescence, KGN cells were treated with cyclophosphamide (CTX). HUMSCs were transfected with pcDNA 3.1 vectors to overexpress hsa_circ_0002021, and the HUMSCs-Exo secreted were isolated. These exosomes were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Western blotting to confirm exosomal markers CD9 and CD63. Co-culture of these exosomes with CTX-treated KGN cells was performed to assess β-galactosidase activity, oxidative stress markers, ROS levels, and apoptosis via flow cytometry. Interaction between hsa_circ_0002021, microRNA-125a-5p (miR-125a-5p), and cyclin-dependent kinase 6 (CDK6) was investigated using dual-luciferase assays and RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP). A POF mouse model was induced with CTX, treated with HUMSCs-Exo, and analyzed histologically and via immunofluorescence staining. Gene expression was quantified using RT-qPCR and Western blot.

RESULTS

hsa_circ_0002021 was under expressed in both in vivo and in vitro POF models and was effectively delivered by HUMSCs-Exo to KGN cells, showing a capability to reduce GC senescence. Overexpression of hsa_circ_0002021 in HUMSCs-Exo significantly enhanced these anti-senescence effects. This circRNA acts as a competitive adsorbent of miR-125a-5p, regulating CDK6 expression, which is crucial in modulating cell cycle and apoptosis. Enhanced expression of hsa_circ_0002021 in HUMSCs-Exo ameliorated GC senescence in vitro and improved ovarian function in POF models by modulating oxidative stress and cellular senescence markers.

CONCLUSION

This study confirms that hsa_circ_0002021, when delivered through HUMSCs-Exo, can significantly mitigate GC senescence and restore ovarian function in POF models. These findings provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms of POF and highlight the therapeutic potential of circRNA-enriched exosomes in treating ovarian aging and dysfunction.

Exosome prospects in the diagnosis and treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

The growing prevalence of NAFLD and its global health burden have provoked considerable research on possible diagnostic and therapeutic options for NAFLD. Although various pathophysiological mechanisms and genetic factors have been identified to be associated with NAFLD, its treatment remains challenging. In recent years, exosomes have attracted widespread attention for their role in metabolic dysfunctions and their efficacy as pathological biomarkers. Exosomes have also shown tremendous potential in treating a variety of disorders. With increasing evidence supporting the significant role of exosomes in NAFLD pathogenesis, their theragnostic potential has become a point of interest in NAFLD. Expectedly, exosome-based treatment strategies have shown promise in the prevention and amelioration of NAFLD in preclinical studies. However, there are still serious challenges in preparing, standardizing, and applying exosome-based therapies as a routine clinical option that should be overcome. Due to the great potential of this novel theragnostic agent in NAFLD, further investigations on their safety, clinical efficacy, and application standardization are highly recommended.

CRABP1-complexes in exosome secretion

BACKGROUND

Cellular retinoic acid binding protein 1 (CRABP1) mediates rapid, non-canonical activity of retinoic acid (RA) by forming signalosomes via protein-protein interactions. Two signalosomes have been identified previously: CRABP1-MAPK and CRABP1-CaMKII. Crabp1 knockout (CKO) mice exhibited altered exosome profiles, but the mechanism of CRABP1 action was unclear. This study aimed to screen for and identify novel CRABP1 signalosomes that could modulate exosome secretion by using a combinatorial approach involving biochemical, bioinformatic and molecular studies.

METHODS

Immunoprecipitation coupled with mass spectrometry (IP-MS) identified candidate CRABP1-interacting proteins which were subsequently analyzed using GO Term Enrichment, Functional Annotation Clustering; and Pathway Analysis. Gene expression analysis of CKO samples revealed altered expression of genes related to exosome biogenesis and secretion. The effect of CRABP1 on exosome secretion was then experimentally validated using CKO mice and a Crabp1 knockdown P19 cell line.

RESULTS

IP-MS identified CRABP1-interacting targets. Bioinformatic analyses revealed significant association with actin cytoskeletal dynamics, kinases, and exosome secretion. The effect of CRABP1 on exosome secretion was experimentally validated by comparing circulating exosome numbers of CKO and wild type (WT) mice, and secreted exosomes from WT and siCRABP1-P19 cells. Pathway analysis identified kinase signaling and Arp2/3 complex as the major pathways where CRABP1-signalosomes modulate exosome secretion, which was validated in the P19 system.

CONCLUSION

The combinatorial approach allowed efficient screening for and identification of novel CRABP1-signalosomes. The results uncovered a novel function of CRABP1 in modulating exosome secretion, and suggested that CRABP1 could play roles in modulating intercellular communication and signal propagation.

Exosomes: a significant medium for regulating drug resistance through cargo delivery

Exosomes are small lipid nanovesicles with a diameter of 30-150 nm. They are present in all body fluids and are actively secreted by the majority of cells through the process of exocytosis. Exosomes play an essential role in intercellular communication and act as significant molecular carriers in regulating various physiological and pathological processes, such as the emergence of drug resistance in tumors. Tumor-associated exosomes transfer drug resistance to other tumor cells by releasing substances such as multidrug resistance proteins and miRNAs through exosomes. These substances change the cell phenotype, making it resistant to drugs. Tumor-associated exosomes also play a role in impacting drug resistance in other cells, like immune cells and stromal cells. Exosomes alter the behavior and function of these cells to help tumor cells evade immune surveillance and form a tumor niche. In addition, exosomes also export substances such as tumoricidal drugs and neutralizing antibody drugs to help tumor cells resist drug therapy. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms of exosomes in promoting drug resistance by delivering cargo in the context of the tumor microenvironment (TME).

Cellular Senescence and Extracellular Vesicles in the Pathogenesis and Treatment of Obesity-A Narrative Review

This narrative review explores the pathophysiology of obesity, cellular senescence, and exosome release. When exposed to excessive nutrients, adipocytes develop mitochondrial dysfunction and generate reactive oxygen species with DNA damage. This triggers adipocyte hypertrophy and hypoxia, inhibition of adiponectin secretion and adipogenesis, increased endoplasmic reticulum stress and maladaptive unfolded protein response, metaflammation, and polarization of macrophages. Such feed-forward cycles are not resolved by antioxidant systems, heat shock response pathways, or DNA repair mechanisms, resulting in transmissible cellular senescence via autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine signaling. Senescence can thus affect preadipocytes, mature adipocytes, tissue macrophages and lymphocytes, hepatocytes, vascular endothelium, pancreatic β cells, myocytes, hypothalamic nuclei, and renal podocytes. The senescence-associated secretory phenotype is closely related to visceral adipose tissue expansion and metaflammation; inhibition of SIRT-1, adiponectin, and autophagy; and increased release of exosomes, exosomal micro-RNAs, pro-inflammatory adipokines, and saturated free fatty acids. The resulting hypernefemia, insulin resistance, and diminished fatty acid β-oxidation lead to lipotoxicity and progressive obesity, metabolic syndrome, and physical and cognitive functional decline. Weight cycling is related to continuing immunosenescence and exposure to palmitate. Cellular senescence, exosome release, and the transmissible senescence-associated secretory phenotype contribute to obesity and metabolic syndrome. Targeted therapies have interrelated and synergistic effects on cellular senescence, obesity, and premature aging.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes as Drug Delivery Vehicles in Disease Therapy

Exosomes are small vesicles containing proteins, nucleic acids, and biological lipids, which are responsible for intercellular communication. Studies have shown that exosomes can be utilized as effective drug delivery vehicles to accurately deliver therapeutic substances to target tissues, enhancing therapeutic effects and reducing side effects. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a class of stem cells widely used for tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and immunotherapy. Exosomes derived from MSCs have special immunomodulatory functions, low immunogenicity, the ability to penetrate tumor tissues, and high yield, which are expected to be engineered into efficient drug delivery systems. Despite the promising promise of MSC-derived exosomes, exploring their optimal preparation methods, drug-loading modalities, and therapeutic potential remains challenging. Therefore, this article reviews the related characteristics, preparation methods, application, and potential risks of MSC-derived exosomes as drug delivery systems in order to find potential therapeutic breakthroughs.

Exosome theranostics: Comparative analysis of P body and exosome proteins and their mutations for clinical applications

Exosomes are lipid-bilayered vesicles, originating from early endosomes that capture cellular proteins and genetic materials to form multi-vesicular bodies. These exosomes are secreted into extracellular fluids such as cerebrospinal fluid, blood, urine, and cell culture supernatants. They play a key role in intercellular communication by carrying active molecules like lipids, cytokines, growth factors, metabolites, proteins, and RNAs. Recently, the potential of exosomal delivery for therapeutic purposes has been explored due to their low immunogenicity, nano-scale size, and ability to cross cellular barriers. This review comprehensively examines the biogenesis of exosomes, their isolation techniques, and their diverse applications in theranostics. We delve into the mechanisms and methods for loading exosomes with mRNA, miRNA, proteins, and drugs, highlighting their transformative role in delivering therapeutic payloads. Additionally, the utility of exosomes in stem cell therapy is discussed, showcasing their potential in regenerative medicine. Insights into exosome cargo using pre- or post-loading techniques are critical for exosome theranostics. We review exosome databases such as ExoCarta, Expedia, and ExoBCD, which document exosome cargo. From these databases, we identified 25 proteins common to both exosomes and P-bodies, known for mutations in the COSMIC database. Exosome databases do not integrate with mutation analysis programs; hence, we performed mutation analysis using additional databases. Accounting for the mutation status of parental cells and exosomal cargo is crucial in exosome theranostics. This review provides a comprehensive report on exosome databases, proteins common to exosomes and P-bodies, and their mutation analysis, along with the latest studies on exosome-engineered theranostics.

Synthesis and Regulation of miRNA, Its Role in Oncogenesis, and Its Association with Colorectal Cancer Progression, Diagnosis, and Prognosis

The dysfunction of several types of regulators, including miRNAs, has recently attracted scientific attention for their role in cancer-associated changes in gene expression. MiRNAs are small RNAs of ~22 nt in length that do not encode protein information but play an important role in post-transcriptional mRNA regulation. Studies have shown that miRNAs are involved in tumour progression, including cell proliferation, cell cycle, apoptosis, and tumour angiogenesis and invasion, and play a complex and important role in the regulation of tumourigenesis. The detection of selected miRNAs may help in the early detection of cancer cells, and monitoring changes in their expression profile may serve as a prognostic factor in the course of the disease or its treatment. MiRNAs may serve as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, as well as potential therapeutic targets for colorectal cancer. In recent years, there has been increasing evidence for an epigenetic interaction between DNA methylation and miRNA expression in tumours. This article provides an overview of selected miRNAs, which are more frequently expressed in colorectal cancer cells, suggesting an oncogenic nature.

Enhancement of endothelial function and attenuation of portal vein injury using mesenchymal stem cells carrying miRNA-25-3p

The aims of this study were to determine whether human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hucMSCs) modified by miRNA-25-3p (miR-25-3p) overexpression could promote venous endothelial cell proliferation and attenuate portal endothelial cell injury. HucMSCs and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were isolated and cultured from human umbilical cord and characterized. Lentiviral vectors expressing miRNA-25-3p were transfected into hucMSCs and confirmed by PCR. We verified the effect of miR-25-3p-modified hucMSCs on HUVEC by cell co-culture and cell supernatant experiments. Subsequently, exosomes of miR-25-3p-modified hucMSCs were isolated from cell culture supernatants and characterized by WB, NTA and TEM. We verified the effects of miR-25-3p-modified exosomes derived from hucMSCs on HUVEC proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis by in vitro cellular function experiments. Meanwhile, we further examined the downstream target genes and signaling pathways potentially affected by miR-25-3p-modified hucMSC-derived exosomes in HUVEC. Finally, we established a rat portal vein venous thrombosis model by injecting CM-DiR-labeled hucMSCs intravenously into rats and examining the homing of cells in the portal vein by fluorescence microscopy. Histological and immunohistochemical experiments were used to examine the effects of miRNA-25-3p-modified hucMSCs on the proliferation and damage of portal vein endothelial cells. Primary hucMSCs and HUVECs were successfully isolated, cultured and characterized. Primary hucMSCs were modified with a lentiviral vector carrying miR-25-3p at MOI 80. Co-culture and cell supernatant intervention experiments showed that overexpression of miRNA-25-3p in hucMSCs enhanced HUVEC proliferation, migration and tube formation in vitro. We successfully isolated and characterized exosomes of miR-25-3p-modified hucMSCs, and exosome intervention experiments demonstrated that miR-25-3p-modified exosomes derived from hucMSCs similarly enhanced the proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis of HUVECs. Subsequent PCR and WB analyses indicated PTEN/KLF4/AKT/ERK1/2 as potential pathways of action. Analysis in a rat portal vein thrombosis model showed that miR-25-3p-modified hucMSCs could homing to damaged portal veins. Subsequent histological and immunohistochemical examinations demonstrated that intervention with miR-25-3p overexpression-modified hucMSCs significantly reduced damage and attenuated thrombosis in rat portal veins. The above findings indicate suggest that hucMSCs based on miR-25-3p modification may be a promising therapeutic approach for use in venous thrombotic diseases.

The role of oxidative stress in intervertebral disc degeneration: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications

Oxidative stress is one of the main driving mechanisms of intervertebral disc degeneration(IDD). Oxidative stress has been associated with inflammation in the intervertebral disc, cellular senescence, autophagy, and epigenetics of intervertebral disc cells. It and the above pathological mechanisms are closely linked through the common hub reactive oxygen species(ROS), and promote each other in the process of disc degeneration and promote the development of the disease. This reveals the important role of oxidative stress in the process of IDD, and the importance and great potential of IDD therapy targeting oxidative stress. The efficacy of traditional therapy is unstable or cannot be maintained. In recent years, due to the rise of materials science, many bioactive functional materials have been applied in the treatment of IDD, and through the combination with traditional drugs, satisfactory efficacy has been achieved. At present, the research review of antioxidant bioactive materials in the treatment of IDD is not complete. Based on the existing studies, the mechanism of oxidative stress in IDD and the common antioxidant therapy were summarized in this paper, and the strategies based on emerging bioactive materials were reviewed.

Extracellular vesicles: Function, resilience, biomarker, bioengineering, and clinical implications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as key players in intercellular communication, disease pathology, and therapeutic innovation. Initially overlooked as cellular debris, EVs are now recognized as vital mediators of cell-to-cell communication, ferrying a cargo of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, providing cellular resilience in response to stresses. This review provides a comprehensive overview of EVs, focusing on their role as biomarkers in disease diagnosis, their functional significance in physiological and pathological processes, and the potential of bioengineering for therapeutic applications. EVs offer a promising avenue for noninvasive disease diagnosis and monitoring, reflecting the physiological state of originating cells. Their diagnostic potential spans a spectrum of diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and infectious diseases. Moreover, their presence in bodily fluids such as blood, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid enhances their diagnostic utility, presenting advantages over traditional methods. Beyond diagnostics, EVs mediate crucial roles in intercellular communication, facilitating the transfer of bioactive molecules between cells. This communication modulates various physiological processes such as tissue regeneration, immune modulation, and neuronal communication. Dysregulation of EV-mediated communication is implicated in diseases such as cancer, immune disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases, highlighting their therapeutic potential. Bioengineering techniques offer avenues for manipulating EVs for therapeutic applications, from isolation and purification to engineering cargo and targeted delivery systems. These approaches hold promise for developing novel therapeutics tailored to specific diseases, revolutionizing personalized medicine. However, challenges such as standardization, scalability, and regulatory approval need addressing for successful clinical translation. Overall, EVs represent a dynamic frontier in biomedical research with vast potential for diagnostics, therapeutics, and personalized medicine.

Cellular evidence and spatial distribution of endosomal biosynthesis and autophagy in intestinal immune barrier cells of crucian carp (Carassiuscarassius)

Crucian carp (Carassius carassius) is an important aquatic economic animal, and the immune barrier function of its intestine has been a focus of research into oral vaccines and drugs. However, the histological structures of the intestinal barrier and its adjacent areas have not been clearly established, and little subcellular evidence is available to elucidate the spatial distribution of intracellular biological processes. In this study, the spatial distribution of autophagy and endosome formation in the intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) of crucian carp were analyzed. These two biological activities are closely related to intestinal homeostasis, immunity, and cell communication. Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) and Masson's trichrome staining were employed to elucidate the distinctive histological framework of the Crucian carp's myoid cell network, which resides within the subepithelial layer and is characterized by gap junctions. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), immunohistochemistry (IHC), and immunofluorescence (IF) were used to detect the structural and functional aspects of the IEC in different intestinal segments. TEM and immunohistochemical analyses captured the biogenesis and maturation of early and late endosomes as well as multivesicular bodies (MVBs), as well as the initiation and progression of autophagy, including macroautophagy and mitophagy. The endosome and MVBs-specific marker CD63 and autophagy-related protein LC3 were highly expressed in IECs and were correlated with autophagy and endosome biosynthesis in the apical and basal regions of individual cells, and differed between different intestinal segments. In summary, this study elucidated the ubiquity and morphological characteristics of autophagy and endosome formation across different intestinal segments of crucian carp. A unique myoid cell network beneath the intestinal epithelium in crucian carp was also identified, expanding the histological understanding of this animal's intestinal tract.

Engineering Approaches for Exosome Cargo Loading and Targeted Delivery: Biological versus Chemical Perspectives

Exosomes are nanoscale membrane bound vesicles secreted by almost all types of cells. Their unique attributes, such as minimal immunogenicity and compatibility with biological systems, make them novel carriers for drug delivery. These native exosomes harbor proteins, nucleic acids, small molecule compounds, and fluorogenic agents. Moreover, through a combination of chemical and bioengineering methodologies, exosomes are tailored to transport precise therapeutic payloads to designated cells or tissues. In this review, we summarize the strategies for exosome modification and drug loading modalities in engineered exosomes. In addition, we provide an overview of the advances in the use of engineered exosomes for targeted drug delivery. Lastly, we discuss the merits and limitations of chemically engineered versus bioengineered exosome-mediated target therapies. These insights offer additional options for refining engineered exosomes in pharmaceutical development and hold promise for expediting the successful translation of engineered exosomes from the bench to the bedside.

Exosomes multiplex profiling, a promising strategy for early diagnosis of laryngeal cancer

BACKGROUND

Exosomes are nanosized vesicles released from all cells into surrounding biofluids, including cancer cells, and represent a very promising direction in terms of minimally invasive approaches to early disease detection. They carry tumor-specific biological contents such as DNA, RNA, proteins, lipids, and sugars, as well as surface molecules that are able to pinpoint the cellular source. By the above criteria, exosomes may be stratified according to the presence of tissue and disease-specific signatures and, due to their stability in such biofluids as plasma and serum, they represent an indispensable source of vital clinical insights from liquid biopsies, even at the earliest stages of cancer. Therefore, our work aimed to isolate and characterize LCa patients' derived exosomes from serum by Flow Cytometry in order to define a specific epitope signature exploitable for early diagnosis.

METHODS

Circulating exosomes were collected from serum collected from 30 LCa patients and 20 healthy volunteers by the use of antibody affinity method exploiting CD63 specific surface marker. Membrane epitopes were then characterized by Flow cytometry multiplex analysis and compared between LCa Patients and Healthy donors. Clinical data were also matched to obtain statistical correlation.

RESULTS

A distinct overexpression of CD1c, CD2, CD3, CD4, CD11c, CD14, CD20, CD44, CD56, CD105, CD146, and CD209 was identified in LCa patients compared to healthy controls, correlating positively with tumor presence. Conversely, CD24, CD31, and CD40, though not overexpressed in tumor samples, showed a significant correlation with nodal involvement in LCa patients (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

This approach could allow us to set up a cost-effective and less invasive liquid biopsy protocol from a simple blood collection in order to early diagnose LCa and improve patients' outcomes and quality of life.

Exosomes on the development and progression of renal fibrosis

Renal fibrosis is a prevalent pathological alteration that occurs throughout the progression of primary and secondary renal disorders towards end-stage renal disease. As a complex and irreversible pathophysiological phenomenon, it includes a sequence of intricate regulatory processes at the molecular and cellular levels. Exosomes are a distinct category of extracellular vesicles that play a crucial role in facilitating intercellular communication. Multiple pathways are regulated by exosomes produced by various cell types, including tubular epithelial cells and mesenchymal stem cells, in the context of renal fibrosis. Furthermore, research has shown that exosomes present in bodily fluids, including urine and blood, may be indicators of renal fibrosis. However, the regulatory mechanism of exosomes in renal fibrosis has not been fully elucidated. This article reviewed and analysed the various mechanisms by which exosomes regulate renal fibrosis, which may provide new ideas for further study of the pathophysiological process of renal fibrosis and targeted treatment of renal fibrosis with exosomes.

Isolation and Characterization of Extracellular Vesicles of Chick Embryo Blood

Exosomes from plants or animals are a cheap, available, and promising option in medicine, which can be used for the detection or treatment of various diseases. This study aims to evaluate the antitoxic and antioxidant properties of Extracellular vesicle (EVs) extracted from chicken embryo blood using a fibroblast cell line (NIH/3T3). EVs from chick embryos were extracted in this experimental investigation using the sedimentation method and examined using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and field emission electron microscopy (FE-SEM). The protein concentration and overall antioxidant capacity of the EVs were determined using bicinchoninic acid (BCA) and antioxidant capacity (FRAP). EVs were added to NIH/3T3 cells at varying concentrations (1, 2, and 10 mg/ml), and the MTT (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay test was used to measure cell survival. The size of the isolated EVs was confirmed to be less than 100 nm by electron microscopy and DLS. The quantity of protein in these EVs was 3200 µg/ml, and their total antioxidant capacities were 3130.17, 1914.122, and 976.9 μMol/L. The MTT test findings demonstrated that NIH/3T3 cells survived treatment with EVs (P ≤ 0.001) compared to the control group. Antioxidant-rich and protein-rich exosomes in chicken embryos may be valuable in managing oxidative stress.

Extracellular Vesicles as Next-Generation Diagnostics and Advanced Therapy Medicinal Products

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) hold great promise for clinical application as new diagnostic and therapeutic modalities. This paper describes major GMP-based upstream and downstream manufacturing processes for EV large-scale production, also focusing on post-processing technologies such as surface bioengineering and uploading studies to yield novel EV-based diagnostics and advanced therapy medicinal products. This paper also focuses on the quality, safety, and efficacy issues of the bioengineered EV drug candidates before first-in-human studies. Because clinical trials involving extracellular vesicles are on the global rise, this paper encompasses different clinical studies registered on clinical-trial register platforms, with varying levels of advancement, highlighting the growing interest in EV-related clinical programs. Navigating the regulatory affairs of EVs poses real challenges, and obtaining marketing authorization for EV-based medicines remains complex due to the lack of specific regulatory guidelines for such novel products. This paper discusses the state-of-the-art regulatory knowledge to date on EV-based diagnostics and medicinal products, highlighting further research and global regulatory needs for the safe and reliable implementation of bioengineered EVs as diagnostic and therapeutic tools in clinical settings. Post-marketing pharmacovigilance for EV-based medicinal products is also presented, mainly addressing such topics as risk assessment and risk management.

Small extracellular vesicles: Roles and clinical application in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer is a significant health problem in the United States. It is remarkably heterogenous, ranging from slow growing disease amenable to active surveillance to highly aggressive forms requiring active treatments. Therefore, being able to precisely determine the nature of disease and appropriately match patients to available and/or novel therapeutics is crucial to improve patients' overall outcome and quality of life. Recently small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), a subset of nanoscale membranous vesicles secreted by various cells, have emerged as important analytes for liquid biopsy and promising vehicles for drug delivery. sEVs contain various biomolecules such as genetic material, proteins, and lipids that recapitulate the characteristics and state of their donor cells. The application of existing and newly developed technologies has resulted in an increased depth of knowledge about biophysical structures, biogenesis, and functions of sEVs. In prostate cancer patients, tumor-derived sEVs can be isolated from biofluids, commonly urine and blood. They mediate intercellular signaling within the tumor microenvironment and distal organ-specific sites, supporting cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis. A mounting body of evidence suggests that sEV components can be potent biomarkers for prostate cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and prediction of disease progression and treatment response. Due to enhanced circulation stability and bio-barrier permeability, sEVs can be also used as effective drug delivery carriers to improve the efficacy and specificity of anti-tumor therapies. This review discusses recent studies on sEVs in prostate cancer and is focused on their role as biomarkers and drug delivery vehicles in the clinical management of prostate cancer.

Therapeutic Effects of Engineered Exosomes from RAW264.7 Cells Overexpressing hsa-let-7i-5p against Sepsis in Mice-A Comparative Study with Human Placenta-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cell Exosomes

This study compared the therapeutic effects of engineered exosomes derived from RAW264.7 cells overexpressing hsa-let-7i-5p (engineered exosomes) to exosomes from human placenta-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hpMSC exosomes) against sepsis-induced acute lung injury. Adult male C57BL/6 mice were divided into lipopolysaccharide (LPS), LPS plus engineered exosome (LEExo), or LPS plus hpMSC exosome (LMExo) groups, alongside control groups. The results showed that lung injury scores (based on pathohistological characteristics) and the levels of lung function alterations, tissue edema, and leukocyte infiltration in LEExo and LMExo groups were comparable and significantly lower than in the LPS group (all p < 0.05). Furthermore, the levels of inflammation (nuclear factor-κB activation, cytokine upregulation), macrophage activation (hypoxia-inducible factor-1α activation, M1 phase polarization), oxidation, and apoptosis were diminished in LEExo and LMExo groups compared to the LPS group (all p < 0.05). Inhibition of hsa-let-7i-5p attenuated the therapeutic effects of both engineered and hpMSC exosomes. These findings underscore the potent therapeutic capacity of engineered exosomes enriched with hsa-let-7i-5p and their potential as an alternative to hpMSC exosomes for sepsis treatment. Continued research into the mechanisms of action and optimization of engineered exosomes could pave the way for their future clinical application.

Advances in the Pathogenesis of Steroid-Associated Osteonecrosis of the Femoral Head

Osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH) is a refractory orthopedic condition characterized by bone cell ischemia, necrosis, bone trabecular fracture, and clinical symptoms such as pain, femoral head collapse, and joint dysfunction that can lead to disability. The disability rate of ONFH is very high, which imposes a significant economic burden on both families and society. Steroid-associated osteonecrosis of the femoral head (SANFH) is the most common type of ONFH. However, the pathogenesis of SANFH remains unclear, and it is an urgent challenge for orthopedic surgeons to explore it. In this paper, the pathogenesis of SANFH and its related signaling pathways were briefly reviewed to enhance comprehension of the pathogenesis and prevention of SANFH.

Extracellular vesicles in nanomedicine and regenerative medicine: A review over the last decade

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) are known to be secreted by a vast majority of cells. These sEVs, specifically exosomes, induce specific cell-to-cell interactions and can activate signaling pathways in recipient cells through fusion or interaction. These nanovesicles possess several desirable properties, making them ideal for regenerative medicine and nanomedicine applications. These properties include exceptional stability, biocompatibility, wide biodistribution, and minimal immunogenicity. However, the practical utilization of sEVs, particularly in clinical settings and at a large scale, is hindered by the expensive procedures required for their isolation, limited circulation lifetime, and suboptimal targeting capacity. Despite these challenges, sEVs have demonstrated a remarkable ability to accommodate various cargoes and have found extensive applications in the biomedical sciences. To overcome the limitations of sEVs and broaden their potential applications, researchers should strive to deepen their understanding of current isolation, loading, and characterization techniques. Additionally, acquiring fundamental knowledge about sEVs origins and employing state-of-the-art methodologies in nanomedicine and regenerative medicine can expand the sEVs research scope. This review provides a comprehensive overview of state-of-the-art exosome-based strategies in diverse nanomedicine domains, encompassing cancer therapy, immunotherapy, and biomarker applications. Furthermore, we emphasize the immense potential of exosomes in regenerative medicine.

Emerging Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Intercellular Communication in the Brain: Implications for Neurodegenerative Diseases and Therapeutics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are minute lipid-bilayer sacs discharged by cells, encompassing a diverse array of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The identification of EVs as pivotal agents in intercellular communication has sparked compelling research pathways in the realms of cell biology and neurodegenerative diseases. Utilizing EVs for medicinal reasons has garnered interest due to the adaptability of EV-mediated communication. EVs can be classified based on their physical characteristics, biochemical composition, or cell of origin following purification. This review delves into the primary sub-types of EVs, providing an overview of the biogenesis of each type. Additionally, it explores the diverse environmental conditions triggering EV release and the originating cells, including stem cells and those from the Central Nervous System. Within the brain, EVs play a pivotal role as essential mediators of intercellular communication, significantly impacting synaptic plasticity, brain development, and the etiology of neurological diseases. Their potential diagnostic and therapeutic applications in various brain-related conditions are underscored, given their ability to carry specific cargo. Specially engineered EVs hold promise for treating diverse diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders. This study primarily emphasizes the diagnostic and potential therapeutic uses of EVs in neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's Disease, Huntington's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, and Prions disease. It also summarizes innovative techniques for detecting EVs in the brain, suggesting that EVs could serve as non-invasive biomarkers for early detection, disease monitoring, and prognosis in neurological disorders.

Role of miRNA-regulated type H vessel formation in osteoporosis

Osteoporosis (OP) is a chronic systemic bone metabolism disease characterized by decreased bone mass, microarchitectural deterioration, and fragility fractures. With the demographic change caused by long lifespans and population aging, OP is a growing health problem. The role of miRNA in the pathogenesis of OP has also attracted widespread attention from scholars in recent years. Type H vessels are unique microvessels of the bone and have become a new focus in the pathogenesis of OP because they play an essential role in osteogenesis-angiogenesis coupling. Previous studies found some miRNAs regulate type H vessel formation through the regulatory factors, including platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB), hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and so on. These findings help us gain a more in-depth understanding of the relationship among miRNAs, type H vessels, and OP to find a new perspective on treating OP. In the present mini-review, we will introduce the role of type H vessels in the pathogenesis of OP and the regulation of miRNAs on type H vessel formation by affecting regulatory factors to provide some valuable insights for future studies of OP treatment.

The sphingolipids change in exosomes from cancer patients and association between exosome release and sphingolipids level based on a pseudotargeted lipidomics method

The lipid based ESCRT-independent mechanism, which contributes to MVB formation, is one of the crucial procedures in exosome biogenesis. n-SMase is a key lipid metabolism enzyme in this mechanism and can induce the hydrolysis of sphingomyelins (SMs) to ceramides (Cers), thereby promoting the formation of ILVs inside MVBs. Therefore, the regulation of n-SMase can realize the alteration in exosome release. According to the fact that cancer-associated cells have a tendency to release more exosomes than healthy cells, lipid extracts in exosomes from healthy volunteers, HCC and ICC patients were analyzed by a novel pseudotargeted lipidomics method focused on sphingolipids (SLs) to explore whether cancer-related features regulate the release of exosomes through the above pathway. Multivariate analysis based on the SLs expression could distinguish three groups well indicated that the SLs expression among the three groups were different. In cancer groups, two species of critical Cers were up-regulated, denoted as Cer (d18:1_16:0) and Cer (d18:1_18:0), while 55 kinds of SLs were down-regulated, including 40 species of SMs, such as SM (d18:1_16:0), SM (d18:1_18:1) and SM (d18:1_24:0). Meanwhile, several species of SM/Cer exhibited significant down-regulation. This substantial enhancement of the SMs hydrolysis to Cers process during exosome biogenesis suggested that cancer-related features may potentially promote an increase in exosome release through ESCRT-independent mechanism. Moreover, differential SLs have a capability of becoming potential biomarkers for disease diagnosis and classification with an AUC value of 0.9884 or 0.9806 for the comparison between healthy group and HCC or ICC groups, respectively. In addition, an association analysis conducted on the cell lines showed that changes in the SM/Cer contents in cells and their exosomes were negatively correlated with the levels of released exosomes, implied the regulation of exosome release levels can be achieved by modulating n-SMase and subsequent SL expression.

Identification of potential biomarkers and pathways for asthenozoospermia by bioinformatics analysis and experiments

Background

Asthenozoospermia, a type of male infertility, is primarily caused by dysfunctional sperm mitochondria. Despite previous bioinformatics analysis identifying potential key lncRNAs, miRNAs, hub genes, and pathways associated with asthenospermia, there is still a need to explore additional molecular mechanisms and potential biomarkers for this condition.

Methods

We integrated data from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) (GSE22331, GSE34514, and GSE160749) and performed bioinformatics analysis to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between normozoospermia and asthenozoospermia. Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses were conducted to gain insights into biological processes and signaling pathways. Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) identified gene modules associated with asthenozoospermia. Expression levels of key genes were assessed using datasets and experimental data. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) and correlation analysis identified pathways associated with the hub gene and explore the relationship between the ZNF764 and COQ9 and mitochondrial autophagy-related genes. Competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) networks were constructed, and in vitro experiments using exosome samples were conducted to validate this finding.

Results

COQ9 was identified as a marker gene in asthenozoospermia, involved in autophagy, ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling, endocytosis, and cell cycle, etc. The ceRNA regulatory network (LINC00893/miR-125a-5p/COQ9) was constructed, and PCR demonstrated that LINC00893 and COQ9 were downregulated in asthenozoospermia, while miR-125a-5p and m6A methylation level of LINC00893 were upregulated in asthenozoospermia compared to normozoospermic individuals.

Conclusion

The ceRNA regulatory network (LINC00893/miR-125a-5p/COQ9) likely plays a crucial role in the mechanism of asthenozoospermia. However, further functional experiments are needed to fully understand its significance.

Applications of Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Nerve Regeneration

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, microvesicles, and other lipid vesicles derived from cells, play a pivotal role in intercellular communication by transferring information between cells. EVs secreted by progenitor and stem cells have been associated with the therapeutic effects observed in cell-based therapies, and they also contribute to tissue regeneration following injury, such as in orthopaedic surgery cases. This review explores the involvement of EVs in nerve regeneration, their potential as drug carriers, and their significance in stem cell research and cell-free therapies. It underscores the importance of bioengineers comprehending and manipulating EV activity to optimize the efficacy of tissue engineering and regenerative therapies.

Role of Exosomes in Cancer and Aptamer-Modified Exosomes as a Promising Platform for Cancer Targeted Therapy

Exosomes are increasingly recognized as important mediators of intercellular communication in cancer biology. Exosomes can be derived from cancer cells as well as cellular components in tumor microenvironment. After secretion, the exosomes carrying a wide range of bioactive cargos can be ingested by local or distant recipient cells. The released cargos act through a variety of mechanisms to elicit multiple biological effects and impact most if not all hallmarks of cancer. Moreover, owing to their excellent biocompatibility and capability of being easily engineered or modified, exosomes are currently exploited as a promising platform for cancer targeted therapy. In this review, we first summarize the current knowledge of roles of exosomes in risk and etiology, initiation and progression of cancer, as well as their underlying molecular mechanisms. The aptamer-modified exosome as a promising platform for cancer targeted therapy is then briefly introduced. We also discuss the future directions for emerging roles of exosome in tumor biology and perspective of aptamer-modified exosomes in cancer therapy.

Insight into the Functional Dynamics and Challenges of Exosomes in Pharmaceutical Innovation and Precision Medicine

Of all the numerous nanosized extracellular vesicles released by a cell, the endosomal-originated exosomes are increasingly recognized as potential therapeutics, owing to their inherent stability, low immunogenicity, and targeted delivery capabilities. This review critically evaluates the transformative potential of exosome-based modalities across pharmaceutical and precision medicine landscapes. Because of their precise targeted biomolecular cargo delivery, exosomes are posited as ideal candidates in drug delivery, enhancing regenerative medicine strategies, and advancing diagnostic technologies. Despite the significant market growth projections of exosome therapy, its utilization is encumbered by substantial scientific and regulatory challenges. These include the lack of universally accepted protocols for exosome isolation and the complexities associated with navigating the regulatory environment, particularly the guidelines set forth by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This review presents a comprehensive overview of current research trajectories aimed at addressing these impediments and discusses prospective advancements that could substantiate the clinical translation of exosomal therapies. By providing a comprehensive analysis of both the capabilities and hurdles inherent to exosome therapeutic applications, this article aims to inform and direct future research paradigms, thereby fostering the integration of exosomal systems into mainstream clinical practice.

Current landscape of exosomes in tuberculosis development, diagnosis, and treatment applications

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by the bacterial pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), remains one of the most prevalent and deadly infectious diseases worldwide. Currently, there are complex interactions between host cells and pathogens in TB. The onset, progression, and regression of TB are correlated not only with the virulence of MTB but also with the immunity of TB patients. Exosomes are cell-secreted membrane-bound nanovesicles with lipid bilayers that contain a variety of biomolecules, such as metabolites, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Exosome-mediated cell-cell communication and interactions with the microenvironment represent crucial mechanisms through which exosomes exert their functional effects. Exosomes harbor a wide range of regulatory roles in physiological and pathological conditions, including MTB infection. Exosomes can regulate the immune response, metabolism, and cellular death to remodel the progression of MTB infection. During MTB infection, exosomes display distinctive profiles and quantities that may act as diagnostic biomarkers, suggesting that exosomes provide a revealing glimpse into the evolving landscape of MTB infections. Furthermore, exosomes derived from MTB and mesenchymal stem cells can be harnessed as vaccine platforms and drug delivery vehicles for the precise targeting and treatment of TB. In this review, we highlight the functions and mechanisms through which exosomes influence the progression of TB. Additionally, we unravel the critical significance of exosomal constituents in the diagnosis and therapeutic applications of TB, aiming to offer novel perspectives and strategies for combating TB.

Environmental pollutants and exosomes: A new paradigm in environmental health and disease

This study investigates the intricate interplay between environmental pollutants and exosomes, shedding light on a novel paradigm in environmental health and disease. Cellular stress, induced by environmental toxicants or disease, significantly impacts the production and composition of exosomes, crucial mediators of intercellular communication. The heat shock response (HSR) and unfolded protein response (UPR) pathways, activated during cellular stress, profoundly influence exosome generation, cargo sorting, and function, shaping intercellular communication and stress responses. Environmental pollutants, particularly lipophilic ones, directly interact with exosome lipid bilayers, potentially affecting membrane stability, release, and cellular uptake. The study reveals that exposure to environmental contaminants induces significant changes in exosomal proteins, miRNAs, and lipids, impacting cellular function and health. Understanding the impact of environmental pollutants on exosomal cargo holds promise for biomarkers of exposure, enabling non-invasive sample collection and real-time insights into ongoing cellular responses. This research explores the potential of exosomal biomarkers for early detection of health effects, assessing treatment efficacy, and population-wide screening. Overcoming challenges requires advanced isolation techniques, standardized protocols, and machine learning for data analysis. Integration with omics technologies enhances comprehensive molecular analysis, offering a holistic understanding of the complex regulatory network influenced by environmental pollutants. The study underscores the capability of exosomes in circulation as promising biomarkers for assessing environmental exposure and systemic health effects, contributing to advancements in environmental health research and disease prevention.

Exosome-like Systems: From Therapies to Vaccination for Cancer Treatment and Prevention-Exploring the State of the Art

Cancer remains one of the main causes of death in the world due to its increasing incidence and treatment difficulties. Although significant progress has been made in this field, innovative approaches are needed to reduce tumor incidence, progression, and spread. In particular, the development of cancer vaccines is currently ongoing as both a preventive and therapeutic strategy. This concept is not new, but few vaccines have been approved in oncology. Antigen-based vaccination emerges as a promising strategy, leveraging specific tumor antigens to activate the immune system response. However, challenges persist in finding suitable delivery systems and antigen preparation methods. Exosomes (EXs) are highly heterogeneous bilayer vesicles that carry several molecule types in the extracellular space. The peculiarity is that they may be released from different cells and may be able to induce direct or indirect stimulation of the immune system. In particular, EX-based vaccines may cause an anti-tumor immune attack or produce memory cells recognizing cancer antigens and inhibiting disease development. This review delves into EX composition, biogenesis, and immune-modulating properties, exploring their role as a tool for prevention and therapy in solid tumors. Finally, we describe future research directions to optimize vaccine efficacy and realize the full potential of EX-based cancer immunotherapy.

miR-584-5p / Ykt6 - mediated autophagy - lysosome - exosome pathway as a critical route affecting the toxic effects of lead on HK-2 cells

Lead is a widespread environmental pollutant with serious adverse effects on human health, but the mechanism underlying its toxicity remains elusive. This study aimed to investigate the role of miR-584-5p / Ykt6 axis in the toxic effect of lead on HK-2 cells and the related mechanism. Our data suggested that lead exposure caused significant cytotoxicity, DNA and chromosome damage to HK-2 cells. Mechanistically, lead exposure down-regulated miR-584-5p and up-regulated Ykt6 expression, consequently, autophagosomal number and autophagic flux increased, lysosomal number and activity decreased, exosomal secretion increased. Interestingly, when miR-584-5p level was enhanced with mimic, autophagosomal number and autophagic flux decreased, lysosomal number and activity increased, ultimately, exosomal secretion was down-regulated, which resulted in significant aggravated toxic effects of lead. Further, directly blocking exosomal secretion with inhibitor GW4869 also resulted in exacerbated toxic effects of lead. Herein, we conclude that miR-584-5p / Ykt6 - mediated autophagy - lysosome - exosome pathway may be a critical route affecting the toxic effects of lead on HK-2 cells. We provide a novel insight into the mechanism underlying the toxicity of lead on human cells.

Dumbbell Dual-Hairpin Triggered DNA Nanonet Assembly for Cascade-Amplified Sensing of Exosomal MicroRNA

Exosomal microRNAs (miRNAs) are valuable biomarkers closely associated with cancer progression. Therefore, sensitive and specific exosomal miRNA biosensing has been employed for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and prediction. In this study, a miRNA-based DNA nanonet assembly strategy is proposed, enabling the biosensing of exosomal miRNAs through dumbbell dual-hairpin under isothermal enzyme-free conditions. This strategy dexterously designs a specific dumbbell dual-hairpin that can selectively recognize exosomal miRNA, inducing conformational changes to cascade-generated X-shaped DNA structures, facilitating the extension of the X-shaped DNA in three-dimensional space, ultimately forming a DNA nanonet assembly. On the basis of the target miRNA, our design enriches the fluorescence signal through the cascade assembly of DNA nanonet and realizes the secondary signal amplification. Using exosomal miR-141 as the target, the resultant fluorescence sensing demonstrates an impressive detection limit of 57.6 pM and could identify miRNA sequences with single-base variants with high specificity. Through the analysis of plasma and urine samples, this method effectively distinguishes between benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostate cancer, and metastatic prostate cancer. Serving as a novel noninvasive and accurate screening and diagnostic tool for prostate cancer, this dumbbell dual-hairpin triggered DNA nanonet assembly strategy is promising for clinical applications.