Immunomodulatory Effects of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms and Their Bioactive Immunoregulatory Products

Nutritive profile, pharmaceutical potentials, and structural analysis of multifunctional bioactive fungal polysaccharides-A review

Asian nations have long used edible fungi as food and medicine. Polysaccharides are among the main building units of the cell walls of fungi. Fungal polysaccharides have been documented in the medicinal and industrial sectors as products with a vast array of various biological activities and applications such as antitumor, antioxidant, anticancer, immunomodulation, and antiviral activities, etc. The goal of this review is to give insights into the various biological activities of mushroom polysaccharides and their potential as a medicine for human health. The extraction, purity, and structural analysis of fungal polysaccharides were also reviewed in this work. Also, future prospective, and challenges for fungal polysaccharides in pharmaceutical applications can be found in this review. Overall, this review serves as a valuable resource in exploring the therapeutic potential and applications of fungal polysaccharides. By building upon the existing knowledge base and addressing critical research gaps, researchers can find new opportunities for utilizing fungal polysaccharides as valuable therapeutic agents and functional ingredients in pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, and biotechnology.

The function and application of edible fungal polysaccharides

Edible fungi, commonly known as mushrooms, are precious medicinal and edible homologous gifts from nature to us. Edible fungal polysaccharides (EFPs) are a variety of bioactive macromolecular which isolated from fruiting bodies, mycelia or fermentation broths of edible or medicinal fungus. Increasing researches have confirmed that EFPs possess multiple biological activities both in vitro and in vivo settings, including antioxidant, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-tumor, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and regulating intestinal flora activities. As a result, they have emerged as a prominent focus in the healthcare, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Fungal EFPs have safe, non-toxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible properties with low immunogenicity, bioadhesion ability, and antibacterial activities, presenting diverse potential applications in the food industries, cosmetic, biomedical, packaging, and new materials. Moreover, varying raw materials, extraction, purification, chemical modification methods, and culture conditions can result in variances in the structure and biological activities of EFPs. The purpose of this review is to provide comprehensively and systematically organized information on the structure, modification, biological activities, and potential applications of EFPs to support their therapeutic effects and health functions. This review provides new insights and a theoretical basis for prospective investigations and advancements in EFPs in fields such as medicine, food, and new materials.

Therapeutic Potential of Fungal Terpenes and Terpenoids: Application in Skin Diseases

Terpenes and their derivatives comprise a diverse group of natural compounds with versatile medicinal properties. This article elucidates the general characteristics of fungal terpenes and terpenoids, encompassing their structure and biogenesis. The focal point of this work involves a comprehensive overview of these compounds, highlighting their therapeutic properties, mechanisms of action, and potential applications in treating specific skin conditions. Numerous isolated terpenes and terpenoids have demonstrated noteworthy anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial effects, rivalling or surpassing the efficacy of currently employed treatments for inflammation or skin infections. Due to their well-documented antioxidant and anti-cancer attributes, these compounds exhibit promise in both preventing and treating skin cancer. Terpenes and terpenoids sourced from fungi display the capability to inhibit tyrosinase, suggesting potential applications in addressing skin pigmentation disorders and cancers linked to melanogenesis dysfunctions. This paper further disseminates the findings of clinical and in vivo research on fungal terpenes and terpenoids conducted thus far.

An insight into the nutritional and medicinal value of edible mushrooms: A natural treasury for human health

Edible mushrooms have been cherished worldwide because of their nutraceutical and medicinal properties. They are recognized as the new superfood for the future due to their low-calorie content, high-protein content, low lipid levels, low cholesterol levels, and abundance of essential vitamins. The fruiting body of edible mushrooms contains a plethora of primary and secondary metabolites. However, submerged cultivation is a more reliable and controlled way of production of mycelium biomass and many bioactive compounds. Several bioactive metabolites present in mushrooms possess a range of beneficial properties, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and anti-COVID-19 activities. Consumers have turned more intrigued in mushroom-containing products as the world needs to diversify its protein sources to meet the growing demand for protein. In this context, mushrooms are viewed as a promising source of bioactive chemicals that can be employed as an alternative to meat products. This review aims to summarise the most recent data regarding the beneficial health effects and the development of mushroom-based food products.

Identification of lethal species in amanita section Phalloideae based on nucleotide signature and specific TaqMan-MGB probe and primer

Amanita section Phalloideae consists of lethal toxic mushroom species, causing many fatal poisoning incidents worldwide. Molecular techniques of nucleotide signatures and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) detection could be used to develop a specific method for identifying lethal section (sect.) Phalloideae species. A comparison of 38 sequenced and 228 validated sequences from sect. Phalloideae species showed a 17-base pair nucleotide signature and an SNP site between the lethal and non-lethal species. A specific minor groove binder probe was designed based on them. The results indicated that this method exhibited excellent specificity for the lethal subgroup, good detection in samples subjected to simulated gastric digestion (60 min boiling and 120 min digestion), and a 10 pg./μL detection limit. This method enables accurate detection of target species in samples under complex conditions and can provide evidence for poisoning incidents caused by lethal sect. Phalloideae species to assist in targeted treatment strategies.

Assessing the nutritional quality of Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom)

There is a huge gap between food production and the exploding population demands in various parts of the world, especially developing countries. This increases the chances of malnutrition, leading to increased disease incidence and the need for functional foods to reduce mortality. Pleurotus ostreatus are edible mushrooms that are cheaply sourced and rich in nutrient with the potential to be harnessed toward addressing the present and future food crisis while serving as functional foods for disease prevention and treatment. This study evaluated the nutritional, proximate, vitamins and amino acids contents of Pleurotus ostreatus. The proximate composition of Pleurotus ostreatus in this study revealed that it contains 43.42% carbohydrate, 23.63% crude fiber, 17.06% crude protein, 8.22% ash, 1.21% lipid and a moisture content of 91.01 and 6.46% for fresh and dry samples of Pleurotus ostreatus, respectively. The monosaccharide and disaccharide profile of Pleurotus ostreatus revealed the presence of glucose (55.08 g/100 g), xylose (7.19 g/100 g), fructose (19.70 g/100 g), galactose (17.47 g/100 g), trehalose (7.37 g/100 g), chitobiose (11.79 g/100 g), maltose (29.21 g/100 g), sucrose (51.60 g/100 g) and lower amounts of cellobiose (0.01 g/100 g), erythrose (0.48 g/100 g) and other unidentified sugars. Potassium, Iron and Magnesium were the highest minerals present with 12.25 mg, 9.66 mg and 7.00 mg amounts, respectively. The vitamin profile revealed the presence of vitamin A (2.93 IU/100 g), C (16.46 mg/100 g), E (21.50 mg/100 g) and B vitamins with vitamin B2 having the highest concentration of 92.97 mg/kg. The amino acid scores showed that Pleurotus ostreatus had more non-essential amino acids (564.17 mg/100 g) than essential amino acids (67.83 mg/100 g) with a ratio of 0.11. Lysine (23.18 mg/100 g) was the highest essential amino acid while aspartic acid (492.12 mg/kg) was the highest non-essential amino acid present in Pleurotus ostreatus. It had a higher concentration of acidic amino acids, 492.12 mg/100 g (77.87%), followed by neutral amino acids, 106.66 mg/100 g (16.88%) and least were the basic amino acids, 23.18 mg/100 g (3.67%). Based on the nutritional assessment of the Pleurotus ostreatus analyzed in this study, it can be concluded that it can serve as an important functional food source that can be exploited to meet the increasing food demands and reduce micronutrient deficiencies in many parts of the world, especially developing countries.

Diversity of Trichoderma species associated with green mold contaminating substrates of Lentinula edodes and their interaction

Introduction

The contamination of Trichoderma species causing green mold in substrates poses a significant obstacle to the global production of Lentinula edodes, adversely impacting both yield and quality of fruiting bodies. However, the diversity of Trichoderma species in the contaminated substrates of L. edodes (CSL) in China is not clear. The purpose of this study was to assess the biodiversity of Trichoderma species in CSL, and their interactions with L. edodes.

Methods

A comprehensive two-year investigation of the biodiversity of Trichoderma species in CSL was conducted with 150 samples collected from four provinces of China. Trichoderma strains were isolated and identified based on integrated studies of phenotypic and molecular data. Resistance of L. edodes to the dominant Trichoderma species was evaluated in dual culture in vitro.

Results

A total of 90 isolates were obtained and identified as 14 different Trichoderma species, including six new species named as Trichoderma caespitosus, T. macrochlamydospora, T. notatum, T. pingquanense, T. subvermifimicola, and T. tongzhouense, among which, T. atroviride, T. macrochlamydospora and T. subvermifimicola were identified as dominant species in the CSL. Meanwhile, three known species, namely, T. auriculariae, T. paraviridescens and T. subviride were isolated from CSL for the first time in the world, and T. paratroviride was firstly reported to be associated with L. edodes in China. Notebly, the in vitro evaluation of L. edodes resistance to dominant Trichoderma species showed strains of L. edodes generally possess poor resistance to Trichoderma contamination with L. edodes strain SX8 relatively higher resistant.

Discussion

This study systematically investigated the diversity of Trichoderma species in the contaminated substrate of L. edodes, and a total of 31 species so far have been reported, indicating that green mold contaminated substrates of edible fungi were undoubtedly a biodiversity hotspot of Trichoderma species. Results in this study will provide deeper insight into the genus Trichoderma and lay a strong foundation for scientific management of the Trichoderma contamination in L. edodes cultivation.

A review for cancer treatment with mushroom metabolites through targeting mitochondrial signaling pathway: In vitro and in vivo evaluations, clinical studies and future prospects for mycomedicine

Resistance to apoptosis stands as a roadblock to the successful pharmacological execution of anticancer drug effect. A comprehensive insight into apoptotic signaling pathways and an understanding of the mechanisms of apoptosis resistance are crucial to unveil new drug targets. At this juncture, researchers are heading towards natural sources in particular, mushroom as their potential drugs leads to being the reliable source of potent bioactive compounds. Given the continuous increase in cancer cases, the potent anticancer efficacy of mushrooms has inevitably become a fascinating object to researchers due to their higher safety margin and multitarget. This review aimed to collect and summarize all the available scientific data on mushrooms from their extracts to bioactive molecules in order to suggest their anticancer attributes via a mitochondrion -mediated intrinsic signaling mechanism. Compiled data revealed that bioactive components of mushrooms including polysaccharides, sterols and terpenoids as well as extracts prepared using 15 different solvents from 53 species could be effective in the supportive treatment of 20 various cancers. The underlying therapeutic mechanisms of the studied mushrooms are explored in this review through diverse and complementary investigations: in vitro assays, pre-clinical studies and clinical randomized controlled trials. The processes mainly involved were ROS production, mitochondrial membrane dysfunction, and action of caspase 3, caspase 9, XIAP, cIAP, p53, Bax, and Bcl-2. In summary, the study provides facts pertaining to the potential beneficial effect of mushroom extracts and their active compounds against various types of cancer and is shedding light on the underlying targeted signaling pathways.

Effects of ultrasonic-enzymatic-assisted ethanol precipitation method on the physicochemical characteristics, antioxidant and hypoglycemic activities of Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides

This investigation involved the extraction of a novel polysaccharide from the spore fermentation broth of Tremella fuciformis using a method that combined ultrasonic and enzymatic assistance with ethanol precipitation. It was then compared with enzymatic and ultrasonic extraction methods. The objective of this research is to offer a reference point for expanding the application of ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic extraction technology in T. fuciformis polysaccharides (TFPs). Based on single-factor experiments, Box-Behnken was used to optimize the extraction conditions of TFPs by ultrasonic-enzymatic-assisted ethanol precipitation extraction. The results revealed an optimal combination of enzymes, with a cellulase-to-papain ratio of 2:1, an enzyme addition of 4000U/100 mL, an enzymolysis temperature of 49 °C, ultrasonicpower at 3 W/mL and an ultrasonictime of 20 min. The extraction rate of TFPs and α- amylase inhibition rates were 23.94 % and 61.44 %, respectively. Comparing the physicochemical properties, structural characterization and in vitro activity of TFPs extracted through different methods, the results showed that ultrasonic treatment significantly influences the apparent morphology of polysaccharide and could enhance its in vitro biological activity. However, different extraction techniques exhibit insubstantial impact on the chemical composition, glycosidic bonds or glycosidic ring configurations within the polysaccharides. Among them, ultrasonic-enzymatic-assisted ethanol precipitation extraction of polysaccharide has the highest extraction rate and the lowest viscosity. It has significant effects on ABTS+ scavenging activity, α- amylase inhibition rate and glucose dialysis retardation index, polysaccharide treated with ultrasonic-enzymatic showed the best performance. These findings suggest that ultrasonic-enzymatic-assisted ethanol precipitation extraction can enhance the activities of TFPs, thereby providing a valuable insight for their future development and application.

Wild Mushrooms: A Hidden Treasure of Novel Bioactive Compounds

Secondary metabolites are hidden gems in mushrooms. Understanding these secondary metabolites' biological and pharmacological effects can be aided by identifying them. The purpose of this work was to profile the mycochemical components of the extracts of Auricularia auricula judae, Microporus xanthopus, Termitomyces umkowaani, Trametes elegans, and Trametes versicolor to comprehend their biological and pharmacological capabilities. Mushroom samples were collected from Kenya's Arabuko-Sokoke and Kakamega National Reserved Forests and identified using morphological and molecular techniques. Chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water solvents were used to extract the mycochemical components. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to analyze the chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water extracts of all the species examined. A total of 51 compounds were isolated from all extracts and classified as carboxylic acids, esters, phenols, fatty acids, alcohol, epoxides, aldehydes, fatty aldehydes, isoprenoid lipids, and steroids. Tetracosamethyl-cyclododecasiloxane (18.90%), oleic acid (72.90%), phenol, 2, 6-bis (1, 1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl-, and methylcarbamate (26.56%) were all found in high concentrations in A. auricular judae, M. xanthopus, T. umkowaani, T. elegans, and T. versicolor, respectively. Fatty acids make up the majority of the compounds isolated from the T. elegans chloroform extract and the T. umkowaani 70% ethanol extract, respectively. Particularly, these fatty acids play crucial roles in the anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic, anticancer, and antibiofilm formation activities. These bioactive elements indicate that the extracts of five wild mushrooms may be reliable sources of secondary metabolites for therapeutic development. Therefore, additional research is required to comprehend the usefulness of these chemicals in many functional areas and to improve the present understanding of macrofungi.

Insights into the Chemical Compositions and Health Promoting Effects of Wild Edible Mushroom Chroogomphus rutilus

Chroogomphus rutilus is an edible mushroom that has been an important food source since ancient times. It is increasingly sought after for its unique flavor and medicinal value. It is one of the most important wild mushrooms for its medicinal and economic value. C. rutilus contains a variety of active ingredients such as vitamins, proteins, minerals, polysaccharides, and phenolics. C. rutilus and its active compounds have significant anti-oxidant, anti-tumor, immunomodulatory, anti-fatigue, hypoglycemic, gastroprotective, hypolipemic, and neuronal protective properties. This paper summarizes the fungal chemical compositions and health-promoting effects of C. rutilus by collecting the literature on the role of C. rutilus through its active ingredients from websites such as Google Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science. Current research on C. rutilus is limited to the cellular and animal levels, and further clinical trials are needed to conduct and provide theoretical support for further development.

Macrofungi as Medicinal Resources in Uzbekistan: Biodiversity, Ethnomycology, and Ethnomedicinal Practices

Interest in edible and medicinal macrofungi is millennial in terms of their uses in health and food products in Central Asia, while interest in inedible and medicinal macrofungi has grown in popularity in recent years. Edible and inedible medicinal basidiomycetes were collected during field surveys from different regions of Uzbekistan. The morphological characters and similarity assessment of rDNA-Internal Transcribed Spacer sequence data were used to measure diversity and habitat associations. A number of 17 species of medicinal macrofungi of ethnomycological and medicinal interest was found associated with 23 species of trees and shrubs belonging to 11 families and 14 genera. Polyporaceae and Hymenochaetaceae were represented by the highest number of species followed by Ganodermataceae, Fomitopsidaceae, Auriculariaceae, Cerrenaceae, Grifolaceae, Phanerochaetaceae, Laetiporaceae, Schizophyllaceae, and Stereaceae. The highest number of medicinal basidiomycete species was reported in the following host genera: Acer, Betula, Celtis, Crataegus, Juglans, Juniperus, Lonicera, Malus, Morus, Platanus, Populus, Prunus, Quercus, and Salix. An updated list of edible and inedible medicinal mushrooms identified in Uzbekistan, their morphological characteristics, and phylogenetic placement are given for the first time. Information is provided on their uses in traditional and modern medicine. Their bioactive compounds and extracts can be applied as medicines, as well as food and cosmetic ingredients.

Anti-Cancer Potential of Edible/Medicinal Mushrooms in Breast Cancer

Edible/medicinal mushrooms have been traditionally used in Asian countries either in the cuisine or as dietary supplements and nutraceuticals. In recent decades, they have aroused increasing attention in Europe as well, due to their health and nutritional benefits. In particular, among the different pharmacological activities reported (antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, antiviral, immunomodulating, antidiabetic, etc.), edible/medicinal mushrooms have been shown to exert in vitro and in vivo anticancer effects on several kinds of tumors, including breast cancer. In this article, we reviewed mushrooms showing antineoplastic activity again breast cancer cells, especially focusing on the possible bioactive compounds involved and their mechanisms of action. In particular, the following mushrooms have been considered: Agaricus bisporus, Antrodia cinnamomea, Cordyceps sinensis, Cordyceps militaris, Coriolus versicolor, Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, Lentinula edodes, and Pleurotus ostreatus. We also report insights into the relationship between dietary consumption of edible mushrooms and breast cancer risk, and the results of clinical studies and meta-analyses focusing on the effects of fungal extracts on breast cancer patients.

ZnF3, a sulfated polysaccharide from Antrodia cinnamomea, inhibits lung cancer cells via induction of apoptosis and activation of M1-like macrophage-induced cell death

Sulfated polysaccharides (Ac-SPSs) of Antrodia cinnamomea present anti-cancer activity. However, the anti-cancer mechanism of Ac-SPSs is not fully understood and remains largely unexplored. In this study, we identify an Ac-SPS with 7.9 kDa, noted ZnF3, and aim to examine the dual anti-cancer functions of ZnF3 on inhibiting cancer cells and activating macrophages. A biological study shows that ZnF3 inhibits lung cancer cells by inducing subG1 population and apoptosis. ZnF3 downregulates the expression of TGFβ receptor in lung cancer cells. In parallel, ZnF3 activates macrophages via induction of TNF-α and IL-6 secretion, NO production and phagocytosis. ZnF3 activates AKT/mTOR pathway and induces M1 type macrophage polarization. Cancer cells co-cultured with ZnF3-stimulated macrophages, leading to inhibition of lung cancer cells. This study demonstrates that ZnF3 not only directly inhibits cancer cells but also activates macrophages-mediated cytotoxic effect on cancer cells. Moreover, ZnF3 may be a supplement for suppressing lung cancer cells.

Water Extract from Brown Strain of Flammulina velutipes Alleviates Cisplatin-Induced Acute Kidney Injury by Attenuating Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Autophagy via PI3K/AKT Pathway Regulation

One of the most popular edible mushrooms in the world, Flammulina velutipes, has been shown to possess pharmacological properties such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. However, the potential activity of the brown strain of F. velutipes, a hybrid between the white and yellow strains, has not been thoroughly investigated. Numerous studies have been conducted in recent years to determine whether natural products can aid in improving or treating kidney diseases. In this study, we focused on the renoprotective effects of the brown strain of F. velutipes on cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) in mice. Mice were pretreated with water extract from the brown strain of F. velutipes (WFV) from day 1 to day 10, with a single-dose intraperitoneal injection of cisplatin on day 7 to induce AKI. Our results demonstrated that WFV administration resulted in a reduction in weight loss and the amelioration of renal function and renal histological changes in mice with cisplatin-induced AKI. WFV improved antioxidative stress and anti-inflammatory capacity by increasing antioxidant enzymes and decreasing inflammatory factors. The expression of related proteins was determined via Western blot analysis, which showed that WFV could improve the expression of apoptosis and autophagy. We used the PI3K inhibitor Wortmannin and found that WFV achieved a protective effect by modulating the PI3K/AKT pathway and the expression of autophagy. Overall, WFV as a natural substance could be used as a new therapeutic agent for AKI.

Identification of galacturonic acid-rich polysaccharide with intestinal immune system modulating activity via Peyer's patch from postbiotics of Phellinus linteus mycelial submerged culture

Interests in the development and exploration of industrial applications of medicinal mushrooms as postbiotics have lately increased. We recently reported the potential use of Phellinus linteus mycelial-containing whole culture extract (PLME) prepared by submerged cultivation as a postbiotic that promotes immune system activation. Here, we aimed to isolate and structurally elucidate the active ingredients in PLME by activity-guided fractionation. The intestinal immunostimulatory activity was evaluated by bone marrow (BM) cell proliferation activity and related cytokine production in C3H-HeN mouse-derived Peyer's patch (PP) cells treated with polysaccharide fractions. The initially crude polysaccharide (PLME-CP) of PLME prepared using ethanol precipitation was further fractionated into four fractions (PLME-CP-0 to -III) by anion-exchange column chromatography. BM cell proliferation and cytokine production of PLME-CP-III were significantly improved compared to those of PLME-CP. PLME-CP-III was then fractionated into PLME-CP-III-1 and PLME-CP-III-2 by gel filtration chromatography. Based on the molecular weight distribution, monosaccharide, and glycosyl linkage analyses, PLME-CP-III-1 was revealed as a novel galacturonic acid-rich acidic polysaccharide and further shown to play an important role in facilitating PP-mediated intestinal immunostimulatory activity. This is the first study demonstrating the structural characteristics of a novel intestinal immune system modulating acidic polysaccharide from P. linteus mycelium-containing whole culture broth postbiotics.

Structural properties and anti-inflammatory activity of purified polysaccharides from Hen-of-the-woods mushrooms (Grifola frondosa)

Grifola frondosa is an edible medicinal mushroom that has been proven to have a variety of health benefits. The main active ingredients of this mushroom are polysaccharides. In this study, ultrasonic-assisted extraction was used to obtain crude Grifola frondosa polysaccharides (GFPs). Then, purified GFP was obtained after purification. The optimum extraction conditions were an extraction time of 71 min, an extraction temperature of 90°C in a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:37 g/mL, and an ultrasonic power of 500 W. GFP was purified using DEAE-52 and Sephadex G-100. The structural characterization of GFP was performed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), ion chromatography (IC), and ultraviolet (UV) visible photometry. The morphology of GFP was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric differential scanning calorimetry (TG-DSC), and Congo red testing. In addition, the administration of GFP in oxazolone (OXZ)-induced ulcerative colitis (UC) in mice was found to prevent weight loss. Different doses of GFP (80, 160, and 320 mg/kg body weight) were used, and sulfapyridine (SASP) was used as a positive control (370 mg/kg body weight) for the treatment of OXZ-induced UC. After treatment, the mice were killed, and blood and colon tissue samples were collected. GFP was found to prevent decreases in colon length and the levels of leukocytes, platelets, and neutrophils in UC mice. Moreover, GFP also decreased the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines [tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1 β], increased IL-10, and reduced colon injury in UC mice. The results showed that Under these conditions, the predicted polysaccharide yield was 21.72%, and the actual extraction rate was 21.13%. The polysaccharide composition (molar ratio) was composed of fucose (0.025), glucosamine hydrochloride (0.004), galactose (0.063), glucose (0.869), and mannose (0.038). GFP was also found to have a typical absorption peak, and the GFP extracted using the ultrasound-assisted extraction protocol was mainly β-glucan. These results indicate that ultrasound-assisted extraction of GFP could reduce OXZ-induced intestinal inflammation as a promising candidate for the treatment of UC, with the potential for development as a food supplement to improve intestinal diseases.

Preventive and synbiotic effects of the soluble dietary fiber obtained from Lentinula edodes byproducts and Lactobacillus plantarum LP90 against dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice

BACKGROUND

Soluble dietary fiber (SDF) obtained from Lentinula edodes byproducts has beneficial effects on human intestinal health. This study aimed to examine the combined preventive and ameliorative effects of a kind of synbiotic (SDF with a molecular weight of 1.58 × 10²  kDa and Lactobacillus plantarum LP90 (LP) at 1 × 10⁹  CFU kg^-1 ) on dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis mice.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that synbiotic treatment could alleviate weight loss, decrease the disease activity index level and cause histological amelioration. Synbiotic treatment also promoted the production of goblet cells, increased the expression of tight junction proteins, and adjusted the production of myeloperoxidase, malondialdehyde and superoxide dismutase to repair intestinal epithelial injury. Clinical symptoms were alleviated by maintaining Th17/Treg balance, increasing interleukin 10 and immunoglobulin A levels, reducing interleukin 17a and tumor necrosis factor α production, and promoting mRNA to highly express of Foxp3 and vitamin D receptors. Moreover, synbiotic treatment could upregulate butyric acid production (4.71 ± 0.46 mol g^-1 feces, P < 0.05) and diversity of intestinal microbial to maintain intestinal homeostasis.

CONCLUSION

This study suggested that the combination of LP and SDF as a synbiotic has the potential for use as a nutritional supplement to alleviate colitis. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Exopolysaccharides of Fungal Origin: Properties and Pharmaceutical Applications

Fungal exopolysaccharides (EPSs) represent an important group of bioactive compounds secreted by fungi. These biopolymers can be utilized individually or in combination with different bioactive substances for a broad range of pharmaceutical field applications, due to their various biological activities, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anti-diabetic, and anticoagulant effects. The paper presents an up-to-date review of the main fungal polysaccharides (pullulan, schizophyllan, scleroglucan, botryosphaeran, lentinan, grifolan, and lasiodiplodan), highlighting their structures, producing strains, and useful properties in a double position, as controlled release (rate and selectively targeting) drug carriers, but mostly as active immunomodulating and antitumor compounds in cancer therapy.

Termite Mushrooms (Termitomyces), a Potential Source of Nutrients and Bioactive Compounds Exhibiting Human Health Benefits: A Review

Termite mushrooms have been classified to the genus Termitomyces, family Lyophyllaceae, order Agaricales. These mushrooms form a mutualistic association with termites in the subfamily Macrotermitinae. In fact, all Termitomyces species are edible and have unique food value attributed to their texture, flavour, nutrient content, and beneficial mediational properties. Additionally, Termitomyces have been recognized for their ethno-medicinal importance in various indigenous communities throughout Asia and Africa. Recent studies on Termitomyces have indicated that their bioactive compounds have the potential to fight against certain human diseases such as cancer, hyperlipidaemia, gastroduodenal diseases, and Alzheimer's. Furthermore, they possess various beneficial antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Moreover, different enzymes produced from Termitomyces have the potential to be used in a range of industrial applications. Herein, we present a brief review of the current findings through an overview of recently published literature involving taxonomic updates, diversity, distribution, ethno-medicinal uses, nutritional value, medicinal importance, and industrial implementations of Termitomyces, as well as its socioeconomic importance.

Food and Antioxidant Supplements with Therapeutic Properties of Morchella esculenta (Ascomycetes): A Review

Morchella esculenta, commonly known as yellow morels, is an edible and medicinal mushroom popular worldwide for its unique flavor and culinary purposes. The traditional medical system effectively uses morels against infertility, fatigue, cancer, muscular pain, cough, and cold. The M. esculenta possesses many health-promoting nutritional components such as mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids, polyphenols, protein hydrolysates, vitamins, amino acids and minerals. The potential medicinal properties of morels is due to polysaccharides (galactomannan, chitin, β-glucans, and β-1,3-1,6-glucan) present that has high economic importance worldwide. Polysaccharides present possess a broad spectrum of biological activities such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-diabetic, and antioxidant. However, the toxicity and clinical trials to prove its safety and efficacy for medicinal uses are yet to be evaluated. Moreover, the separation, purification, identification, and structural elucidation of active compounds responsible for the unique flavors and biological activities are still lacking in M. esculenta. The available information provides a new base for future perspectives. It highlights the need for further studies of this potent medicinal mushroom species as a source of beneficial therapeutic drugs and nutraceutical supplements.

The Health and Clinical Benefits of Medicinal Fungi

The human uses of mushrooms and cultured mycelium products for nutrition and medicine are detailed and supported by available human studies, which in many cases are clinical trials published in peer-reviewed journals. The major medically active immunomodulating compounds in the cell walls-chitin, beta-glucans, and glycoproteins, as well as lower weight molecules-nitrogen-containing compounds, phenolics, and terpenes-are discussed in relation to their current clinical uses. The nutritional content and foods derived from mushrooms, particularly related to their medical benefits, are discussed. High-quality major nutrients such as the high amounts of complete protein and prebiotic fibers found in edible and medicinal fungi and their products are presented. Mushrooms contain the highest amount of valuable medicinal fiber, while dried fruiting bodies of some fungi have up to 80% prebiotic fiber. These fibers are particularly complex and are not broken down in the upper gut, so they can diversify the microbiome and increase the most beneficial species, leading to better immune regulation and increasing normalizing levels of crucial neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine. Since the growth of medicinal mushroom products is expanding rapidly worldwide, attention is placed on reviewing important aspects of mushroom and mycelium cultivation and quality issues relating to adulteration, substitution, and purity and for maximizing medicinal potency. Common questions surrounding medicinal mushroom products in the marketplace, particularly the healing potential of fungal mycelium compared with fruiting bodies, extraction methods, and the use of fillers in products, are all explored, and many points are supported by the literature.

Mushroom Production in the Southern Cone of South America: Bioeconomy, Sustainable Development and Its Current Bloom

A Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) based analysis is presented here for business development of the production of edible and medicinal mushrooms using agro-wastes in the Southern Cone of South America. This circular economy approach using edible and medicinal mushroom production on lignocellulosic residues is discussed by analysing both its advantages and drawbacks. Among its main benefits, it is notable that mushroom cultivation using lignocellulosic residues promotes innovation aimed at environmental sustainability, facilitating diversification of the labour supply and the transfer of science to the socio-cultural sphere, which also increases the availability of healthy foods. However, there are some bottlenecks in the process, such as the continuous supply chain of substrates for fungal growth, the lack of equipment and infrastructure for the implementation of cultivation systems in extreme habitats, as well as authorization requirements and other limitations related to a non-fungiphilic culture society. Therefore, this chapter tries to provide key tools for establishing sustainable guidelines for the procurement of local healthy food and other products derived from mushroom cultivation using agricultural residues in the region, which might bloom due to an SDGs-based circular economy approach.

Investigating the cellular antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of the novel peptides in lingzhi mushrooms

The lingzhi mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum) is well known for its medicinal properties and has long played a role in traditional oriental medicine due to its health-giving benefits and potential to extend life expectancy. The mushroom contains a number of highly bioactive compounds and can also act as an excellent source of protein. This research investigated the peptides obtained from the protein hydrolysates of lingzhi mushrooms to assess their free radical scavenging abilities. These peptides were acquired via different proteases (Alcalase, Neutrase, papain, and pepsin-pancreatin) and were tested at a range of different concentrations (1.0%, 2.5%, and 5.0% w/v). The highest levels of 2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and nitric oxide (NO) radical scavenging activities were presented by lingzhi mushroom hydrolysate using 2.5% (w/v) pepsin-pancreatin after 6 h of digestion. The hydrolysate was then fractionated using 10, 5, 3, and 0.65 kDa molecular weight cut-off membranes. The results showed that the MW 0.65 kDa fraction had the highest level of free radical scavenging activity. Further analysis of this MW 0.65 kDa fraction began with another RP-HPLC fractionation technique to obtain three further sub-fractions. De novo peptide sequencing using electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS) was chosen as the optimum method for studying the F₃ sub-fraction. DRVSIYGWG and ALLSISSF were discovered as new peptides with different antioxidant properties. Adenocarcinoma colon (Caco-2) cells showed the antioxidant action of these synthesized peptides. This activity was linked to peptide concentration. The peptides and their pure synthetic counterparts were found to reduce NO generation by RAW 264.7 macrophages without causing cytotoxicity. The results of gene expression reveal that the DRVSIYGWG and ALLSISSF peptides were able to cut the expression of the proinflammatory cytokine genes iNOS, IL-6, TNF-α, and COX-2 in the context of RAW 264.7 macrophages.

A concise review of mushrooms antiviral and immunomodulatory properties that may combat against COVID-19

The World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 as a pandemic on March 11, 2020, because of its widespread transmission and infection rates. The unique severe disease was found in Wuhan, China, since December 2019, and swiftly spread throughout the world. Natural chemicals derived from herbal medicines and medicinal mushrooms provide a significant resource for the development of novel antiviral drugs. Many natural drugs have been proven to have antiviral properties against a variety of virus strains, such as the coronavirus and the herpes simplex virus (HSV).. In this research, successful dietary treatments for different COVID illnesses were compared to potential of mushroom products in its therapy. In Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, and Scopus, search keywords like COVID, COVID-19, SARS, MERS, mushrooms, and their compounds were utilized. In this review of the literature we foucsed popular mushrooms such as Agaricus subrufescens Peck, Agaricus blazei Murill, Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc., Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis.) P. Karst., Grifola frondosa (Dicks.) Gray, Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers., Inonotus obliquus (Arch. Ex Pers.) Pilát., Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegler, Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm., Poria cocos F.A. Wolf, and Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd.,. Changed forms of β-Glucan seem to have a good impact on viral replication suppression and might be used in future studies. However, the results seems terpenoids, lectins, glycoproteins, lentinan, galactomannan, and polysaccharides from mushrooms are promising prophylactic or therapeutic agents against COVID-19.

Immunostimulatory Effect of Postbiotics Prepared from Phellinus linteus Mycelial Submerged Culture via Activation of Spleen and Peyer's Patch in C3H/HeN Mice

Medicinal mushrooms are an important natural resource promoting health benefits. Herein, Phellinus linteus mycelia were prepared under submerged cultivation, the mycelium-containing culture broth was extracted as a whole to obtain the postbiotic materials (PLME), and its effect on the immune system was evaluated in normal C3H/HeN mice. Oral administration of PLME for 4 weeks was well tolerated and safe. In the PLME-administered groups, in addition to the production of immunostimulatory cytokines, such as interferon gamma (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin 6 (IL-6), the mitogenic activity was significantly increased. PLME administration also significantly increased the levels of serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgA in the small intestinal fluid and Peyer's patches and enhanced Peyer's patch-mediated bone marrow cell proliferation activity and cytokine production (IL-2, IL-6, and IFN-γ). Histomorphometric analyses showed an increase in immune cells in the spleen and small intestinal tissues of mice administered PLME, supporting the rationale for its immune system activation. PLME mainly contained neutral sugar (969.1 mg/g), comprising primarily of glucose as a monosaccharide unit. The β-glucan content was 88.5 mg/g. Data suggest that PLME effectively promote immune function by stimulating the systemic immune system through the spleen and intestinal immune tissues. PLME can thus be developed as a functional ingredient to enhance immune functions.

Electric Cell-Substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) as a Convenient Tool to Assess the Potential of Low Molecular Fraction Derived from Medicinal Fungus Cerrena unicolor in Action on L929 and CT-26 Cell Lines

The increase in the incidence of cancer has contributed to the search for new therapeutic methods. In recent years, the use of preparations of natural origin from medical fungi has increased. One such active substance is the extracellular, low molecular active fraction obtained from the medicinal fungus Cerrena unicolor. This study aimed to monitor the pharmacokinetics of different concentrations of substances isolated from the medicinal fungus Cerrena unicolor (ex-LMS) using the ECIS technique. In the study, mouse L929 fibroblasts and colon cancer CT26 cell lines were treated with different concentrations of the active fractions obtained from Cerrena unicolor: C1 = 2.285 (μg/mL); C2 = 22.85 (μg/mL); and C3 = 228.5 (μg/mL). This study demonstrated that the tested preparation from Cerrena unicolor had no considerable effect on the resistance, capacitance, and impedance of L929 fibroblast cells, which was an indicator of no significant effect on its physiological processes. At the same time, those parameters exhibited a decrease in colon cancer cell viability. Following our previous and current studies on Cerrena unicolor, ex-LMS extracts can be safely used in anticancer therapy or chemoprevention with no significant harmful effects on normal cells.

Extraction of a Triterpene Solution and Evaluation of the Hypolipidemic Efficacy of the Pleurotus tuber-regium (Fr.) Sing Sclerotium

The total triterpenes in edible mushrooms have high medicinal value, and the sclerotium has various biological activities, such as the regulation of blood pressure and blood glucose. In this study, the total triterpenes of the Pleurotus tuber-regium (Fr.) Sing Sclerotium (PTRSS) were extracted, and their hypolipidemic effects were also investigated. The infrared spectra showed that the total triterpenes were consistent with the characteristic structures of the total triterpenes before and after purification. The binding abilities of total triterpenes to sodium glycocholate, sodium taurocholate, and sodium cholate were investigated, and all of them had a good binding ability to cholate. In vivo experiments showed that zebrafish tolerated the total triterpenes from the mushroom nuclei at a maximum concentration of 500 µg/mL. A correlation analysis showed that the total triterpenes from the mushroom nuclei reduced the lipid accumulation in zebrafish induced by a high-fat diet, and the lipid-lowering effect showed a correlation with dose.

Media optimization of antimicrobial activity production and beta-glucan content of endophytic fungi Xylaria sp. BCC 1067

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Xylaria is an untapped resource for natural product discovery.

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Xylaria mycelial extract contains antimicrobials and immunomodulator beta-glucan.

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Achieved high mycelial biomass and antifungal activity using media-type selection.

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Media replacement approach lowers cultivation time and enhances bioactivity.

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Additive effect of mycelial extract and salicylic or citric acid against P. acne.

Fungi is a notable asset for drug discovery and production of pharmaceuticals; however, slow growth and poor product yields have hindered industrial utilization. Here, the mycelial biomass of Xylaria sp. BCC 1067 was examined in parallel with the assessment of antimicrobial properties by using media-type selection. To enhance both mycelial content and antifungal activity, the media replacement approach was successfully applied to stimulate fungal growth and successively switched to poorer malt-peptone extract media for metabolite production. This simple optimization reduced fungal cultivation time by 7 days and yielded 4-fold increased mycelial mass (32.59 g/L), with approximately 3-fold increased antifungal activity against the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain. A high level of β-glucan (115.84 mg/g of cell dry weight) and additive antibacterial effect against Propionibacterium acnes were also reported. This simple strategy of culture media optimization allows for investigation of novel and rich source of health-promoting substances for effective microbial utilization.

Deciphering the Potential of Pre and Pro-Vitamin D of Mushrooms against Mpro and PLpro Proteases of COVID-19: An In Silico Approach

Vitamin D’s role in combating the SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2), the virus causing COVID-19, has been established in unveiling viable inhibitors of COVID-19. The current study investigated the role of pre and pro-vitamin D bioactives from edible mushrooms against Mpro and PLpro proteases of SARS-CoV-2 by computational experiments. The bioactives of mushrooms, specifically ergosterol (provitamin D₂), 7-dehydrocholesterol (provitamin-D₃), 22,23-dihydroergocalciferol (provitamin-D₄), cholecalciferol (vitamin-D₃), and ergocalciferol (vitamin D₂) were screened against Mpro and PLpro. Molecular docking analyses of the generated bioactive protease complexes unravelled the differential docking energies, which ranged from −7.5 kcal/mol to −4.5 kcal/mol. Ergosterol exhibited the lowest binding energy (−7.5 kcal/mol) against Mpro and PLpro (−5.9 kcal/mol). The Molecular Mechanics Poisson–Boltzmann Surface Area (MMPBSA) and MD simulation analyses indicated that the generated complexes were stable, thus affirming the putative binding of the bioactives to viral proteases. Considering the pivotal role of vitamin D bioactives, their direct interactions against SARS-CoV-2 proteases highlight the promising role of bioactives present in mushrooms as potent nutraceuticals against COVID-19.

Fungal Mushrooms: A Natural Compound With Therapeutic Applications

Fungi are extremely diverse in terms of morphology, ecology, metabolism, and phylogeny. Approximately, 130 medicinal activities like antitumor, immunomodulation, antioxidant, radical scavenging, cardioprotective and antiviral actions are assumed to be produced by the various varieties of medicinal mushrooms. The polysaccharides, present in mushrooms like β-glucans, micronutrients, antioxidants like glycoproteins, triterpenoids, flavonoids, and ergosterols can help establish natural resistance against infections and toxins.. Clinical trials have been performed on mushrooms like Agaricus blazei Murrill Kyowa for their anticancer effect, A. blazei Murrill for its antihypertensive and cardioprotective effects, and some other mushrooms had also been evaluated for their neurological effects. The human evaluation dose studies had been also performed and the toxicity dose was evaluated from the literature for number of mushrooms. All the mushrooms were found to be safe at a dose of 2000 mg/kg but some with mild side effects. The safety and therapeutic effectiveness of the fungal mushrooms had shifted the interest of biotechnologists toward fungal nanobiotechnology as the drug delivery system due to the vast advantages of nanotechnology systems. In complement to the vital nutritional significance of medicinal mushrooms, numerous species have been identified as sources of bioactive chemicals. Moreover, there are unanswered queries regarding its safety, efficacy, critical issues that affect the future mushroom medicine development, that could jeopardize its usage in the twenty-first century.

Occurrence and Health Risk Assessment of Cadmium Accumulation in Three Tricholoma Mushroom Species Collected from Wild Habitats of Central and Coastal Croatia

This study deals with the biomonitoring of cadmium (Cd) heavy metal in the three selected Tricholoma mushroom species collected from wild habitats of central and coastal Croatia. For this, mushroom (T. columbetta: n = 38, T. portentosum: n = 35, and T. terreum: n = 34) and surface soil samples were collected from nine forest localities of Croatia and analyzed for Cd concentration using inductively coupled plasma−optical emission spectrometry (ICP−OES) through the acid digestion method. The findings revealed that Cd was present in Tricholoma spp. and surface soil. However, the maximum mean Cd concentration (mg/kg dry weight) was recorded in T. portentosum (cap: 0.98; stipe: 0.72), followed by T. columbetta (cap: 0.96; stipe: 0.73) and T. terreum (cap: 0.81; stipe: 0.63). The bioconcentration factor (BCF) value (>1) revealed that the selected Tricholoma spp. had the potential for Cd accumulation. Moreover, the principal component (PC) and hierarchical cluster (HC) analyses were used to derive the interactions and similarities between Cd levels Tricholoma spp. and sampling localities. The multivariate analysis suggested that central sampling localities had higher Cd levels as compared to coastal localities. However, the daily intake of metals (DIM < 0.426) and health risk index (HRI < 1) showed that there was no potential health risk associated with the consumption of selected Tricholoma spp. The findings of this study are helpful to understand the Cd accumulation behavior of wild edible Tricholoma spp. collected from Croatia.

Improved Survival and Quality of Life Through an Integrative, Multidisciplinary Oncological Approach: Pathophysiological Analysis of Four Clinical Cancer Cases and Review of the Literature

Objectives: According to the National Cancer Institute, the integrative medicine (IM) approach to medical care combines standard medicine with complementary and alternative medicine practices that have proved safe and effective.

Methods: We describe the clinical cases of four patients with malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM), diffuse malignant peritoneal mesothelioma (DMPM), intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, and breast cancer (BC) who received supportive treatment (ST) according to an IM approach after the failure of standard cancer treatments or the appearance of serious adverse events caused by antiblastic chemotherapy. The critical role of complementary drugs in reducing the side effects of cancer treatments and normalizing the white cell count is especially apparent in the case of the patient with metastatic BC, who experienced prolonged neutropenia.

Results: The IM approach was well-tolerated and had no adverse side effects. It improved the quality of life (QoL) of all patients and in two cases extended overall survival.

Conclusion: The extended clinical and instrumental response to IM of the patients with malignant mesothelioma and the improved health-related QoL and good tolerance of the ST demonstrated in all cases support the value of this approach in patients whose cancer therapies have failed but who show a good performance status. Our data require confirmation in a well-designed prospective clinical trial.

Bacterial Infection Induces Ultrastructural and Transcriptional Changes in the King Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus eryngii)

Pleurotus eryngii (king oyster mushroom) is a commercially important mushroom with high nutritional and economic value. However, soft rot disease, caused by the pathogenic bacterium Erwinia beijingensis, poses a threat to its quality and production. Morphological and ultrastructural observations of P. eryngii were conducted at early, middle, and late stages of infection. At 2 days postinoculation (dpi), small yellow spots on the fruiting body were observed. The infected tissue displayed hyphal deformations and breaks at 5 dpi. At 9 dpi, damage to cell wall integrity and absence of intact cellular organelles were observed and the diseased fruiting bodies were unable to grow normally. Transcriptome analysis identified 4,296 differentially expressed genes in the fruiting body following infection. In fact, broad transcriptional reprogramming was observed in infected fruiting bodies compared to controls. The affected pathways included antioxidant systems, peroxisome biogenesis, autophagy, and oxidation-reduction. More specifically, pex genes were downregulated during infection, indicating impaired peroxisome homeostasis and redox balance. Additionally, genes encoding chitinase, β-1,3-glucanase, and proteases associated with cell wall degradation were upregulated in infected P. eryngii. This study provides insights into the responses of P. eryngii during soft rot disease and facilitates the understanding of the pathogenic process of bacteriosis in mushrooms.

IMPORTANCEPleurotus eryngii (king oyster mushroom) is a popular and economically valuable edible mushroom; however, it suffers from various bacterial diseases, including soft rot disease caused by the bacterium Erwinia beijingensis. Here, we examined bacterial infection of the mushroom through morphological and ultrastructural observations as well as transcriptome analysis. Pathogen attack damaged the cell structure of P. eryngii, including the cell wall, and also induced high levels of reactive oxygen species. These results were reflected in differential gene expression in P. eryngii as a response to the pathogenic bacteria, including genes involved in antioxidant systems, peroxisome biogenesis, autophagy, oxidation-reduction, ribosome biogenesis, and cell-wall degradation, among others. This study provides insights into the structural and molecular responses of P. eryngii during soft rot disease, improving our understanding and the potential control of the pathogenic process of bacteriosis in mushrooms.

Mushrooms as Potential Sources of Active Metabolites and Medicines

Background

Mushrooms exist as an integral and vital component of the ecosystem and are very precious fungi. Mushrooms have been traditionally used in herbal medicines for many centuries.

Scope and Approach

There are a variety of medicinal mushrooms mentioned in the current work such as Agaricus, Amanita, Calocybe, Cantharellus, Cordyceps, Coprinus, Cortinarius, Ganoderma, Grifola, Huitlacoche, Hydnum, Lentinus, Morchella, Pleurotus, Rigidoporus, Tremella, Trametes sp., etc., which play a vital role in various diseases because of several metabolic components and nutritional values. Medicinal mushrooms can be identified morphologically on the basis of their size, color (white, black, yellow, brown, cream, pink and purple-brown, etc.), chemical reactions, consistency of the stalk and cap, mode of attachment of the gills to the stalk, and spore color and mass, and further identified at a molecular level by Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) regions of gene sequencing. There are also other methods that have recently begun to be used for the identification of mushrooms such as high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), microscopy, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), DNA sequencing, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), chemical finger printing, ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LCMS-TOF) and high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC). Lately, the matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) technique is also used for the identification of fungi.

Key Finding and Conclusion

Medicinal mushrooms possess various biological activities like anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, anti-tumor, anti-viral, anti-parasitic, anti-microbial, hepatoprotective, anti-HIV, anti-diabetic, and many others that will be mentioned in this article. This manuscript will provide future direction, action mechanisms, applications, and the recent collective information of medicinal mushrooms. In addition to many unknown metabolites and patented active metabolites are also included.

Edible Mushrooms as Novel Myco-Therapeutics: Effects on Lipid Level, Obesity and BMI

Obesity, usually indicated by a body mass index of more than 30 kg/m², is a worsening global health issue. It leads to chronic diseases, including type II diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases. Conventional treatments for obesity include physical activity and maintaining a negative energy balance. However, physical activity alone cannot determine body weight as several other factors play a role in the overall energy balance. Alternatively, weight loss may be achieved by medication and surgery. However, these options can be expensive or have side effects. Therefore, dietary factors, including dietary modifications, nutraceutical preparations, and functional foods have been investigated recently. For example, edible mushrooms have beneficial effects on human health. Polysaccharides (essentially β-D-glucans), chitinous substances, heteroglycans, proteoglycans, peptidoglycans, alkaloids, lactones, lectins, alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, terpenes, phenols, nucleotides, glycoproteins, proteins, amino acids, antimicrobials, and minerals are the major bioactive compounds in these mushrooms. These bioactive compounds have chemo-preventive, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective properties. Consumption of edible mushrooms reduces plasma triglyceride, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, and plasma glucose levels. Polysaccharides from edible mushrooms suppress mRNA expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, contributing to their anti-obesity properties. Therefore, edible mushrooms or their active ingredients may help prevent obesity and other chronic ailments.

Haplotype-Resolved Genome Analyses Reveal Genetically Distinct Nuclei within a Commercial Cultivar of Lentinula edodes

Lentinula edodes is a tetrapolar basidiomycete with two haploid nuclei in each cell during most of their life cycle. Understanding the two haploid nuclei genome structures and their interactions on growth and fruiting body development has significant practical implications, especially for commercial cultivars. In this study, we isolated and assembled the two haploid genomes from a commercial strain of L. edodes using Illumina, HiFi, and Hi-C technologies. The total genome lengths were 50.93 Mb and 49.80 Mb for the two monokaryons SP3 and SP30, respectively, with each assembled into 10 chromosomes with 99.63% and 98.91% anchoring rates, respectively, for contigs more than 100 Kb. Genome comparisons suggest that two haploid nuclei likely derived from distinct genetic ancestries, with ~30% of their genomes being unique or non-syntenic. Consistent with a tetrapolar mating system, the two mating-type loci A (matA) and B (matB) of L. edodes were found located on two different chromosomes. However, we identified a new but incomplete homeodomain (HD) sublocus at ~2.8 Mb from matA in both monokaryons. Our study provides a solid foundation for investigating the relationships among cultivars and between cultivars and wild strains and for studying how two genetically divergent nuclei coordinate to regulate fruiting body formation in L. edodes.

Whole Genome Sequencing and Annotation of Naematelia aurantialba (Basidiomycota, Edible-Medicinal Fungi)

Naematelia aurantialba is a rare edible fungus with both nutritional and medicinal values and especially rich in bioactive polysaccharides. However, due to the lack of genomic information, researches on the mining of active compounds, artificial breeding and cultivation, genetics, and molecular biology are limited. To facilitate the medicinal and food applications of N. aurantialba, we sequenced and analyzed the whole genome of N. aurantialba for the first time. The 21-Mb genome contained 15 contigs, and a total of 5860 protein-coding genes were predicted. The genome sequence shows that 296 genes are related to polysaccharide synthesis, including 15 genes related to nucleoside-activated sugar synthesis and 11 genes related to glucan synthesis. The genome also contains genes and gene clusters for the synthesis of other active substances, including terpenoids, unsaturated fatty acids, and bioactive proteins. In addition, it was also found that N. aurantialba was more closely related to Naematelia encephala than to Tremella fuciformis. In short, this study provides a reference for molecular cognition of N. aurantialba and related researches.

Antibacterial, Immunomodulatory, and Lung Protective Effects of Boswelliadalzielii Oleoresin Ethanol Extract in Pulmonary Diseases: In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Lung diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, and pneumonia are causing many global health problems. The COVID-19 pandemic has directed the scientific community's attention toward performing more research to explore novel therapeutic drugs for pulmonary diseases. Herein, gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry tentatively identified 44 compounds in frankincense ethanol extract (FEE). We investigated the antibacterial and antibiofilm effects of FEE against Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria, isolated from patients with respiratory infections. In addition, its in vitro immunomodulatory activity was explored by the detection of the gene expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cycloxygenase-2 (COX-2), and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). In addition, its anticancer activity against the A549 lung cancer cell line and human skin fibroblast (HSF) normal cell line was studied. Moreover, the in vivo lung protective potential of FEE was explored histologically and immunohistochemically in mice using a benzo(a)pyrene induced lung damage model. FEE exhibited antibacterial and antibiofilm activities besides the significant inhibition of gene expression of TNFα, IL-6, and NF-κB. FEE also exerted a cytotoxic effect against A549 cell line. Histological and immunohistochemical investigations with morphometric analysis of the mean area percentage and color intensity of positive TNF-α, COX-2, and NF-κB and Bcl-2 reactions revealed the lung protective activity of FEE. This study outlined the promising therapeutic activity of oleoresin obtained from B. dalzielii in the treatment of different pulmonary diseases.

Metabolomic Profiling and Biological Activities of Pleurotus columbinus Quél. Cultivated on Different Agri-Food Byproducts

The genus Pleurotus (Fr.) P. Kumm (Pleurotaceae, Basidiomycota) comprises a cosmopolitan group of mushrooms highly appreciated for their nutritional value and health-promoting benefits. Despite there being many studies about the phytochemical composition of Pleurotus spp., there are very few reports dealing with the phytochemistry, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of P. columbinus Quél. In this study, a mass spectrometry ultra-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (UHPLC)-QTOF method, coupled with principal component analysis (PCA), was applied to the P. columbinus metabolome in order to investigate the influence of different agri-food residues as growth substrates for P. columbinus cultivation, on the bioactive chemical profile of fruiting bodies and evaluated their potential as antioxidants and antimicrobials. Additionally, a quantitative HPLC-DAD-MS analysis was conducted on phenolic and flavonoid compounds, that could explain, albeit partially, the observed biological effects of P. columbinus extracts. The qualitative metabolic profile identified 97 metabolites, whereas the quantitative HPLC-DAD-MS analysis confirmed the presence of phenolic and flavonoids, in the mushroom extracts, which also showed intrinsic scavenging/reducing and antimicrobial effects. The antibacterial effects were particularly evident against Escherichia coli, whereas Tricophyton and Aspergillus were the dermatophytes more sensitive to the mushroom extracts. The present study supports more in-depth investigations, aimed at evaluating the influence of growth substrate on P. columbinus antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. The extracts from P. columbinus revealed valuable sources of primary and secondary metabolites, thus suggesting potential applications in the formulation of food supplements with biological properties, above all in terms of antioxidant and antimicrobial properties.

Effects of Agaricus bisporus Mushroom Extract on Honey Bees Infected with Nosema ceranae

Simple Summary

Nosema ceranae affects honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) causing nosemosis disease that often induces serious problems in apiculture. Antibiotic fumagillin is the only licenced treatment against nosemosis, but its effectiveness is questioned and its usage associated with risk of bee mortality and appearance of residues in bee products. In search for alternative treatment for the control of nosemosis, water crude extract of Agaricus bisporus was tested on bees in laboratory (cage) experiments. Bee survival and food consumption were monitored together with Nosema infection level and expression of five genes (abaecin, hymenoptaecin, defensin, apidaecin, and vitellogenin) were evaluated in bees sampled on days 7 and 15. Apart from the gene for defensin, the expression of all tested genes was up-regulated in bees supplemented with A. bisporus extract. Both anti-Nosema and immune protective effects of A. bisporus extract were observed when supplementation started at the moment of N. ceranae infection or preventively (before or simultaneously with the Nosema infection).

Abstract

Agaricus bisporus water crude extract was tested on honey bees for the first time. The first part of the cage experiment was set for selecting one concentration of the A. bisporus extract. Concentration of 200 µg/g was further tested in the second part of the experiment where bee survival and food consumption were monitored together with Nosema infection level and expression of five genes (abaecin, hymenoptaecin, defensin, apidaecin, and vitellogenin) that were evaluated in bees sampled on days 7 and 15. Survival rate of Nosema-infected bees was significantly greater in groups fed with A. bisporus-enriched syrup compared to those fed with a pure sucrose syrup. Besides, the anti-Nosema effect of A. bisporus extract was greatest when applied from the third day which coincides with the time of infection with N. ceranae. Daily food consumption did not differ between the groups indicating good acceptability and palatability of the extract. A. bisporus extract showed a stimulative effect on four out of five monitored genes. Both anti-Nosema and nutrigenomic effects of A. bisporus extract were observed when supplementation started at the moment of N. ceranae infection or preventively (before or simultaneously with the infection).

Whole-genome assembly of Ganoderma leucocontextum (Ganodermataceae, Fungi) discovered from the Tibetan Plateau of China

Ganoderma leucocontextum, a newly discovered species of Ganodermataceae in China, has diverse pharmacological activities. G. leucocontextum was widely cultivated in southwest China, but the systematic genetic study has been impeded by the lack of a reference genome. Herein, we present the first whole-genome assembly of G. leucocontextum based on the Illumina and Nanopore platform from high-quality DNA extracted from a monokaryon strain (DH-8). The generated genome was 50.05 Mb in size with a N50 scaffold size of 3.06 Mb, 78,206 coding sequences and 13,390 putative genes. Genome completeness was assessed using the Benchmarking Universal Single-Copy Orthologs (BUSCO) tool, which identified 96.55% of the 280 Fungi BUSCO genes. Furthermore, differences in functional genes of secondary metabolites (terpenoids) were analyzed between G. leucocontextum and G. lucidum. G. leucocontextum has more genes related to terpenoids synthesis compared to G. lucidum, which may be one of the reasons why they exhibit different biological activities. This is the first genome assembly and annotation for G. leucocontextum, which would enrich the toolbox for biological and genetic studies in G. leucocontextum.

GMI, an Immunomodulatory Peptide from Ganoderma microsporum, Restrains Periprosthetic Joint Infections via Modulating the Functions of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells and Effector T Cells

Periprosthetic joint infections (PJIs) caused by Staphylococcus aureus infection are difficult to treat due to antibiotic resistance. It is known that the biofilms from methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) promote expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) to suppress T-cell proliferation and benefit bacterial infections. This study finds that GMI, a fungal immunomodulatory peptide isolated from Ganoderma microsporum, suppresses MDSC expansion to promote the proliferation of cytotoxic T cells. The enhancement is likely attributed to increased expression of IL-6 and TNF-α and reduction in ROS expression. Similar beneficial effects of GMI on the suppression of MDSC expansion and IL-6 expression are also observed in the whole blood and reduces the accumulation of MDSCs in the infected bone region in a mouse PJI infection model. This study shows that GMI is potentially useful for treating S. aureus-induced PJIs.

Identification of an Oxidosqualene Cyclase Gene Involved in Steroidal Triterpenoid Biosynthesis in Cordyceps farinosa

Various fungi including Cordyceps farinosa, an entomopathogenic fungus, can produce steroidal triterpenoids. Protostadienol (protosta-17(20)Z,24-dien-3β-ol) is a precursor of steroidal triterpenoid compounds. To identify oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC) gene candidates involved in triterpenoid biosynthesis, genome mining was performed using Illumina sequencing platform. In the sequence database, two OSC genes, CfaOSC1 and CfaOSC2, in the genome of C. farinosa were identified. Predicted amino-acid sequences of CfaOSC2 shared 66% similarities with protostadienol synthase (OSPC) of Aspergillus fumigatus. Phylogenetic analysis showed a clear grouping of CfaOSC2 in the OSPC clade. Function of CfaOSC2 was examined using a yeast INVSc1 heterologous expression system to endogenously synthesize 2,3-oxidosqualene. GC-MS analysis indicated that CfaOSC2 produced protosta-13(17),24-dien-3β-ol and protostadienol at a 5:95 ratio. Our results demonstrate that CfaOSC2 is a multifunctional triterpene synthase yielding a predominant protostadienol together with a minor triterpenoid. These results will facilitate a greater understanding of biosynthetic mechanisms underlying steroidal triterpenoid biosynthesis in C. farinosa and other fungi.

The Enhancing Effect of Fungal Immunomodulatory Protein-Volvariella Volvacea (FIP-vvo) on Maturation and Function of Mouse Dendritic Cells

Volvariella volvacea, also known as straw mushroom, is a common edible mushroom in Chinese cuisine. It contains many nutrients for human health. A fungal immunomodulatory protein (FIP) has been isolated from V. volvacea and named FIP-vvo. Although the regulatory effects of many FIPs on immunity have been identified, the impact of FIP-vvo in modulating dendritic cells (DCs), which play a key role to connect the innate and the adaptive immunity, is not known. In this study, we aim to study the effect of FIP-vvo on the DC maturation and function. We found that FIP-vvo slightly increased the generation of CD11c⁺ bone marrow-derived DC (BMDC). In addition, the surface expression of MHCII was promoted in BMDCs after the treatment of FIP-vvo, suggesting that FIP-vvo induces DC maturation. Furthermore, FIP-vvo enhanced the ability of BMDCs to activate antigen-specific T cell responses in vitro. In the in vivo study, the FIP-vvo treatment facilitated T cell response in lymph nodes. Therefore, for the first time, our data demonstrated that FIP-vvo promoted DC maturation and function and suggested that FIP-vvo could have benefits for human health by enhancing immunity.

Lectins purified from medicinal and edible mushrooms: Insights into their antiviral activity against pathogenic viruses

For thousands of years, fungi have been a valuable and promising source of therapeutic agents for treatment of various diseases. Mushroom is a macrofungus which has been cultivated worldwide for its nutritional value and medicinal applications. Several bioactive molecules were extracted from mushroom such as polysaccharides, lectins and terpenoids. Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins with non-immunologic origin. Lectins were classified according to their structure, origin and sugar specificity. This protein has different binding specificity with surface glycan moiety which determines its activity and therapeutic applications. A wide range of medicinal activities such as antitumor, antiviral, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory and antidiabetic were reported from sugar-binding proteins. However, glycan-binding protein from mushroom is not well explored as antiviral agent. The discovery of novel antiviral agents is a public health emergency to overcome the current pandemic and be ready for the upcoming viral pandemics. The mechanism of action of lectin against viruses targets numerous steps in viral life cycle such as viral attachment, entry and replication. This review described the history, classification, purification techniques, structure-function relationship and different therapeutic applications of mushroom lectin. In addition, we focus on the antiviral activity, purification and physicochemical characteristics of some mushroom lectins.