Potential and Applications of Nanocarriers for Efficient Delivery of Biopharmaceuticals

Co-delivery of paclitaxel and curcumin loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for improved targeting of lung cancer: In vitro and in vivo investigation

The objective of this study was to develop nanotechnology-mediated paclitaxel (PAC) and curcumin (CUR) co-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (PAC-CUR-SLNs) for the treatment of lung cancer, which is a leading cause of death worldwide. Around 85 % cases of lungs cancer constitute non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). PAC-CUR-SLNs were prepared via high pressure homogenization. The in vitro drug release of PAC-CUR-SLNs was checked followed by their in vitro cytotoxic investigation using adenocarcinomic human alveolar basal epithelial cells (A549) cell lines. Anticancer effects along with side effects of the synergistic delivery of PAC-CUR-SLNs were studied in vivo, using BALB/c mice. PAC-CUR-SLNs were nano sized (190 nm), homogeneously disseminated particles with %IE of both PAC and CUR above 94 %. PAC-CUR-SLNs released PAC and CUR in a controlled fashion when compared with free drug suspensions. The cytotoxicity of PAC-CUR-SLNs was higher than individual drug-loaded SLNs and pure drugs. Moreover, the co-delivery displayed synergistic effect, indicating potential of PAC-CUR-SLNs in lung cancer treatment. In vivo tumor investigation of PAC-CUR-SLNs exhibited 12-fold reduced tumor volume and almost no change in body weight of BALB/c mice, when compared with the experimental groups including control group. The inhibition of tumor rate on day 28 was 82.7 % in the PAC-CUR-SLNs group, which was significantly higher than the pure drugs and monotherapies. It can be concluded that, encapsulating the co-loaded antitumor drugs like PAC-CUR in SLNs may help in improved targeting of the tumor with enhanced anticancer effect.

On the uncertainty of the correlation between nanoparticle avidity and biodistribution

The specific delivery of a drug to its site of action also known as targeted drug delivery is a topic in the field of pharmaceutics studied for decades. One approach extensively investigated in this context is the use ligand functionalized nanoparticles. These particles are modified to carry receptor specific ligands, enabling them to accumulate at a desired target site. However, while this concept initially appears straightforward to implement, in-depth research has revealed several challenges hindering target site specific particle accumulation - some of which remain unresolved to this day. One of these challenges consists in the still incomplete understanding of how nanoparticles interact with biological systems. This knowledge gap significantly compromises the predictability of particle distribution in biological systems, which is critical for therapeutic efficacy. One of the most crucial steps in delivery is the attachment of nanoparticles to cells at the target site. This attachment occurs via the formation of multiple ligand receptor bonds. A process also referred to as multivalent interaction. While multivalency has been described extensively for individual molecules and macromolecules respectively, little is known on the multivalent binding of nanoparticles to cells. Here, we will specifically introduce the concept of avidity as a measure for favorable particle membrane interactions. Also, an overview about nanoparticle and membrane properties affecting avidity will be given. Thereafter, we provide a thorough review on literature investigating the correlation between nanoparticle avidity and success in targeted particle delivery. In particular, we want to analyze the currently uncertain data on the existence and nature of the correlation between particle avidity and biodistribution.

Nanocarrier-based gene delivery for immune cell engineering

Clinical advances in genetically modified immune cell therapies, such as chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapies, have raised hope for cancer treatment. The majority of these biotechnologies are based on viral methods for ex vivo genetic modification of the immune cells, while the non-viral methods are still in the developmental phase. Nanocarriers have been emerging as materials of choice for gene delivery to immune cells. This is due to their versatile physicochemical properties such as large surface area and size that can be optimized to overcome several practical barriers to successful gene delivery. The in vivo nanocarrier-based gene delivery can revolutionize cell-based cancer immunotherapies by replacing the current expensive autologous cell manufacturing with an off-the-shelf biomaterial-based platform. The aim of this research is to review current advances and strategies to overcome the challenges in nanoparticle-based gene delivery and their impact on the efficiency, safety, and specificity of the process. The main focus is on polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers, and their recent preclinical applications for cancer immunotherapy.

The Optimization Design of Macrophage Membrane Camouflaging Liposomes for Alleviating Ischemic Stroke Injury through Intranasal Delivery

Ischemic stroke is associated with a high mortality rate, and effective treatment strategies are currently lacking. In this study, we aimed to develop a novel nano delivery system to treat ischemic stroke via intranasal administration. A three-factor Box-Behnken experimental design was used to optimize the formulation of liposomes co-loaded with Panax notoginseng saponins (PNSs) and Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) (Lip-Rg3/PNS). Macrophage membranes were coated onto the surface of the optimized liposomes to target the ischemic site of the brain. The double-loaded liposomes disguised by macrophage membranes (MM-Lip-Rg3/PNS) were spherical, in a "shell-core" structure, with encapsulation rates of 81.41% (PNS) and 93.81% (Rg3), and showed good stability. In vitro, MM-Lip-Rg3/PNS was taken up by brain endothelial cells via the clathrin-dependent endocytosis and micropinocytosis pathways. Network pharmacology experiments predicted that MM-Lip-Rg3/PNS could regulate multiple signaling pathways and treat ischemic stroke by reducing apoptosis and inflammatory responses. After 14 days of treatment with MM-Lip-Rg3/PNS, the survival rate, weight, and neurological score of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rats significantly improved. The hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and TUNEL staining results showed that MM-Lip-Rg3/PNS can reduce neuronal apoptosis and inflammatory cell infiltration and protect the ischemic brain. In vivo biological experiments have shown that free Rg3, PNS, and MM-Lip-Rg3/PNS can alleviate inflammation and apoptosis, especially MM-Lip-Rg3/PNS, indicating that biomimetic liposomes can improve the therapeutic effects of drugs. Overall, MM-Lip-Rg3/PNS is a potential biomimetic nano targeted formulation for ischemic stroke therapy.

Potential lipid-based strategies of amphotericin B designed for oral administration in clinical application

Amphotericin B (AmB) is regarded as a first-line therapy against life-threatening invasive fungal infections. Due to its poor oral bioavailability, AmB is restricted to intravenous administration in clinical practice. As science continues to move forward, two lipid-based formulations are successfully developed for oral AmB administration, currently undergoing phase I clinical trials. Encouragingly, lipid-AmB conjugates with emulsions also exhibit a better bioavailability, which may be another strategy to design oral AmB formulation in clinical practice. Thus, this review mainly focused on the two lipid-based formulations in clinical trials, and discussed the potential perspectives of AmB-lipid conjugation-loaded nanocochleates and emulsions.

A detailed insight of the tumor targeting using nanocarrier drug delivery system

Human struggle against the deadly disease conditions is continued since ages. The contribution of science and technology in fighting against these diseases cannot be ignored exclusively due to the invention of novel procedure and products, extending their size ranges from micro to nano. Recently nanotechnology has been gaining more consideration for its ability to diagnose and treat different cancers. Different nanoparticles have been used to evade the issues related with conservative anticancer delivery systems, including their nonspecificity, adverse effects and burst release. These nanocarriers including, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), liposomes, nano lipid carriers (NLCs), nano micelles, nanocomposites, polymeric and magnetic nanocarriers, have brought revolutions in antitumor drug delivery. Nanocarriers improved the therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs with better accumulation at the specific site with sustained release, improved bioavailability and apoptosis of the cancer cells while bypassing the normal cells. In this review, the cancer targeting techniques and surface modification on nanoparticles are discussed briefly with possible challenges and opportunities. It can be concluded that understanding the role of nanomedicine in tumor treatment is significant, and therefore, the modern progressions in this arena is essential to be considered for a prosperous today and an affluent future of tumor patients.

Mucosal absorption of antibody drugs enhanced by cell-penetrating peptides anchored to a platform of polysaccharides

Our previous studies demonstrated that L-octaarginine grafted onto hyaluronic acid via a tetraglycine spacer significantly enhanced intranasal absorption of protein drugs with a molecular weight (Mw) of 22 kDa or less. The present study focused on its potential as an absorption enhancer for antibody drugs with a larger Mw and the enhancement mechanism. When ranibizumab (48 kDa) alone was intranasally administered in mice, its absolute bioavailability was 0.67% on average. The mean bioavailability elevated to 6.2% under coadministration with tetraglycine-L-octaarginine-linked hyaluronic acid. A similar result was observed under substitution of ranibizumab with certolizumab pegol (91 kDa), although bioavailability itself decreased with the Mw increase, irrespective of coadministration with the hyaluronic acid derivative. Rat experiments also revealed that coadministration with the polysaccharide derivative resulted in significant enhancement of intranasal absorption of trastuzumab (148 kDa). In vitro studies using gene-knocked down cells indicated that syndecan-4-induced macropinocytosis played a crucial role on acceleration of antibody uptake into epithelial cells on the nasal mucosa, irrespective of their Mw. It appeared that neither clathrin heavy chain nor caveolin-1 involved in cellular uptake of antibodies. Tetraglycine-L-octaarginine-linked hyaluronic acid was concluded to be a promising delivery tool that possessed universal absorption-enhancing abilities independent to Mw of biologics.

Quality by design for sumatriptan loaded nano-ethosomal mucoadhesive gel for the therapeutic management of nitroglycerin induced migraine

Migraine is a progressive neurological condition often accompanied by nausea and vomiting. Various drugs have recently been used in the treatment of migraine, including sumatriptan (SUT). However, SUT has poor pharmacological effects mainly due to its reduced permeability, blood brain barrier (BBB) effect, half-life and bioavailability. Herein, we developed SUT loaded nano-ethosomes (SUT-NEs) for intranasal (IN) delivery, after their incorporation into chitosan based mucoadhesive gel (SUT-NEsG). The observed mean particle size of SUT-NEs was 109.45 ± 4.03 nm with spherical morphology, mono dispersion (0.191 ± 0.001), negatively charged (-20.90 ± 1.98 mV) and with excellent entrapment efficiency (96.90 ± 1.85 %). Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra have depicted the compatibility of the components. Moreover, SUT-NEsG was homogeneous having suitable viscosity and mucoadhesive strength. In vitro release and ex vivo permeation analysis showed sustained release and improved permeation of the SUT-NEsG, respectively. Additionally, histopathological studies of nasal membrane affirmed the safety of SUT-NEsG after IN application. In vivo pharmacokinetic study demonstrated improved brain bioavailability of SUT-NEsG as compared to orally administered sumatriptan solution (SUT-SL). Furthermore, significantly enhanced pharmacological effect of SUT-NEsG was observed in behavioral and biochemical analysis, immunohistochemistry for NF-κB, and enzyme linked immuno assay (ELISA) for IL-1β and TNF-α in Nitroglycerin (NTG) induced migraine model. It can be concluded that migraine may be successfully managed through IN application of SUT-NEsG owing to the direct targeted delivery to the brain.

Nitazoxanide and quercetin co-loaded nanotransfersomal gel for topical treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis with macrophage targeting and enhanced anti-leishmanial effect

Purpose

Anti-leishmanial medications administered by oral and parenteral routes are less effective for treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) and cause toxicity, hence targeted drug delivery is an efficient way to improve drug availability for CL with reduced toxicity. This study aimed to develop, characterize and evaluate nitazoxanide and quercetin co-loaded nanotransfersomal gel (NTZ-QUR-NTG) for the treatment of CL.

Methods

NTZ-QUR-NT were prepared by thin film hydration method and were statistically optimized using Box-Behnken design. To ease the topical delivery and enhance the retention time, the NTZ-QUR-NT were dispersed in 2 % chitosan gel. Moreover, in-vitro drug release, ex-vivo permeation, macrophage uptake, cytotoxicity and anti-leishmanial assays were performed.

Results

The optimized formulation indicated mean particle size 210 nm, poly dispersity index (PDI) 0.16, zeta potential (ZP) -15.1 mV and entrapment efficiency (EE) of NTZ and QUR was 88 % and 85 %, respectively. NTZ-QUR-NT and NTZ-QUR-NTG showed sustained release of the incorporated drugs as compared to the drug dispersions. Skin permeation of NTZ and QUR in NTZ-QUR-NTG was 4 times higher in comparison to the plain gels. The NTZ-QUR-NT cell internalization was almost 10-folds higher than NTZ-QUR dispersion. The cytotoxicity potential (CC50) of NTZ-QUR-NT (71.95 ± 3.32 μg/mL) was reduced as compared to NTZ-QUR dispersion (49.77 ± 2.15 μg/mL. A synergistic interaction was found between NTZ and QUR. Moreover, in-vitro anti-leishmanial assay presented a lower IC50 value of NTZ-QUR-NT as compared to NTZ-QUR dispersion. Additionally, a significantly reduced lesion size was observed in NTZ-QUR-NTG treated BALB/c mice, indicating its antileishmanial potential.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that nanotransfersomal gel has the capability to retain and permeate the incorporated drugs through stratum corneum and induce synergetic anti-leishmanial effect of NTZ and QUR against cutaneous leishmaniasis.

Enhanced cardioprotective activity of ferulic acid-loaded solid lipid nanoparticle in an animal model of myocardial injury

Myocardial infarction results in an increased inflammatory and oxidative stress response in the heart, and reducing inflammation and oxidative stress after MI may offer protective effects to the heart. In the present study, we examined the cardioprotective effects of ferulic acid (FA) and ferulic acid nanostructured solid lipid nanoparticles (FA-SLNs) in an isoproterenol (ISO) induced MI model. Male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into five experimental groups to compare the effects of FA and FA-SLNs. The findings revealed that ISO led to extensive cardiomyopathy, characterized by increased infarction area, edema formation, pressure load, and energy deprivation. Additionally, ISO increased the levels of inflammatory markers (COX-2, NLRP3, and NF-кB) and apoptotic mediators such as p-JNK. However, treatment with FA and FA-SLNs mitigated the severity of the ISO-induced response, and elevated the levels of antioxidant enzymes while downregulating inflammatory pathways, along with upregulation of the mitochondrial bioenergetic factor PPAR-γ. Furthermore, virtual docking analysis of FA with various protein targets supported the in vivo results, confirming drug-protein interactions. Overall, the results demonstrated that FA-SLNs offer a promising strategy for protecting the heart from further injury following MI. This is attributed to the improved drug delivery and therapeutic outcomes compared to FA alone.

Rivaroxaban-loaded SLNs with treatment potential of deep vein thrombosis: in-vitro, in-vivo, and toxicity evaluation

OBJECTIVES

Rivaroxaban (RXB), a novel Xa inhibitor having groundbreaking therapeutic potential. However, this drug is associated with few limitations, including its pharmacokinetics related toxicities. Here, we developed RXB-loaded SLNs (RXB-SLNs) to improve its biopharmaceutical profile. Methods: High pressure homogenizer was used to prepare RXB-SLNs, followed by their particle characterization, Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Dynamic light scattering (DSC), and Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) analysis. Beside this, in-vitro, ex-vivo, and in-vivo evaluation, prothrombin time assessment and toxicity was investigated.

RESULTS

RXB-SLNs had their particle size in nano range (99.1 ± 5.50 nm) with excellent morphology and low polydispersity index (0.402 ± 0.02) and suitable zeta potential (-25.9 ± 1.4 mV). The incorporation efficiency was observed around 95.9 ± 3.9%. In-vitro release profiles of the RXB-SLNs exhibited enhanced dissolution (89 ± 9.91%) as compared to pure drug (11 ± 1.43%) after 24 h of the study. PK study demonstrated a seven times enhanced bioavailability of RXB-SLNs when compared with pure drug. Furthermore, RXB-SLNs exhibited an expressive anti-coagulant behavior in human and rat blood plasma. Also, the final formulation exhibited no toxicity after oral administration of the SLNs.

CONCLUSIONS

All together, these studies revealed the capability of the SLNs for carrying the RXB with enhanced therapeutic efficacy and no toxicity, most importantly for the treatment of deep vein thrombosis.

Nano-based drug delivery system for therapeutics: a comprehensive review

Nanomedicine and nano-delivery systems hold unlimited potential in the developing sciences, where nanoscale carriers are employed to efficiently deliver therapeutic drugs at specifically targeted sites in a controlled manner, imparting several advantages concerning improved efficacy and minimizing adverse drug reactions. These nano-delivery systems target-oriented delivery of drugs with precision at several site-specific, with mild toxicity, prolonged circulation time, high solubility, and long retention time in the biological system, which circumvent the problems associated with the conventional delivery approach. Recently, nanocarriers such as dendrimers, liposomes, nanotubes, and nanoparticles have been extensively investigated through structural characteristics, size manipulation, and selective diagnosis through disease imaging molecules, which are very effective and introduce a new paradigm shift in drugs. In this review, the use of nanomedicines in drug delivery has been demonstrated in treating various diseases with significant advances and applications in different fields. In addition, this review discusses the current challenges and future directions for research in these promising fields as well.

Production and therapeutic use of astaxanthin in the nanotechnology era

Astaxanthin (AXT) is a red fat-soluble pigment found naturally in aquatic animals, plants, and various microorganisms and can be manufactured artificially using chemical catalysis. AXT is a xanthophyll carotenoid with a high potential for scavenging free radicals. Several studies have investigated AXT efficacy against diseases such as neurodegenerative, ocular, skin, and cardiovascular hypertension, diabetes, gastrointestinal and liver diseases, and immuno-protective functions. However, its poor solubility, low stability to light and oxygen, and limited bioavailability are major obstacles hindering its wide applications as a therapeutic agent or nutritional supplement. Incorporating AXT with nanocarriers holds great promise in enhancing its physiochemical properties. Nanocarriers are delivery systems with several benefits, including surface modification, bioactivity, and targeted medication delivery and release. Many approaches have been applied to enhance AXT's medicinal effect, including solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) and polymeric nanospheres. AXT nano-formulations have demonstrated a high antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effect, significantly affecting cancer in different organs. This review summarizes the most recent data on AXT production, characterization, biological activity, and therapeutic usage, focusing on its uses in the nanotechnology era.

Sterilisation of biopharmaceuticals: Effect of gamma irradiation, e-beam irradiation and nitrogen dioxide on human insulin

Biopharmaceuticals are administered parenterally and therefore sterility is required. Sterility can be obtained via different processes including exposure to steam or dry heat. Sterilisation studies on biopharmaceuticals, which are highly sensitive medicinal products, are scarce. This study investigates the effect of different sterilisation processes on recombinant human insulin in solid state (gamma and e-beam irradiation (w/wo dry ice), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂)) and in aqueous solution (gamma irradiation (w/wo dry ice, w/wo glycerin)) using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection-mass spectrometry. It is observed that NO₂ substantially degrades the solid samples, while gamma and e-beam irradiation result in lower levels of degradation (mean normalized peak areas of 95.2-96.2 % with respect to the non-sterilised samples). Gamma irradiation of insulin solutions with and without dry ice at 2.5 kGy results in mean normalised peak areas of 85 % and <40 % with respect to the non-sterilised samples, respectively. It is concluded that sterilisation using ionising radiation of liquid biopharmaceuticals with insulin and sterilisation of insulin dry powder using NO₂ is less suitable with the set-ups used here because of substantial degradation. In contrast, evidence is presented in favour of sterilisation of insulin dry powder using ionising radiation.

Toll-like receptors and NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent pathways in Parkinson's disease: mechanisms and therapeutic implications

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor and non-motor disturbances as a result of a complex and not fully understood pathogenesis, probably including neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and formation of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) aggregates. As age is the main risk factor for several neurodegenerative disorders including PD, progressive aging of the immune system leading to inflammaging and immunosenescence may contribute to neuroinflammation leading to PD onset and progression; abnormal α-syn aggregation in the context of immune dysfunction may favor activation of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor (NOD) family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome within microglial cells through interaction with toll-like receptors (TLRs). This process would further lead to activation of Caspase (Cas)-1, and increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (PC), with subsequent impairment of mitochondria and damage to dopaminergic neurons. All these phenomena are mediated by the translocation of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) and enhanced by reactive oxygen species (ROS). To date, drugs to treat PD are mainly aimed at relieving clinical symptoms and there are no disease-modifying options to reverse or stop disease progression. This review outlines the role of the TLR/NLRP3/Cas-1 pathway in PD-related immune dysfunction, also focusing on specific therapeutic options that might be used since the early stages of the disease to counteract neuroinflammation and immune dysfunction.

Cytotoxicity and Thermal Characterization Assessment of Excipients for the Development of Innovative Lyophilized Formulations for Oncological Applications

Freeze-drying, also known as lyophilization, significantly improves the storage, stability, shelf life, and clinical translation of biopharmaceuticals. On the downside, this process faces complex challenges, i.e., the presence of freezing and drying stresses for the active compounds, the uniformity and consistency of the final products, and the efficiency and safety of the reconstituted lyophilized formulations. All these requirements can be addressed by adding specific excipients that can protect and stabilize the active ingredient during lyophilization, assisting in the formation of solid structures without interfering with the biological and/or pharmaceutical action of the reconstituted products. However, these excipients, generally considered safe and inert, could play an active role in the formulation interacting with the biological cellular machinery and promoting toxicity. Any side effects should be carefully identified and characterized to better tune any treatments in terms of concentrations and administration times. In this work, various concentrations in the range of 1 to 100 mg/mL of cellobiose, lactose, sucrose, trehalose, isoleucine, glycine, methionine, dextran, mannitol, and (2-hydroxypropyl)-β-cyclodextrin were evaluated in terms of their ability to create uniform and solid lyophilized structures. The freeze-dried products were then reconstituted in the appropriate cell culture media to assess their in vitro cytotoxicity on both a healthy cell line (B-lymphocytes) and their tumoral lymphoid counterpart (Daudi). Results showed that at 10 mg/mL, all the excipients demonstrated suitable lyophilized solid structures and high tolerability by both cell lines, while dextran was the only excipient well-tolerated also up to 100 mg/mL. An interesting result was shown for methionine, which even at 10 mg/mL, selectively affected the viability of the cancerous cell line only, opening future perspectives for antitumoral applications.

Liposomal formulations for treating lysosomal storage disorders

Lysosomal storage disorders (LSD) are a group of rare life-threatening diseases caused by a lysosomal dysfunction, usually due to the lack of a single enzyme required for the metabolism of macromolecules, which leads to a lysosomal accumulation of specific substrates, resulting in severe disease manifestations and early death. There is currently no definitive cure for LSD, and despite the approval of certain therapies, their effectiveness is limited. Therefore, an appropriate nanocarrier could help improve the efficacy of some of these therapies. Liposomes show excellent properties as drug carriers, because they can entrap active therapeutic compounds offering protection, biocompatibility, and selectivity. Here, we discuss the potential of liposomes for LSD treatment and conduct a detailed analysis of promising liposomal formulations still in the preclinical development stage from various perspectives, including treatment strategy, manufacturing, characterization, and future directions for implementing liposomal formulations for LSD.

Formation Optimization, Characterization and Antioxidant Activity of Auricularia auricula-judae Polysaccharide Nanoparticles Obtained via Antisolvent Precipitation

Auricularia auricula-judae polysaccharide (AAP)-based nanoparticles (NPs) prepared via an anti-solvent precipitation approach were studied. Response surface methodology (RSM) design was carried out on the basis of single factor experiments, using average size and polydispersity index (PDI) as indicators. The optimal preparation conditions were determined to include an AAP concentration of 1 mg/mL, a pH of 8, and an anti-solvent/solvent volume ratio of 6. The average particle sizes of the AAP-NPs, PDI and electrical characteristic (ζ-potential) were found to be 150.27 ± 3.21 nm, 0.135 ± 0.012 and -31.10 ± 0.52 mV, respectively. Furthermore, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to determine the chemical structure of the AAP-NPs. It was observed that the intensity of AAP-NPs in the wide spectral band of 3000-3750 cm^-1 was significantly stronger than that of the AAP, as was the characteristic peak of carboxyl anion, and the characteristic band moved to shorter wavelengths. Subsequent thermogravimetric analysis showed that the antisolvent precipitation method improved the thermal stability of the AAP, while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed that the morphology of AAP-NPs was uniform and well-distributed, and that their single crystal structures had remained unaffected during the process. Moreover, the DPPH and ABTS scavenging activities of AAP-NPs were increased, and the IC50 values were 0.544 ± 0.241 mg/mL and 0.755 ± 0.226 mg/mL, respectively.

Controlled therapeutic delivery of CO from carbon monoxide-releasing molecules (CORMs)

Carbon monoxide (CO) has been regarded as a "silent killer" for its toxicity toward biological systems. However, a low concentration of endogenously produced CO has shown a number of therapeutic benefits such as anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, anti-apoptosis, and cytoprotective activities. Carbon monoxide-releasing molecules (CORMs) have been developed as alternatives to direct CO inhalation, which requires a specialized setting for strict dose control. CORMs are efficient CO donors, with central transition metals (such as ruthenium, iron, cobalt, and manganese) surrounded by CO as a ligand. CORMs can stably store and subsequently release their CO payload in the presence of certain triggers including solvent, light, temperature, and ligand substitution. However, CORMs require appropriate delivery strategies to improve short CO release half-life and target specificity. Herein, we highlighted the therapeutic potential of inhalation and CORMs-delivered CO. The applications of conjugate and nanocarrier systems for controlling CO release and improving therapeutic efficacy of CORMs are also described in detail. The review concludes with some of the hurdles that limit clinical translation of CORMs. Keeping in mind the tremendous potential and growing interest in CORMs, this review would be helpful for designing controlled CO release systems for clinical applications.

Nanoparticle-Based Inhalation Therapy for Pulmonary Diseases

The lung is exposed to various pollutants and is the primary site for the onset of various diseases, including infections, allergies, and cancers. One possible treatment approach for such pulmonary diseases involves direct administration of therapeutics to the lung so as to maintain the topical concentration of the drug. Particles with nanoscale diameters tend to reach the pulmonary region. Nanoparticles (NPs) have garnered significant interest for applications in biomedical and pharmaceutical industries because of their unique physicochemical properties and biological activities. In this article, we describe the biological and pharmacological activities of NPs as well as summarize their potential in the formulation of drugs employed to treat pulmonary diseases. Recent advances in the use of NPs in inhalation chemotherapy for the treatment of lung diseases have also been highlighted.

Optimization, Characterization and In Vivo Evaluation of Mupirocin Nanocrystals for Topical Administration

Treatment of infectious skin conditions resulting from wounds and burns with topical antibiotics is challenging, particularly those caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria (MRSA). This is due to the formation of bacterial biofilms characterized by antimicrobial resistance. Mupirocin (MP), a widely used topical antibiotic, is active against gram-positive bacteria including MRSA. However, MP suffers from sub-optimal therapeutic efficacy due to its poor water-solubility and the significant rise in MP-resistant S. aureus. In this study, the physico-chemical characteristics of MP were modified through nanocrystallization to improve its therapeutic efficacy for the treatment of skin infections. Mupirocin-nanocrystals (MP-NC) were prepared using a nanoprecipitation technique and optimized using a D-optimal response surface design. The optimization of MP-NC produced ultra-small monodisperse spherical particles with a mean diameter of 70 nm and a polydispersity index of 0.2. The design resulted in two optimal MP-NC formulations that were evaluated by performing series of in vitro, ex vivo, microbiological, and in vivo studies. In-vitro results showed a 10-fold increase in the saturation solubility and a 9-fold increase in the dissolution rate of MP-NC. Ex vivo permeation studies, using pig ears skin, showed a 2-fold increase in the dermal deposition of MP-NC with the highest drug deposition occurring at 500-µm skin depth. Moreover, the optimal MP-NC formulations were lyophilized and incorporated into a 2% w/w cream. Microbiological studies revealed a 16-fold decrease in the minimum inhibitory concentration and the minimum bactericidal concentration of MP-NC. In vivo studies, using a rat excision burn wound model, demonstrated rapid and complete healing of infected burn wounds in rats treated with MP-NC cream in comparison to marketed Avoban ointment. Our results suggest that nanocrystallization of MP may provide an avenue through which higher levels of a topically applied MP can be permeated into the skin to reach relevant infectious areas and exert potential local antibacterial effects.

Carnosic Acid Encapsulated in Albumin Nanoparticles Induces Apoptosis in Breast and Colorectal Cancer Cells

Carnosic acid (CA) is a natural phenolic compound with several biomedical actions. This work was performed to study the use of CA-loaded polymeric nanoparticles to improve the antitumor activity of breast cancer cells (MCF-7) and colon cancer cells (Caco-2). CA was encapsulated in bovine serum albumin (BSA), chitosan (CH), and cellulose (CL) nanoparticles. The CA-loaded BSA nanoparticles (CA-BSA-NPs) revealed the most promising formula as it showed good loading capacity and the best release rate profile as the drug reached 80% after 10 h. The physicochemical characterization of the CA-BSA-NPs and empty carrier (BSA-NPs) was performed by the particle size distribution analysis, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and zeta potential. The antitumor activity of the CA-BSA-NPs was evaluated by measuring cell viability, apoptosis rate, and gene expression of GCLC, COX-2, and BCL-2 in MCF-7 and Caco-2. The cytotoxicity assay (MTT) showed elevated antitumor activity of CA-BSA-NPs against MCF-7 and Caco-2 compared to free CA and BSA-NPs. Moreover, apoptosis test data showed an arrest of the Caco-2 cells at G2/M (10.84%) and the MCF-7 cells at G2/M (4.73%) in the CA-BSA-NPs treatment. RT-PCR-based gene expression analysis showed an upregulation of the GCLC gene and downregulation of the BCL-2 and COX-2 genes in cells treated with CA-BSA-NPs compared to untreated cells. In conclusion, CA-BSA-NPs has been introduced as a promising formula for treating breast and colorectal cancer.

Disclosing the Potential of Fluorinated Ionic Liquids as Interferon-Alpha 2b Delivery Systems

Interferon-alpha 2b (IFN-α 2b) is a therapeutic protein used for the treatment of cancer, viral infections, and auto-immune diseases. Its application is hindered by a low bioavailability and instability in the bloodstream, and the search for new strategies for a target delivery and stabilization of IFN-α 2b to improve its therapeutic efficacy is crucial. Fluorinated ionic liquids (FILs) are promising biomaterials that: (i) can form self-assembled structures; (ii) have complete miscibility in water; and (iii) can be designed to have reduced toxicity. The influence of IFN-α 2b in the aggregation behaviour of FILs and the interactions between them were investigated through conductivity and surface tension measurements, and using electron microscopic and spectroscopy techniques to study FILs feasibility as an interferon-alpha 2b delivery system. The results show that the presence of IFN-α 2b influences the aggregation behaviour of FILs and that strong interaction between the two compounds occurs. The protein might not be fully encapsulated by FILs. However, the FIL can be tailored in the future to carry IFN-α 2b by the formation of a conjugate, which prevents the aggregation of this protein. This work constitutes a first step toward the design and development of FIL-based IFN-α 2b delivery systems.

A Redox-Activatable and Targeted Photosensitizing Agent to Deliver Doxorubicin for Combining Chemotherapy and Photodynamic Therapy

Currently, tumors have become a serious disease threatening human health and life in modern society. Photo-chemo combination therapy is considered to be an important method to improving the efficiency of tumor treatment, especially in the treatment of multi-drug-resistant tumors. However, the application of photo-chemo combination therapy has been limited by the poor water solubility of photosensitizers, low tumor targeting, and high side effects of chemotherapy drugs. In order to solve these problems, a smart nano drug delivery platform FA-PEG-ss-PLL(-g-Ce6) designed and synthesized by us. The smart nano drug carrier uses folic acid (FA) as the targeting group, polyethylene glycol (PEG) as the hydrophilic end, Ce6-grafted polylysine (PLL(-g-Ce6)) as the hydrophobic end, and Chlorin e6 (Ce6) as the photosensitizer of photodynamic therapy, and it connects PEG to PLL by a redox-responsive cleavable disulfide linker (-ss-). Finally, the combination of tumor chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy (PDT) is realized by loading with anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) to the intelligent carrier. In vitro experiments showed that the drug loading content (DLC%) of DOX@FA-PEG-ss-PLL(-g-Ce6) nanoparticles (DOX@FPLC NPs) was as high as 14.83%, and the nanoparticles had good serum stability, reduction sensitivity and hemocompatibility. From the cytotoxicity assays in vitro, we found that under 664 nm laser irradiation DOX@FPLC NPs showed stronger toxicity to MCF-7 cells than did DOX, Ce6 + laser, and DOX + Ce6 + laser. Moreover, the antitumor efficiency in vivo and histopathological analysis showed that DOX@FPLC NPs under 664 nm laser irradiation exhibited higher antitumor activity and lower systemic toxicity than single chemotherapy. These results suggested that the FA-PEG-ss-PLL(-g-Ce6) nano drug delivery platform has considerable potential for the combination of chemotherapy and PDT.

Synthesis and Characterization of Poly (β-amino Ester) and Applied PEGylated and Non-PEGylated Poly (β-amino ester)/Plasmid DNA Nanoparticles for Efficient Gene Delivery

Polymer-based nanocarriers require extensive knowledge of their chemistries to learn functionalization strategies and understand the nature of interactions that they establish with biological entities. In this research, the poly (β-amino ester) (PβAE-447) was synthesized and characterized, aimed to identify the influence of some key parameters in the formulation process. Initially; PβAE-447 was characterized for aqueous solubility, swelling capacity, proton buffering ability, and cytotoxicity study before nanoparticles formulation. Interestingly, the polymer-supported higher cell viability than the Polyethylenimine (PEI) at 100 μg/ml. PβAE-447 complexed with GFP encoded plasmid DNA (pGFP) generated nanocarriers of 184 nm hydrodynamic radius (+7.42 mV Zeta potential) for cell transfection. Transfection assays performed with PEGylated and lyophilized PβAE-447/pDNA complexes on HEK-293, BEAS-2B, and A549 cell lines showed better transfection than PEI. The outcomes toward A549 cells (above 66%) showed the highest transfection efficiency compared to the other cell lines. Altogether, these results suggested that characterizing physicochemical properties pave the way to design a new generation of PβAE-447 for gene delivery.

Nanocarrier Drug Delivery Systems: Characterization, Limitations, Future Perspectives and Implementation of Artificial Intelligence

There has been an increasing demand for the development of nanocarriers targeting multiple diseases with a broad range of properties. Due to their tiny size, giant surface area and feasible targetability, nanocarriers have optimized efficacy, decreased side effects and improved stability over conventional drug dosage forms. There are diverse types of nanocarriers that have been synthesized for drug delivery, including dendrimers, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymersomes, polymer-drug conjugates, polymeric nanoparticles, peptide nanoparticles, micelles, nanoemulsions, nanospheres, nanocapsules, nanoshells, carbon nanotubes and gold nanoparticles, etc. Several characterization techniques have been proposed and used over the past few decades to control and predict the behavior of nanocarriers both in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we describe some fundamental in vitro, ex vivo, in situ and in vivo characterization methods for most nanocarriers, emphasizing their advantages and limitations, as well as the safety, regulatory and manufacturing aspects that hinder the transfer of nanocarriers from the laboratory to the clinic. Moreover, integration of artificial intelligence with nanotechnology, as well as the advantages and problems of artificial intelligence in the development and optimization of nanocarriers, are also discussed, along with future perspectives.

Polymeric Nanostructures Containing Proteins and Peptides for Pharmaceutical Applications

Over the last three decades, proteins and peptides have attracted great interest as drugs of choice for combating a broad spectrum of diseases, including diabetes mellitus, cancer, and infectious and neurological diseases. However, the delivery of therapeutic proteins to target sites should take into account the obstacles and limitations related to their intrinsic sensitivity to different environmental conditions, fragile tertiary structures, and short half-life. Polymeric nanostructures have emerged as competent vehicles for protein delivery, as they are multifunctional and can be tailored according to their peculiarities. Thus, the enhanced bioavailability and biocompatibility, the adjustable control of physicochemical features, and the colloidal stability of polymer-based nanostructures further enable either the embedding or conjugation of hydrophobic or hydrophilic bioactive molecules, which are some of the features of paramount importance that they possess and which contribute to their selection as vehicles. The present review aims to discuss the prevalent nanostructures composed of block copolymers from the viewpoint of efficient protein hospitality and administration, as well as the up-to-date scientific publications and anticipated applications of polymeric nanovehicles containing proteins and peptides.

Emerging trends in pulmonary delivery of biopharmaceuticals

Over the years, a tendency toward biopharmaceutical products as therapeutics has been witnessed compared with small molecular drugs. Biopharmaceuticals possess greater specificity, selectivity and potency with fewer side effects. The pulmonary route is a potential noninvasive route studied for the delivery of various molecules, including biopharmaceuticals. It directly delivers drugs to the lungs in higher concentrations and provides greater bioavailability than other noninvasive routes. This review focuses on the pulmonary route for the delivery of biopharmaceuticals. We have covered various biopharmaceuticals, including peptides, recombinant proteins, enzymes, monoclonal antibodies and nucleic acids, administered via a pulmonary route and discussed their rewards and drawbacks.

Role of Toll-Like Receptors in Neuroimmune Diseases: Therapeutic Targets and Problems

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a class of proteins playing a key role in innate and adaptive immune responses. TLRs are involved in the development and progression of neuroimmune diseases via initiating inflammatory responses. Thus, targeting TLRs signaling pathway may be considered as a potential therapy for neuroimmune diseases. However, the role of TLRs is elusive and complex in neuroimmune diseases. In addition to the inadequate immune response of TLRs inhibitors in the experiments, the recent studies also demonstrated that partial activation of TLRs is conducive to the production of anti-inflammatory factors and nervous system repair. Exploring the mechanism of TLRs in neuroimmune diseases and combining with developing the emerging drug may conquer neuroimmune diseases in the future. Herein, we provide an overview of the role of TLRs in several neuroimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis, neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder, Guillain-Barré syndrome and myasthenia gravis. Emerging difficulties and potential solutions in clinical application of TLRs inhibitors will also be discussed.

Synthesis of Ziziphus spina-christi (Jujube) Root Methanol Extract Loaded Functionalized Silver Nanoparticle (ZS-Ag-NPs); Physiochemical Characterization and Effect of ZS-Ag-NPs on Adipocyte Maturation, Adipokine and Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Interaction

In this research, a simple, green approach was employed to synthesize silver nanoparticles with the aid of Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) methanol root extract, which can act as a reducing, capping agent to treat obesity and inflammation. Globally, Ziziphus spina-christi (Jujube) root is used in traditional therapy as a lipolysis promoter. GC-MS results confirmed the availability of kaempferol (flavonol), cannabinol and indole-3-carboxylic acid in Ziziphus spina-christi root methanol extract (ZSE). ZSE silver nanoparticles (ZS-Ag-NPs) were synthesized and their effect on mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation capacity and adipokine levels in maturing adipocytes were analyzed. Maturing adipocytes treated with 0.4 µg/dL of ZSE and ZS-Ag-NPs significantly reduced the lipid content in adipocytes by 64% and 82%, respectively. In addition, lipolysis-related genes such as LPL (1.9 fold), HSL (2.3 fold), PGC-1α (3 fold), UCP-1 (4.1 fold), PRDM16 (2 fold) and PPARα (2.7 fold) increased significantly in ZS-Ag-NPs treated maturing adipocytes. The ZS-Ag-NPs treatment significantly decreased insulin resistance and metabolic inflammation-related LTB4-R, TNF-α, IL-4 and STAT-6 mRNA levels. Mitochondrial thermogenesis stimulating capacity of ZS-Ag-NPs was further confirmed by the significantly enhanced CREB-1 and AMPK protein levels in adipocytes. Furthermore, ZS-Ag-NPs treated adipokines (condition media, CM) were treated with human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) to determine cytotoxicity and pro-inflammatory stimulus capacity. We found that ZS-Ag-NPs treated adipocyte CM effectively increased mRNA expression levels of the vascular endothelial cell growth factor (VEGF), and down-regulated oxidative stress (LPO, eNOS, and HO) and vascular cell inflammation (ICAM, VCAM, TNF-α, IL-1β, and NF-κB). In conclusion, ZS-Ag-NPs displayed an action at the molecular level in mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation, decreased adipokine secretion in adipocytes, and enhanced vascular endothelial cell growth. This molecular mechanical action of ZS-Ag-NPs reduced effectively obesity progressions and metabolic inflammatory pathogenesis associated with aging.

A Review on Recent Advancement on Age-Related Hearing Loss: The Applications of Nanotechnology, Drug Pharmacology, and Biotechnology

Aging is considered a contributing factor to many diseases such as cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and hearing loss. Age-related hearing loss, also termed presbycusis, is one of the most common sensory impairments worldwide, affecting one in five people over 50 years of age, and this prevalence is growing annually. Associations have emerged between presbycusis and detrimental health outcomes, including social isolation and mental health. It remains largely untreatable apart from hearing aids, and with no globally established prevention strategies in the clinical setting. Hence, this review aims to explore the pathophysiology of presbycusis and potential therapies, based on a recent advancement in bile acid-based bio-nanotechnologies. A comprehensive online search was carried out using the following keywords: presbycusis, drugs, hearing loss, bile acids, nanotechnology, and more than 150 publications were considered directly relevant. Evidence of the multifaceted oxidative stress and chronic inflammation involvement in cellular damage and apoptosis that is associated with a loss of hair cells, damaged and inflamed stria vascularis, and neuronal signalling loss and apoptosis continues to emerge. New robust and effective therapies require drug delivery deeper into the various layers of the cochlea. Bile acid-based nanotechnology has gained wide interest in its permeation-enhancing ability and potential for numerous applications in treating presbycusis.

Enhanced neuroprotective and antidepressant activity of curcumin-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers in lipopolysaccharide-induced depression and anxiety rat model

The present study aims to develop curcumin-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (CUR-NLCs) and investigate their neuroprotective effects in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced depression and anxiety model. Nanotemplate engineering technique was used to prepare CUR-NLCs with Compritol 888 ATO and oleic acid as solid and liquid lipid, respectively. Poloxamer 188, Tween 80 and Span 80 were used as stabilizing agents for solid-liquid lipid core. The physicochemical parameters of CUR-NLCs were determined followed by in vitro drug release and in vivo neuroprotective activity in rats. The optimized CUR-NLCs demonstrated nanometric particle size of 147.8 nm, surface charge of -32.8 mV and incorporation efficiency of 91.0%. CUR-NLCs showed initial rapid followed by a sustained drug release reaching up to 73% after 24 h. CUR-NLCs significantly elevated struggling time and decreased immobility time in forced swim and tail suspension tests. A substantial increase in time spent and number of entries into the light and open compartments was observed in light-dark box and elevated plus maze models. CUR-NLCs improved the tissue architecture and suppressed the expression of p-NF-κB, TNF-α and COX-2 in brain tissues from histological and immunohistochemical analysis. CUR-NLCs improved the neuroprotective effect of curcumin and can be used as a potential therapeutics for depression and anxiety.

Nanotechnology based solutions for anti-leishmanial impediments: a detailed insight

As a neglected tropical disease, Leishmaniasis is significantly instigating morbidity and mortality across the globe. Its clinical spectrum varies from ulcerative cutaneous lesions to systemic immersion causing hyperthermic hepato-splenomegaly. Curbing leishmanial parasite is toughly attributable to the myriad obstacles in existing chemotherapy and immunization. Since the 1990s, extensive research has been conducted for ameliorating disease prognosis, by resolving certain obstacles of conventional therapeutics viz. poor efficacy, systemic toxicity, inadequate drug accumulation inside the macrophage, scarce antigenic presentation to body's immune cells, protracted length and cost of the treatment. Mentioned hurdles can be restricted by designing nano-drug delivery system (nano-DDS) of extant anti-leishmanials, phyto-nano-DDS, surface modified-mannosylated and thiolated nano-DDS. Likewise, antigen delivery with co-transportation of suitable adjuvants would be achievable through nano-vaccines. In the past decade, researchers have engineered nano-DDS to improve the safety profile of existing drugs by restricting their release parameters. Polymerically-derived nano-DDS were found as a suitable option for oral delivery as well as SLNs due to pharmacokinetic re-modeling of drugs. Mannosylated nano-DDS have upgraded macrophage internalizing of nanosystem and the entrapped drug, provided with minimal toxicity. Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL) was tackling by the utilization of nano-DDS designed for topical delivery including niosomes, liposomes, and transfersomes. Transfersomes, however, appears to be superior for this purpose. The nanotechnology-based solution to prevent parasitic resistance is the use of Thiolated drug-loaded and multiple drugs loaded nano-DDS. These surfaces amended nano-DDS possess augmented IC50 values in comparison to conventional drugs and un-modified nano-DDS. Phyto-nano-DDS, another obscure horizon, have also been evaluated for their anti-leishmanial response, however, more intense assessment is a prerequisite. Impoverished Cytotoxic T-cells response followed by Leishmanial antigen proteins delivery have also been vanquished using nano-adjuvants. The eminence of nano-DDS for curtailment of anti-leishmanial chemotherapy and immunization associated challenges are extensively summed up in this review. This expedited approach is ameliorating the Leishmaniasis management successfully. Alongside, total to partial eradication of this disease can be sought along with associated co-morbidities.

Macrophage targeting with the novel carbopol-based miltefosine-loaded transfersomal gel for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis: in vitro and in vivo analyses

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to develop novel carbopol-based miltefosine-loaded transfersomal gel (HePCTG) for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) via efficient targeting of leishmania infected macrophages.

METHODS

Miltefosine-loaded transfersomes (HePCT) were prepared by ethanol injection method followed by their incorporation into carbopol gel to form HePCTG. The prepared HePCT were assessed for physicochemical properties including mean particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, morphology, and deformability. Similarly, HePCTG was evaluated for physiochemical and rheological attributes. The in vitro release, skin permeation, skin irritation, anti-leishmanial activity, and in vivo efficacy in BALB/c mice against infected macrophages were also performed for HePCT.

RESULTS

The optimized HePCT displayed a particle size of 168 nm with entrapment efficiency of 92%. HePCTG showed suitable viscosity, pH, and sustained release of the incorporated drug. Furthermore, HePCT and HePCTG demonstrated higher skin permeation than drug solution. The results of macrophage uptake study indicated improved drug intake by passive diffusion. The lower half maximal inhibitory concentration value, selectivity index and higher 50% cytotoxic concentration  value of HePCT compared to that of HePC solution demonstrated the improved anti-leishmanial efficacy and non-toxicity of the formulation. This was further confirmed by the notable reduction in parasite load and lesion size observed in in vivo anti-leishmanial study.

CONCLUSION

It can be stated that the formulated HePCTG can effectively be used for the treatment of CL.

Particle and Gel Characterization of Irinotecan-Loaded Double-Reverse Thermosensitive Hydrogel

The irinotecan-loaded double-reverse thermosensitive hydrogel (DRTH) is a dispersed system of irinotecan-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) in a thermosensitive hydrogel. To optimise the particle and gel properties of DRTHs for rectal administration of irinotecan, SLNs and DRTHs were prepared with tricaprin, triethanolamine, Tween 80, and Span 20. Among the SLNs tested, an SLN composed of 1 g irinotecan, 0.5 g lipid mixture, and 0.5 g combined surfactant gave the highest entrapment efficiency and smallest particle size. A DRTH composed of (poloxamer 407/poloxamer 188/combined surfactant/SLN dispersion/H₂O (10/15/17/4/54%)) showed easy administration, fast gelling, and strong gel-forming in the body.

Preparation, Pharmacokinetics, and Antitumor Potential of Miltefosine-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to investigate the suitability of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) loaded with miltefosine (HePC) as an anticancer drug for the treatment of breast cancer.

METHODS

HePC-NLCs were prepared using a microemulsion technique and then evaluated for particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), incorporation efficiency, in vitro release of entrapped drug, and hemolytic potential. Furthermore, pharmacokinetic, biodistribution, and liver toxicity analyses were performed in Sprague-Dawley rats, and antitumor efficacy was evaluated in Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 (MCF-7) and squamous cell carcinoma-7 (SCC-7) cells in vitro and in tumour-bearing BALB/c mice in vivo. Advanced analyses including survival rate, immunohistopathology, and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labelling (TUNEL) assays were performed to evaluate apoptosis in vivo.

RESULTS

The average particle size of the HePC-NLCs was 143 ± 16 nm, with a narrow PDI (0.104 ± 0.002), and the incorporation efficiency was found to be 91 ± 7%. The NLCs released HePC in a sustained manner, and this release was significantly lower than that of free drug. The in vitro hemolytic assay demonstrated a significantly reduced hemolytic potential (~9%) of the NLCs compared to that of the test formulations. The HePC-NLCs demonstrated enhanced pharmacokinetic behaviour over free drug, including extended blood circulation and an abridged clearance rate in rats. Furthermore, the HePC-NLCs exhibited higher cytotoxicity than the free drug in MCF-7 and SCC-7 cells. Moreover, the HePC-NLCs showed significantly enhanced (P < 0.005) antitumor activity compared to that of the control and free drug-treated mouse groups. Tumour cell apoptosis was also confirmed, indicating the antitumor potential of the HePC-NLCs.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrate the ability of NLCs as a drug delivery system for enhanced pharmacokinetic, antitumor, and apoptotic effects, most importantly when loaded with HePC.