Using Social Norms to Change Behavior and Increase Sustainability in the Real World: A Systematic Review of the Literature

A meta-analysis of behaviour change techniques in social interventions targeting improved cognitive function in older adults

BACKGROUND

Limited social networks in older adults are linked with increased dementia risk. However, there is a lack of knowledge on whether socially-based behavioural interventions (i.e., programs designed to increase individual's social opportunities, engagement or networks) can improve cognitive function, as well as the role of applied behaviour change techniques (BCTs) in effective interventions. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to (i) quantify the effectiveness of social-based behavioural interventions in improving cognition in older adults, and (ii) identify which BCTs increase social activity behaviour of older adults.

METHODS

Six electronic databases were searched with restrictions for age (>65 years) and English language from inception to July 2023 (PROSPERO:CRD42021283382) for articles reporting social-based behavioural randomised controlled trials and using a measured outcome of cognitive function. Behaviour change techniques were mapped to the BCT V1 model and risk of bias was assessed. Pooled effect sizes from eligible studies were synthesised using RevMan.

RESULTS

We identified 9528 records and included 15 studies (N=1785 participants). Meta-analyses showed that social-based interventions had a medium effect on global cognition (d=0.80, 95% CI 0.58 to 1.02, p<0.01), but not executive function. The most frequently used intervention components were social-based communication (e.g., chatting, boosting social engagement), group arts-based tasks (e.g., knitting, music, craft) and guided reminiscence. The BCT demonstration of behaviour predicted significant cognitive effects and explained 94.6% of inter-study variation.

DISCUSSION

Findings carry implications for developing comprehensive strategies to promote social initiatives supporting cognitive health, particularly in addressing the challenges faced by older adults.

Angler perceptions of pelican entanglement reveal opportunities for seabird conservation on fishing piers in Tampa Bay

Injuries from entanglement in marine debris are a significant threat to seabirds globally, and fishing gear is the most common debris affecting seabirds. In Tampa Bay, Florida, entanglement of brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) at fishing piers has been a highly contentious issue for years, especially at the Skyway Fishing Pier State Park. With entanglements continuing to rise, new fishing regulations were adopted at the pier to reduce the likelihood of severe entanglements, which include a controversial seasonal ban on certain high-risk fishing gear during the pelican breeding season. To better understand the extent of this problem and identify potential leverage points for promoting behavioral change, this study analyzed data on pelican condition and abundance near the south Skyway Fishing Pier, as well as data from questionnaires conducted on the pier capturing anglers' perceptions of the issue and several proposed solutions, including the new gear restrictions. The results suggest a potential attraction of pelicans to anglers, with entanglement risks greatest at peak locations and times of angler activity. However, results from the angler surveys highlight several opportunities for minimizing these risks. Overall, anglers are generally concerned about the issue, believe others are also concerned, and supportive of educational videos and greater enforcement or punishment for people feeding pelicans. Anglers had mixed opinions on the new gear restrictions. Five types of anglers were identified using audience segmentation techniques, with each type representing a different potential target audience for promoting behavior change on the pier. Depending upon the audience, strategic messages using frames that focus on leadership or self-identity may be most effective for increasing the number of anglers who can safely rescue a hooked bird. Recommendations for future analyses and pilot social marketing campaigns are discussed to support further investigation into the human dimensions of seabird conservation in Tampa Bay.

A meta-analysis of the effect of visiting zoos and aquariums on visitors' conservation knowledge, beliefs, and behavior

Zoos and aquariums are well placed to connect visitors with the issues facing biodiversity globally and many deliver interventions that seek to influence visitors' beliefs and behaviors with respect to conservation. However, despite primary studies evaluating the effect of such interventions, the overall effect of engaging with zoos and the factors that influence this effect remain unclear. We conducted a systematic review to investigate the effect of zoo-led interventions on knowledge, beliefs (attitudes, intentions, self-efficacy, and social norms), and behavior among zoo visitors. These outcomes were identified using the Theory of Planned Behavior as a theoretical lens. We identified and described the nature of zoo-led interventions in 56 studies and used the behavior change technique (BCT) taxonomy to identify 6 specific BCTs used in interventions to date. Multilevel meta-analyses revealed a small to medium positive effect of engaging with zoo-led interventions on outcomes (d+ = 0.40, 95% confidence interval = 0.28-0.51). Specifically, visitors were more knowledgeable about conservation issues, held more favorable attitudes toward conservation, and reported being more likely to act for the benefit of biodiversity. No evidence of publication bias was present. Effect sizes were, however, heterogeneous and subgroup analyses revealed that the nature of the intervention or type of outcome did not explain this variance. Larger effects were, however, found in studies conducted at a single institution relative to research at multiple institutions and studies that used within-participant designs relative to between-participant designs. Taken together, these findings demonstrate how behavior change frameworks can be used to describe zoo-led interventions and supports the assertion that zoos and aquariums can promote changes in beliefs and behaviors that may help protect biodiversity.

Understanding the mechanisms of change in social norms around tobacco use: A systematic review and meta-analysis of interventions

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Tobacco use spreads through social networks influencing social norms around tobacco use. However, the social norms scholarship is extremely diverse and occasionally conflicting, complicating efforts to understand how best to leverage social norms to reduce tobacco use. This study systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed this vast terrain by focusing on social norms measurement and mechanism, and intervention effectiveness and modality aimed at changing social norms around tobacco use and actual tobacco use.

METHODS

We searched Scopus, PubMed, PsycInfo, Clinicaltrials.gov, ProQuest Dissertations, the Cochrane Trial Registry, as well as the websites of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco, the Open Science Framework, medrXiv and the Truth Initiative for experimental and quasi-experimental evaluation studies of interventions designed to shift tobacco use. We included studies written in English from inception to 30 May 2024. We only included studies which noted social norms or social influence as part of the intervention design or set of measured variables. We excluded studies with only one time point, without an intervention being evaluated and those not published in English. Study screening followed the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, and was conducted by at least two independent reviewers who resolved discrepancies through discussion and consensus. All included studies were analyzed in a narrative synthesis, and those providing sufficient statistics for tobacco and social norms outcomes were included in meta-analyses, which were performed separately for tobacco outcomes and social norms outcomes. Study outcomes were transformed into a standardized mean difference (Hedges' g) and several meta-regressions were fit to explore sources of heterogeneity using a robust variance estimation specification to handle effect size dependency.

RESULTS

A total of 95 studies met inclusion criteria for the narrative synthesis, 200 effect sizes from 86 studies were included in the tobacco outcomes meta-analysis, and 66 effect sizes from 29 studies were included in the social norms outcomes meta-analysis. Nearly 90% of included studies were conducted in high-income settings, with the remainder conducted in middle-income settings. No studies were conducted in Latin America or on the African continent. Social norms change interventions had a statistically significant effect on reducing tobacco use and pro-tobacco social normative perceptions [g = 0.233, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.166, 0.301, P < 0.001 and g = 0.292, 95% CI = 0.090, 0.494, P = 0.007, respectively]. Interventions were commonly conducted among schoolchildren in classrooms through multicomponent education sessions, often coupled with regular 'booster' sessions over time. Among adult populations, motivational interviewing and other counselling approaches were used in some cases, and few interventions leveraged digital technologies to change social norms.

CONCLUSIONS

Social norms change interventions appear to be effective for reducing tobacco use and pro-tobacco social normative perceptions. In particular, leveraging role models appears to be the most effective social norms change mechanisms for tobacco control.

Reducing Plate Waste in Latvian Schools: Evaluating Interventions to Promote Sustainable Food Consumption Practices

Food waste (FW) threatens food security, environmental sustainability, and economic efficiency, with about one-third of global food production lost or wasted. Schools play a crucial role in addressing FW, representing lost resources and missed educational opportunities. The present research assessed three interventions to reduce plate waste (PW) in Rezekne City schools, namely (S1) a plate waste tracker, (S2) an awareness and educational campaign, and (S3) organizational changes, including larger plates, extended lunch breaks, and teacher supervision. Implemented in three schools with a fourth as a control, PW was measured at three intervals, at pre-intervention, short-term, and long-term post-intervention. The PW data analysis utilized two models (day view and class view) and a Wilcoxon signed-rank test. While the plate waste tracker initially reduced PW, sustained impact required continuous reinforcement. The awareness and educational campaign alone proved insufficient, highlighting the need for complex strategies. The organizational changes unexpectedly increased PW, underscoring FW's complexity. The research has concluded that reducing FW requires tailored and multi-faceted approaches. According to the MOA framework, the school catering model in Rezekne City lacks essential "Opportunities" for effective FW reduction, as students have limited flexibility in portion sizes and food choices, which hinders the interventions' effectiveness. Future research should explore adaptable FW-reducing interventions suited to specific school contexts.

Human PapillomaVirus vaccination in gay and bi men: Predictors, dynamic norms, and connectedness to the LGBT+ community

OBJECTIVES

This study tested social cognitive predictors of vaccination and a dynamic norms intervention for increasing HPV vaccination intentions in gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (gbMSM).

DESIGN

The study employed an experiment embedded in a cross-sectional survey.

METHODS

Participants (N = 217; gbMSM aged 18-45 in Ireland) provided cross-sectional data on sociodemographic constructs and constructs from the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Health Belief Model. Unvaccinated participants (n = 94) were randomised to one of three experimental conditions (no norms, static norms, dynamic norms) and presented with information on HPV vaccine uptake in gbMSM in Ireland before reporting vaccination intentions.

RESULTS

In an adjusted logistic regression, significant predictors of vaccination included being in a relationship (OR = 8.69 [1.09, 38.91]), perceived susceptibility (OR = 1.11 [1.04, 1.19]), healthcare provider recommendation (OR = 107.24 [26.87, 427.99]), and perceived barriers (OR = 0.83 [.7, 0.98]). Adjusted linear regression models showed no significant differences in HPV vaccination intentions between no norms and static norms (B = -1.24 [-4.6, 2.12]), dynamic norms and static norms (B = -0.62 [-3.86, 2.63]), and dynamic norms and no norms (B = 0.62 [-2.74, 3.98]). Connectedness to the LGBT+ community did not moderate these differences.

CONCLUSIONS

The need for greater awareness of susceptibility, the impact of barriers, and the strong influence of a recommendation from a healthcare provider in predicting HPV vaccination among gbMSM are critical considerations for policymakers. Dynamic norm messaging may be less effective for vaccination than other behaviours more easily influenced by social norms. Efforts to implement dynamic norm-based interventions in gbMSM should consider the limited evidence of efficacy.

Shared social identity and social norms shape risk-taking at mass gatherings

Shared social identity and social norms are often un(der)recognized within mass gatherings health literature, yet they can increase infectious disease transmission by motivating people to engage in risk-taking behaviours. Across three experiments (Ntotal = 1551), we investigated how shared social identities, perceived norms of resource-sharing, and perceived riskiness of sharing interact to shape decisions that can lead to disease transmission. In Experiment 1 (N = 528), we examined how shared social identity and perceived descriptive norms affect the likelihood of crowd members sharing resources that may contribute to disease spread. We then replicated this in Experiment 2 (N = 511) using perceived injunctive norms. In Experiment 3 (N = 512), we explored how high shared social identity, perceived norms, and perceived health risks of resource-sharing impact the likelihood of sharing that may, in turn, increase infectious disease transmission at mass gatherings. We found that high shared social identity interacts with perceived descriptive and injunctive norms, and low health risk perceptions, to increase the likelihood of accepting resources and giving resources at mass gatherings. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to build effective strategies to mitigate infectious disease transmission at mass gatherings.

Exploring school environmental psychology in children and adolescents: The influence of environmental and psychosocial factors on sustainable behavior in Indonesia

This study investigates the relationship between environmental and psychosocial factors and students' sustainable behavior in schools. Through a mixed-methods approach, including surveys, interviews, observations, and document analysis, it explores various dimensions such as the physical environment, policy and governance, social and cultural context, economic factors, technological advancements, stakeholder engagement, knowledge and awareness, attitudes and values, perceived behavioral control, social norms and influence, motivation and incentives, and social identity and connectedness. Findings emphasize the crucial role of the school environment in shaping sustainable behavior and advocate for targeted interventions and policies. Implications include the development of sustainable school environments and interventions fostering positive attitudes and behaviors towards sustainability. This research provides practical insights for educators, policymakers, and stakeholders involved in promoting sustainability in schools.

Assessing Theoretical Mediators of Campaign-Induced Communication in the Context of Social Norms Campaign

The present paper examines the role of campaign-induced communication on the effects of a social norms campaign by focusing on cognitive elaboration, perceived injunctive norms, and message recall as mediating variables. Participants (n = 252; m age  = 20.26) read an injunctive norms campaign message about choosing not to drink at parties or when socializing and were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (control: received no prompts, prompt only; received prompts to engage in interpersonal communication about the campaign message with close others during the following week; prompt & plan: received prompts to engage in interpersonal communication with close others during the following week and to write a plan for the communication). The results revealed that the prompt (either alone or with the plan) significantly motivated participants to engage in positive conversations about the campaign message during the next week. Similar to past findings, higher frequency of positive conversations about the campaign message indirectly predicted better behavioral outcomes via higher cognitive elaboration. The findings suggest that social norms campaign developers should be encouraged to design social norms messages with a brief prompt to motivate the target audience to engage in interpersonal communication and need to account for such interpersonal communication and its indirect effects in evaluating campaign messages.

Why should I when no one else does? A review of social norm appeals to promote sustainable minority behavior

Social norm appeals have been proven successful in promoting sustainable behavior that most people engage in. However, research on the effectiveness of social norm appeals in promoting sustainable behavior performed by a numerical minority of people is lacking. This systematic review aimed to examine empirical studies that applied social norm appeals and to elaborate on how social norm appeals could be effectively designed to foster sustainable minority behaviors. Thirty-six articles, including 54 studies, applying social norm interventions to promote sustainable minority behavior were compiled and discussed, with a particular focus on the methodology and operationalization of social norm appeals. The results showed that static descriptive minority social norm appeals might not be effective in promoting sustainable behavior. Nevertheless, there appeared to be differences depending on the strength of the norm and the environmental attitudes of the population. However, using injunctive and dynamic descriptive social norm appeals appear promising approaches because these appeals are less prone to undesirable effects. Nevertheless, it could be problematic if injunctive and descriptive social norm appeals are not aligned, but results are inconclusive. For practitioners, emphasizing social change and highlighting majority approval are simple, low-cost strategies with great potential to induce compliance and encourage sustainable minority behavior without running the risk of backfire effects.

Using the Australian Dietary Guidelines 2&5 education message in supermarket shopping trolleys to nudge shoppers to purchase more fruit and vegetables: A feasibility study using an intervention design

Fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption is associated with a reduced risk of developing chronic diseases; however, only one in 16 Australian adults consume F&Vs at the recommended two servings of fruit and five servings of vegetables per day. What and how much people eat is influenced by their social and physical environments. Supermarkets are a key setting influencing food purchases, and as such, they can shape consumption patterns of F&Vs. Implementing effective strategies to increase F&V intake is crucial. The objective of this research was to test the feasibility of modifying shopper purchasing behaviour to purchase more F&Vs using the Australian Dietary Guidelines 2&5 education message covering one-half of the base of shopping trolleys. Placards giving the message that eating 2 fruits and 5 vegetables every day for good health were placed at the base of shopping trolleys as an educational nudge. Applying an intervention research design, 30 out of ~100 trolleys were fitted with the placards and shopper purchases were measured by collecting paper sales receipts to measure the weight (kg), total spending and F&V-specific spending (Australian dollars) for intervention versus control trolleys for one Saturday. We also conducted a short intercept survey that was administered independently from the research study day on non-trial shoppers. Shoppers who selected trolleys with the 2&5 education nudge placards (n = 101) purchased 1.66 kg less weight of F&Vs (Intervention: mean = 3.89 kg, SD = 3.40 kg, 95% CI = 3.21 kg, 4.56 kg, vs. Control: mean 5.55 kg, SD = 4.16 kg, 95% CI = 4.73 kg, 6.37 kg, p = 0.002) and spent less on F&Vs compared to shoppers in the control group (n = 102; Intervention: mean = $26.00, SD = $21.60, 95% CI = $21.78, $30.32 vs. Control: mean $36.00, SD = $27.00, 95% CI = $30.72, $42.36, p = 0.004). Intervention group shoppers also spent less in total spending between groups (Intervention: mean = $115.40, SD = $68.30, 95% CI = $101.95, $128.95 vs. Control: mean $151.30, SD = $79.40, 95% CI = $135.73, $166.93, p = 0.001). The 2&5 education nudge placard had the opposite effect as intended on shoppers' purchases to buy more F&Vs, although there may have been other differences between the intervention and the control groups since they were not randomised. Larger studies are required to elucidate and confirm these findings over the longer term.

Differential responses to ethical vegetarian appeals: Exploring the role of traits, beliefs, and motives

OBJECTIVE

This research examines differential responses to ethical vegetarian appeals as a fuction of individuals' personalities.

BACKGROUND

Ethical vegetarian appeals are persuasive messages promoting the adoption of a plant-based diet on moral grounds. Individuals may vary in their receptivity to such appeals, depending on their morally relevant traits (e.g., agreeableness), beliefs (e.g., speciesism), and motives (e.g., concerns about animal welfare).

METHODS

We explored (Study 1, N = 907) and then attempted to confirm (Study 2, N = 980) differential responses to three vegetarian appeals-two highlighting moral concerns (animal welfare, the environment) and a third focusing on individual health (control condition).

RESULTS

Both studies revealed several differential effects of our vegetarian appeals on the perceived effectiveness of the appeal and resultant intentions to reduce meat consumption. These mostly consisted of differences in receptivity to appeals focused on animal welfare. However, only one such effect observed in Study 1 was clearly replicated in Study 2: People who more strongly believed that eating meat was "normal" rated the vegetarian appeals focused on animal welfare as less effective.

CONCLUSION

Ethical vegetarian appeals may elicit different responses from different people, particularly those focused on animal welfare, depending on how normative one believes meat-eating to be. Such insights can inform behavior change efforts in this area.

Predictors and differences in fertility level among Nigerian women of reproductive age: a function of subgroup social norms fertility behaviour

Fertility rates in Nigeria are declining at such a modest rate, that if more proactive measures are not employed to reduce fertility, the nation may double its population before long. We empirically examined fertility behaviour as derivatives of specific subgroup social norms, and the variations in the factors responsible for different fertility behaviours, using the 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey. Descriptive bivariate, and multinomial logistic regression analyses were used to predict the contribution of demographic and sociocultural factors contributing to the fertility level, and findings were reported as odds ratios. Results revealed that age, religion and level of education are the most significant predictors of fertility level, with remarkable differences in birth rate across subgroups, whereas North-West Nigeria had the highest fertility level. Furthermore, marriage had a significantly negative effect on high fertility among North-Western women, whereas higher education significantly increased high fertility among North-Eastern women. In conclusion, subgroup social norms fertility behaviour is responsible for the persistent fertility differential outcome in Nigeria. Thus, the paper strongly advocates the need to intensify community-led, norm-based solution and not a universal approach in addressing fertility control in Nigeria.

Using a divider nudge in supermarket shopping trolleys to increase fruit and vegetable purchases: A feasibility study using an intervention design

Fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption is associated with a reduced risk of developing obesity and chronic diseases: however, only one in 16 Australian adults consume F&Vs at the recommended two servings of fruit and five servings of vegetables per day. What and how much people eat is influenced by their social and physical environments. Supermarkets are a key setting influencing food purchases, and as such, they can shape consumption patterns of F&Vs. Implementing effective strategies to increase F&V intake is crucial. The objective of this research was to test the feasibility of covertly modifying shopper purchasing behaviour to purchase more F&Vs using a visual divider nudge message (prompts) covering the entire base of shopping trolleys. Placards provided a visual representation of the recommended proportion of the trolley base that should be allocated to fruits and vegetables (implied social norm). Applying an intervention research design, 30 out of ~100 trolleys were fitted with the placards and shopper purchases were measured by collecting receipts to measure the weight (kg), total spending and F&V specific spending (Australian dollars) for intervention versus control trolleys for one weekend day only. We also conducted a short intercept survey that was administered independently from the research study day on non-trial shoppers. Shoppers who selected trolleys with the divider nudge placards (n = 102) purchased equal weight of F&Vs (Intervention: mean = 6.25 kg, SD = 5.60 kg, 95% CI = 5.14 kg, 7.35 kg, vs. Control: mean 6.03 kg, SD = 5.17 kg, 95% CI = 5.01 kg, 7.04 kg, p = 0.768) and spent equal amounts on F&Vs compared to shoppers in the control group (n = 102) (Intervention: mean = $41.46, SD = $36.68, 95% CI = $34.25, $48.66, vs. Control: mean $39.85, SD = $33.30, 95% CI = $33.34, $46.39, p = 0.744). There was no difference in the total spending between groups (Intervention: mean = $135.99, SD = $90.10, 95% CI = $118.29, $153.68, vs. Control: mean $155.68, SD = $96.46, 95% CI = $136.73, $174.63, p = 0.133). The divider nudge placard did not lead to any difference in shoppers' purchases of F&Vs. However, this study demonstrates the feasibility of testing a cheap, simple and easy supermarket nutrition intervention. Larger studies are required to elucidate and confirm these findings over the longer term.

Mass behaviour change amid COVID-19: How public health information and social norms explain the transformation

COVID-19 is a severe and ongoing threat globally, with the spread disrupting lives and society. Despite the developments of vaccines, the key measure to reduce the transmission of variants has stemmed from mass changes to personal behaviours. COVID-19 pandemic offers a unique context, where the protection behaviours enacted by an individual are necessary to keep the community safe. A social psychological perspective can be used to understand the reasons for adherence to policies and determine what other factors can shape preventive behaviours. To resolve this, in partnership with health consumers we use an online survey, with the findings substantiating preventive behaviours are positively related to COVID-19 information access and descriptive norms. Additionally, findings demonstrate the mediating role of injunctive norms on preventive behaviour suggesting that policy makers can influence decision-making by promoting health information that provides guidance on acceptable behaviours, but also demonstrates subsequent success. The integrity of the model is substantiated by partial least squares (PLS) testing.

Shifting Norms in Faith Communities to Reduce Intimate Partner Violence: Results from a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial in Nigeria

Programs aiming to reduce intimate partner violence (IPV) increasingly seek to shift social norms. Few interventions have been rigorously evaluated for their impact on norms and incidence of IPV, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Shifting norms at the community level and subsequent pathways to behavior change remain poorly understood. We assessed shifts in individual- and couple-level factors, social norms, and IPV from an 18-month community-based trial of the Masculinity, Faith, and Peace (MFP) program-a faith-based, norms-shifting approach-in Plateau state, Nigeria. This study was part of a community-based, mixed-methods, two-arm cluster randomized control trial (cRCT) to evaluate the MFP program. Quantitative surveys were conducted with women 18 to 35 years old (n = 350) and their male partners (n = 281). Respondents came from 10 Muslim and 10 Christian congregations. Social norms were measured based on results from factor analysis. Intent-to-treat analyses assessed intervention effects. Qualitative research in MFP congregations explored pathways of change. All forms of IPV reduced over time among MFP participants. Regression analyses showed a significant 61% reduction in odds of reporting experiencing any IPV among women, a 64% reduction among Christians, and a 44% reduction in MFP congregations compared to their respective controls. In addition to improvement in norms, we found significant intervention effects on individual attitudes toward IPV and gender roles, relationship quality, and community cohesion. Qualitative findings reinforce these pathways, suggesting that critical reflection and dialogue on existing norms and the focus on faith and religious texts were valued by participants and supported IPV reductions. This study demonstrates that a faith-based, norms-shifting intervention can significantly reduce IPV in a short time. There are several pathways through which MFP reduced IPV, including shifts in norms, attitudes, relationship quality, and community cohesion.

Implementing traumatic brain injury screening in behavioral health treatment settings: results of an explanatory sequential mixed-methods investigation

BACKGROUND

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a complex condition common among individuals treated in behavioral healthcare, but TBI screening has not been adopted in these settings which can affect optimal clinical decision-making. Integrating evidence-based practices that address complex health comorbidities into behavioral healthcare settings remains understudied in implementation science, limited by few studies using theory-driven hypotheses to disentangle relationships between proximal and medial indicators on distal implementation outcomes. Grounded in the Theory of Planned Behavior, we examined providers' attitudes, perceived behavioral control (PBC), subjective norms, and intentions to adopt The Ohio State University TBI Identification Method (OSU TBI-ID) in behavioral healthcare settings.

METHODS

We used an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design. In Phase I, 215 providers from 25 organizations in the USA completed training introducing the OSU TBI-ID, followed by a survey assessing attitudes, PBC, norms, and intentions to screen for TBI. After 1 month, providers completed another survey assessing the number of TBI screens conducted. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) with logistic regressions. In Phase II, 20 providers were purposively selected for semi-structured interviews to expand on SEM results. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis, integrated with quantitative results, and combined into joint displays.

RESULTS

Only 25% (55/215) of providers adopted TBI screening, which was driven by motivations to trial the intervention. Providers who reported more favorable attitudes (OR: 0.67, p < .001) and greater subjective norms (OR: 0.12, p < .001) toward TBI screening demonstrated increased odds of intention to screen, which resulted in greater TBI screening adoption (OR: 0.30; p < .01). PBC did not affect intentions or adoption. Providers explained that although TBI screening can improve diagnostic and clinical decision-making, they discussed that additional training, leadership engagement, and state-level mandates are needed to increase the widespread, systematic uptake of TBI screening.

CONCLUSIONS

This study advances implementation science by using theory-driven hypothesis testing to disentangle proximal and medial indicators at the provider level on TBI screening adoption. Our mixed-methods approach added in-depth contextualization and illuminated additional multilevel determinants affecting intervention adoption, which guides a more precise selection of implementation strategies.

Researcher Perceptions of Involving Consumers in Health Research in Australia: A Qualitative Study

There is growing recognition internationally of the importance of involving consumers, patients, and the public in research. This is being driven by political mandates for policies, funding, and governance that demand genuine and meaningful engagement with consumers. There are many potential benefits to involving consumers in research, including an increased relevance to patient needs, improved quality and outcomes, and enhanced public confidence in research. However, the current literature highlights that efforts to incorporate their contributions are often tokenistic and there is a limited understanding of the psychological factors that can impact researcher attitudes, intentions, and behaviours when working with consumers in research. To address this gap, this study conducted 25 semi-structured interviews with health researchers in Australia using the qualitative case study method. The study aim was to explore the underlying influences on researcher behaviour when involving consumers in health research. The results identified several factors that influence researchers' behaviour, including better quality research, emotional connection and the humanisation of research, and a shift in research culture and expectations as major drivers. However, beliefs that consumers would hinder research and must be protected from risks, paternalism, and a lack of researcher skills and resources were identified as major barriers. This article presents a theory of planned behaviour for consumer involvement in the health research model. The model offers a valuable tool for policymakers and practitioners to understand the factors that influence researcher behaviours. It can also serve as a framework for future research in this area.

Who Buys Surplus Meals? An Exploratory Survey in Danish Canteens

Food waste has received increasing attention over the last decade, owing to its economic, environmental, and social impacts. Much of the existing research has investigated consumers' buying behaviour towards sub-optimal and upcycle food, but surplus meal buying behaviours are poorly understood. Thus, this study performed consumer segmentation through a modular food-related lifestyle (MFRL) instrument and determined consumers' buying behaviour towards surplus meals in canteens employing the theory of reasoned action (TRA). A survey was conducted using a validated questionnaire from a convenient sample of 460 Danish canteen users. Four food-related lifestyle consumer segments were identified by employing k-means segmentation: Conservative (28%), Adventurous (15%), Uninvolved (12%), and Eco-moderate (45%). The Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) analysis indicated that attitudes and subjective norms were significantly influencing surplus meal buying intention to further influence buying behaviour. Environmental objective knowledge was significantly influencing environmental concerns to further influence attitudes and behavioural intention. However, environmental objective knowledge had no significant influence on attitude towards surplus meals. Male consumers with higher education, those having higher food responsibility and lower food involvement, and convenience scores had higher surplus food buying behaviour. The results can be used to inform policymakers, marketers, business professionals, and practitioners to promote surplus meals in canteens or similar settings.

Bystanders' Willingness to Perform Basic Life Support and Its Relationship with Facilitative and Obstructive Factors: A Nationwide Survey in Japan

Background

The administration of basic life support (BLS) by bystanders is essential to improve the survival rates of patients who have experienced out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA). Although providing BLS to individuals who experience OHCA greatly improves their chances of survival, the actual implementation rate is low. Therefore, we investigated the association between bystanders' willingness to perform BLS and facilitative/obstructive factors with the objective of identifying educational methods that would improve the likelihood of bystanders performing BLS should they encounter a patient with OHCA.

Methods

The study participants included 502 male and 498 female Japanese residents (total, 1000 participants) with no experience in performing BLS and 42 male and 59 female Japanese residents (total 101 participants) with experience in performing BLS. The participants were aged 15-65 years. Both groups graded the strength of their willingness to perform BLS in the future on a 4-point scale, as well as their level of agreement with factors facilitating or obstructing their willingness to perform BLS. These factors were established based on the theory of helping behavior, which defines psychological states when helping others in social psychology.We then analyzed the associations between willingness to perform BLS in the future and their level of agreement with factors facilitating or obstructing their willingness to perform BLS.

Results

The willingness to perform BLS decreased in accordance with the increase in the level of intervention required for patients who experienced OHCA , and was significantly associated with four facilitating factors: sufficient ability and experience to perform BLS, personal advantage, high personal norms, and psychological closeness to the patient.

Conclusion

Our results suggested that workshops and other educational activities focused on these facilitative factors may be helpful in increasing the rate at which bystanders perform BLS.

How to change consumer behaviours

Changing consumer behaviour has potential benefits for health, the economy and the environment. Change is possible, and behavioural change has been the purpose of much research; nevertheless we can still observe limited success, as in the case of food in public policies or individual diets. One reason is that models driving behavioural change interventions tend to neglect some important contextual factors. The three layers of components that channel behaviour ('installations' in the material, embodied and social realms) are described here and how this channelling can be hacked, modified and leveraged to foster behavioural change. Installations scaffold and control individual and collective behaviour at each step of the behavioural path with their three-layered and partly redundant structure. This redundancy makes the channelling resilient enough to train novices and to guide and repair behaviour. The three layers, physical affordances, embodied competences and social regulation are described in detail. To change eating behaviour, installations must be adapted at all steps of behaviour, from procurement to storage, preparation, meal and disposal. This adaptation can be done through the various layers in an opportunistic way, according to the agency of those who endeavour to change behaviour (e.g. budget, time, political power, etc.) Finally the steps necessary to design behavioural change interventions leveraging installations are listed.

Conflicting Issues of Sustainable Consumption and Food Safety: Risky Consumer Behaviors in Reducing Food Waste and Plastic Packaging

Food-related consumer decisions have an impact on the environment. However, trending patterns of sustainable consumption often pose a challenge for food-safety authorities: these initiatives may unintentionally compromise food safety. The objective of this review is to support public agencies in the integration of sustainability issues into food-safety risk communication schemes. Environmentally conscious but risky behaviors aimed at the reduction of food waste and plastic packaging were chosen for discussion and scrutinized based on expert opinions. Those expert opinions clearly indicated that a significant part of environmentally conscious behaviors, such as removing mold, eating expired perishable food, overstoring leftovers, avoiding single-use plastic packaging even when cross-contamination is a threat, and using reusable bags without cleaning for a long time, often contribute to food-safety risks. Short, easy-to-remember messages were collected for each recognized risky behavior; they concentrated on prevention or providing an alternative that was still environmentally sensible but kept food-safety risks low (such as planning ahead to avoid leftovers, freezing leftovers in time, and sanitizing reusable bags). The identified challenges and solutions might encourage authorities to rethink their risk-communication practices and integrate a sustainability aspect in them.

Facilitating innovation diffusion in social networks using dynamic norms

Dynamic norms have recently emerged as a powerful method to encourage individuals to adopt an innovation by highlighting a growing trend in its uptake. However, there have been no concrete attempts to understand how this individual-level mechanism might shape the collective population behavior. Here, we develop a framework to examine this by encapsulating dynamic norms within a game-theoretic mathematical model for innovation diffusion. Specifically, we extend a network coordination game by incorporating a probabilistic mechanism where an individual adopts the action with growing popularity, instead of the standard best-response update rule; the probability of such an event captures the population's "sensitivity" to dynamic norms. Theoretical analysis reveals that sensitivity to dynamic norms is key to facilitating social diffusion. Small increases in sensitivity reduces the advantage of the innovation over status quo or the number of initial innovators required to unlock diffusion, while a sufficiently large sensitivity alone guarantees diffusion.

How does a social norms-based intervention affect behaviour change? Interim findings from a cluster randomised controlled trial in Odisha, India

BACKGROUND

Behaviour change interventions targeting social norms are burgeoning, but researchers have little guidance on what they look like, and which components affect behaviour change. The Reduction in Anaemia through Normative Innovations (RANI) project designed an intervention to increase iron folic acid (IFA) consumption in Odisha, India.

OBJECTIVE

This paper examines the effect of the intervention at midline to understand which components of the RANI intervention affect uptake.

METHODS

Using a cluster randomised controlled design, we collected baseline data and midline data 6 months later from women of reproductive age in the control and treatment arms (n=3800) in Angul, Odisha, India. Using nested models, we analysed data from three different intervention components, monthly community-based testing for anaemia, participatory group education sessions, and videos, to determine the extent to which exposure to each of these components accounted for the overall intervention effect on haemoglobin and self-reported IFA use.

RESULTS

Overall, residing in a treatment as opposed to control village had little effect on midline haemoglobin, but increased the odds of taking supplements by 17 times. Exposure to each of the intervention components had a dose-response relationship with self-reported IFA use. These components, separately and together, accounted for most of the overall effect of treatment assignment on IFA use.

CONCLUSIONS

All intervention components increased iron supplement use to differing degrees of magnitude. It appears that a social norms-based approach can result in improving IFA uptake, though improvements in haemoglobin counts were not yet discernible.

Exploring the Use of "Nudges" to Improve HIV and Other Sexually Transmitted Infection Testing Among Men Who Have Sex with Men

Behavioral economics and its applied branch "nudging" can improve individual choices in various health care settings. However, there is a paucity of research using nudges to improve regular testing for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). The study examined which reminder system and message type men who have sex with men (MSM) preferred to remind them to undergo regular 3-monthly HIV and STI testing. A cross-sectional survey study was conducted among MSM attending a sexual health clinic in Melbourne, Australia between 13 January and 5 March 2020, exploring the preferred method of reminder and framing of the message. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were used to analyze the data. A total of 309 responses were received. The majority of the participants (90%) preferred short messaging service (SMS) as the reminder method for HIV/STI testing compared to other types (e.g., email or instant messaging). More than a third of the participants (45%) showed a preference for a neutrally framed reminder message (Your next check-up is now due. Please phone for an appointment), while one-third (35%) preferred a personalized message (Hi [first name], you are due for your next check-up. Please phone for an appointment). Younger men were more likely to favor positive framed messages than older men who favored neutrally framed messages (p < .01). SMS was the preferred reminder method for regular HIV/STI testing. Reminder messages that were neutrally framed, personalized or positive framed messages were preferred over negative or social norm messages.

Some Interventions to Shift Meta-Norms Are Effective for Changing Behaviors in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Rapid Systematic Review

Social-norms approaches are increasingly included in behavior-change programming. Recent reviews categorize a large number of norms-shifting programs but do not synthesize evidence about effectiveness. To inform the design of social and behavior-change programs in low- and middle-income countries in response to time-sensitive demands, this rapid systematic review examines the evidence for the effectiveness of interventions that use norms-based approaches to change behavior. Nine indexes and eight websites were electronically searched for both systematic reviews and primary studies. Abstracts and full texts were screened to include: documents published in 2010 and later; documents evaluating the effectiveness of programs that include norms-based approaches; documents measuring behavioral outcomes; and documents employing quantitative analysis of concurrent treatment and comparison groups. Data collected include participant age cohort, program name and duration, scope of norms, intervention activities, category of behavioral outcome, and statement of findings for the main behavioral outcome(s). Primary studies were appraised based on identification strategy. Search and screening yielded 7 systematic reviews and 29 primary studies covering 28 programs. Across the primary studies, the programs are highly heterogeneous, and the findings are mixed, with some strong positive effects and many marginal or null effects on behavior change. Taken together, the evidence shows that meta-norms-based approaches can be part of effective programs but do not assure that programs will change behaviors. Program designers can draw some general conclusions from this review but can also use it to locate specific studies relevant to their evidence needs.

Assessing a norming intervention to promote acceptance of HIV testing and reduce stigma during household tuberculosis contact investigation: protocol for a cluster-randomised trial

INTRODUCTION

HIV status awareness is important for household contacts of patients with tuberculosis (TB). Home HIV testing during TB contact investigation increases HIV status awareness. Social interactions during home visits may influence perceived stigma and uptake of HIV testing. We designed an intervention to normalise and facilitate uptake of home HIV testing with five components: guided selection of first tester; prosocial invitation scripts; opt-out framing; optional sharing of decisions to test; and masking of decisions not to test.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

We will evaluate the intervention effect in a household-randomised controlled trial. The primary aim is to assess whether contacts offered HIV testing using the norming strategy will accept HIV testing more often than those offered testing using standard strategies. Approximately 198 households will be enrolled through three public health facilities in Kampala, Uganda. Households will be randomised to receive the norming or standard strategy and visited by a community health worker (CHW) assigned to that strategy. Eligible contacts ≥15 years will be offered optional, free, home HIV testing. The primary outcome, proportion of contacts accepting HIV testing, will be assessed by CHWs and analysed using an intention-to-treat approach. Secondary outcomes will be changes in perceived HIV stigma, changes in perceived TB stigma, effects of perceived HIV stigma on HIV test uptake, effects of perceived TB stigma on HIV test uptake and proportions of first-invited contacts who accept HIV testing. Results will inform new, scalable strategies for delivering HIV testing.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

This study was approved by the Yale Human Investigation Committee (2000024852), Makerere University School of Public Health Institutional Review Board (661) and Uganda National Council on Science and Technology (HS2567). All participants, including patients and their household contacts, will provide verbal informed consent. Results will be submitted to a peer-reviewed journal and disseminated to national stakeholders, including policy-makers and representatives of affected communities.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05124665.

The psychological and behavioural correlates of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and resistance in Ireland and the UK

Background

The successful control of the COVID-19 pandemic depends largely on the acceptance and uptake of a COVID-19 vaccine among the public. Thus, formative research aiming to understand and determine the causes of weak and/or positive vaccination intentions is vital in order to ensure the success of future and current vaccination programmes through the provision of effective, evidence-based health messaging.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey was completed by a sample of Irish (N = 500) and UK (N = 579) citizens using the online platform ‘Qualtrics’. Participants completed a questionnaire battery comprised of health, attitudes/beliefs, influences, and behavioural intention measures. Demographic information was also assessed.

Results

Results highlighted similar rates of vaccine intention among both samples; where a total of 76.8% Irish respondents, and 73.7% of UK respondents indicated that they intended to be immunized if the government advised them to take the COVID-19 vaccine. Overall, 23.2% of Irish respondents reported being vaccine hesitant or vaccine resistant, while a rate of 26.3% of UK respondents reported vaccine hesitancy or resistance. Univariate analysis highlighted that both gender and age played a significant role in vaccine intention, with women under age 30 reporting higher rate of vaccine hesitancy. Multivariate analysis revealed that significant correlates of vaccine acceptance included peer influence, GP influence, civic responsibility, perceived benefit, and positive vaccination attitudes. Those who reported vaccine resistance and hesitancy were more likely to have less positive vaccination attitudes and perceive higher vaccination risk.

Discussion

The current sociodemographic and psychological profiles of vaccine resistant and hesitant individuals provide a useful resource for informing health practitioners in the UK and Ireland with the means of enhancing pro-vaccine attitudes and promoting vaccination uptake. The current research shows indications of associations between distrust in the vaccine itself and vaccine hesitancy and resistance. Thus, to effectively design and deliver public health messages that ensures the success of vaccination uptake, it is likely that governments and public health officials will need to take actions to garner trust in the safety of the vaccine itself. Additionally, campaigns to decrease hesitancy and resistance in the COVID-19 vaccine may benefit in targeting altruism to increase willingness to get vaccinated against COVID-19.

The Effectiveness of Interventions for Increasing COVID-19 Vaccine Uptake: A Systematic Review

Vaccination is vital to protect the public against COVID-19. The aim of this systematic review is to identify and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions to increase COVID-19 vaccine uptake. We searched a range of databases (Embase, Medline, Psychology & Behavioral Science, PsycInfo, Web of Science and NIH Preprints Portfolio) from March 2020 to July 2021 for studies which reported primary quantitative or qualitative research on interventions to increase COVID-19 vaccine uptake. Outcome measures included vaccination uptake and reported intention to vaccinate. Reviews, position papers, conference abstracts, protocol papers and papers not in English were excluded. The NHLBI quality assessment was used to assess risk of bias. In total, 39 studies across 33 papers met the inclusion criteria. A total of 28 were assessed as good quality. They included interventions relating to communication content, communication delivery, communication presentation, policy or vaccination delivery, with 7 measuring vaccination uptake and 32 measuring vaccination intention. A narrative synthesis was conducted, which highlighted that there is reasonable evidence from studies investigating real behaviour suggesting that personalising communications and sending booking reminders via text message increases vaccine uptake. Findings on vaccination intention are mixed but suggest that communicating uncertainty about the vaccine does not decrease intention, whereas making vaccination mandatory could have a negative impact. Although much of the research used experimental designs, very few measured real behavioural outcomes. Understanding which interventions are most effective amongst vaccine-hesitant populations and in the context of booster vaccinations will be important as vaccine roll outs continue across the world.

The COVID-19 lockdowns brought to light the challenges that women face in Mediterranean universities

COVID-19 has caused considerable upheaval, necessitating a rethinking of higher education. Distance education has emerged as a major parallel issue that is changing the educational landscape. The lockdowns brought to light the challenges that women confront in academia. This study examines the impact of distance education on women's research activity at Mediterranean institutions, focusing on the additional constraints women faced as a result of e-learning. During the first lockdown (March to May 2020) there was a growing volume of media coverage, but fewer articles investigated how the pandemic's lockdown had affected women and men which increased fast in 2021. According to the findings, while the Mediterranean countries utilized different approaches to combat the epidemic, the impacts are surprisingly similar and must be recognized to avoid long-term consequences for women in higher education, science, and research. Lockdowns put added family responsibilities on female researchers, who were faced with more childcare and homework, resulting in less time to be part of a cohort creating new knowledge. Traditional cultural gender preconceptions were also uncovered, indicating the need for structural changes and repositioning. To meet UN SDG 4: "Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education," we must emerge from this pandemic more equal and robust to establish viable and inclusive universities that should implement policies and interventions to capitalize on female contributions to science, research, and innovation.

What Influences the Sustainable Food Consumption Behaviours of University Students? A Systematic Review

Objectives: Global environmental challenges demand sustainable behaviours and policies to protect human and planetary health. We aimed to summarize the evidence about the factors related to Sustainable Food Consumption (SFC) behaviours of university students, and to propose an operational categorization of SFC behaviours.

Methods: Seven databases were searched for observational studies evaluating Sustainable Food Consumption (SFC) among university students and that reported at least one behavioural outcome measure. Qualitative synthesis was conducted, and PRISMA guidelines for reporting were followed.

Results: Out of 4,479 unique references identified, 40 studies were selected. All studies examined personal factors, while 11 out of 40 also measured social or situational factors. Except for food waste, females had higher levels of SFC behaviours, but situational factors moderated this association. Knowledge and attitudes showed mixed results. Overall, sustainable food consumers reported healthier lifestyles.

Conclusions: Healthy lifestyle of sustainable food consumers suggests possible synergies between human health and sustainability in terms of motivations for food choice. Moderation effects of social and situational factors on personal factors reveal opportunities to design and examine the effects of choice architecture interventions.

Efficacy of a smartphone application-based intervention for encouraging children's healthy eating in Denmark

The growing rates of childhood obesity constitute a public health challenge worldwide. Therefore it is important to identify effective and widely applicable interventions to prevent it. This study aims to explore children's experience of using a newly developed smartphone application (app) designed to promote healthy eating and evaluate its efficacy on encouraging healthy eating. First, two focus groups were conducted to explore children's experience of using the app. Then, a quasi-experimental design was used to evaluate the app's efficacy. The children were asked to use the app for three months. Afterwards, the effect of the intervention was evaluated. 118 children aged 9 to 13 years (M=10.9, Sd=1.1) participated in the study. The children's experience of using the app was relatively positive, and they found the app easy to use. A significant increase in fruit (η2=.10) and vegetable preferences (η2=.37) and fruit intake (η2=.06) was found in the experimental group. No effects were found for vegetable intake, selfefficacy for healthy eating, or peer norms for healthy and unhealthy eating (p>0.05). The smartphone app-based intervention could potentially serve as an attractive and low-cost intervention to reach a wide population of children for the promotion of healthy eating and prevention of childhood obesity.

Can sustainable health behaviour contribute to ensure healthy lives and wellbeing for all at all ages (SDG 3)? A viewpoint

Sustainable health behaviours and, specifically, eating a sustainable diet and engaging in regular physical activity are healthpromoting behaviours that can simultaneously contribute to reduction of greenhouse gases which are known to contribute to climate change. Good health usually facilitates societal development, and development often promotes improved health. However, while good health may be a prerequisite for societal development, some behavioural determinants of health, such as attitudes towards the environment, and people’s lifestyles and consumption patterns, can impede the sustainability of the development process in the longer term. This perspective paper argues that there is a need to rethink 21^st century health promotion practices by pairing sustainability literacy with health promotion for changing dietary and physical activity behaviour patterns to improve population health and contribute to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 3 (to ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages).

Water Quality Pollution Control and Watershed Management Based on Community Participation in Maros City, South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Increases in the number of urban residents have significant impacts on spatial pressure, affecting the utilization of river basins. The purpose of this study is to analyze (1) the increase in population and changes in spatial use as determinants of the complexity of the watershed ecosystem; (2) the effect of housing development, urban activity systems, and land use changes on the degradation of the environmental quality of the watershed; and (3) the direct and indirect effects of changes in spatial use, land reclamation, and community behavior on water pollution and the sustainability of watershed management in Maros City. The research method used is a sequential explanatory design combining quantitative and qualitative research methods. Data were obtained through observation, in-depth interviews, surveys, and documentation. The study findings show that land use change, complexity of spatial use, and community behavior have a negative impact on the environmental quality of the watershed. Housing development, urban activity systems, and changes in land use had a significant effect on environmental quality degradation, with a coefficient of determination of 73.9%. Furthermore, the influence of spatial use, land reclamation, and community behavior on water pollution in the watershed was 72.82%. This study may serve to assist the decision-making of and policy formation by the Maros Regency Government in the framework of controlling the use of watersheds, working towards their social, economic, and environmental sustainability.

Intersectionality of cultural norms and sexual behaviours: a qualitative study of young Black male students at a university in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Background

Sexual risk behaviours that occur among young men are based on dominant notions and practices that prevail in cultural contexts. As such, understanding the intersection of cultural norms and sexual risk behaviours among young men is very important.

Methods

The study used a qualitative design and conducted four focus group discussions with 36 male students who were purposively selected from different levels of study at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Data were analysed through line-by-line coding, and grouped into emerging themes and sub-themes facilitated by the use of Atlas.ti.

Result

The findings emphasize that socialisation agents such as the family, peers and community play an important role in prescribing acceptable and unacceptable sexual behaviour of young men. Some of the young men seemed to adhere to prescribed gender norms of what it means to be a man while some rejected them for alternative versions of being a man. In the context of the university environment, these findings reveal that male students cannot make informed decisions regarding condom use when they are intoxicated, and thus expose themselves to sexually transmitted infections and other risks.

Conclusion

University sexual risk reduction programs should be developed considering the specific cultural context, using strategies that empower young men to challenge the widely accepted cultural norms that may predispose them to sexual risks.

Plain English summary

Sexual behaviours and cultural norms are interconnected, it is through culture that people learn how to behave and understand the world around them. In many cultural contexts, young men are taught from a very young age how to behave based on dominant notions of what it means to be a man in that particular context. As such, in some cultural context sexual risk-taking such as having multiple sexual partners and unprotected sex are perceived as normal behaviour for men. Some young men embrace such normalised sexual behaviours which often has negative implications on their future. This study explored the influence of cultural norms on the sexual behaviour of young men. This qualitative study was conducted at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Four focus group discussions were conducted among first-year students to postgraduate students who were between the ages of 18 to 30 years. Our findings revealed that there other influences on the sexual behaviours of the young men, which included family, community and peers. It also emerged that gender norms regarding what it means to be a man still prevailed which some of the young men in the study adhered to, notably such notions seemed to be rejected by some of them. The university setting appeared to be space where a lot of sexual risk-taking took place, which potentially exposed the young men in the study to many sexual risks. In conclusion, targeted programs for the university setting should aim to challenge gender norms that expose young men to sexual risks.

Changes in Family-Level Attitudes and Norms and Association with Secondary School Completion and Child Marriage Among Adolescent Girls: Results from an Exploratory Study Nested Within a Cluster-Randomised Controlled Trial in India

We evaluated the impact of Samata, a 3-year multilayered intervention among scheduled caste/scheduled tribe (SC/ST) adolescent girls in rural northern Karnataka, on family-level (parents or guardian) attitudes and direct and indirect norms related to child marriage and girl's education. Endline data from 1840 family members were used to assess the effect of Samata on attitudes and norms related to schooling and child marriage, while data from 4097 family members (including 2257 family members at baseline) were used to understand the shifts in attitudes and norms over the period 2014-2017. Overall, we found that the programme had little impact on family-level attitudes and norms. However, there were shifts in some attitudes, norms and perceived sanctions between baseline (when girls were aged 13-14 years) and endline (when girls were aged 15-16 years), with some becoming more progressive (e.g. direct norms related to child marriage) and others more restrictive (e.g. norms around girls completing secondary education and norms related to child marriage and educational drop-out, blaming girls for eve teasing and limiting girls' mobility so as to protect family honour). Moreover, non-progressive norms related to marriage and education were strongly associated with child marriage and secondary school non-completion among adolescent girls in this rural setting. Norms hypothesised to be important for marriage and schooling outcomes were indeed associated with these outcomes, but the intervention was not able to significantly shift these norms. In part, this may have been due to the intervention focusing much of its initial efforts on working with girls alone rather than family members, the relevant reference group. Future interventions that seek to affect norms should conduct formative research to clarify the specific norms affecting the outcome(s) of interest; likewise, programme planners should ensure that all activities engage those most influential in enforcing the norm(s) from the beginning. ClinicalTrials.gov registration number: NCT01996241.

Enabling Medicine Reuse Using a Digital Time Temperature Humidity Sensor in an Internet of Pharmaceutical Things Concept

Medicinal waste due to improper handling of unwanted medicines creates health and environmental risks. However, the re-dispensing of unused prescribed medicines from patients seems to be accepted by stakeholders when quality and safety requirements are met. Reusing dispensed medicines may help reduce waste, but a comprehensive validation method is not generally available. The design of a novel digital time temperature and humidity indicator based on an Internet of Pharmaceutical Things concept is proposed to facilitate the validation, and a prototype is presented using smart sensors with cloud connectivity acting as the key technology for verifying and enabling the reuse of returned medicines. Deficiency of existing technologies is evaluated based on the results of this development, and recommendations for future research are suggested.

Framing Descriptive Norms as Self-Benefit Versus Environmental Benefit: Self-Construal’s Moderating Impact in Promoting Smart Energy Devices

Recently, awareness has been raised concerning the importance of sustainable energy use. Nevertheless, many obstacles must be overcome to change individuals’ energy consumption habits. This study examines how a message should be framed to convince individuals to purchase a smart energy device that provides feedback on household energy use. As such, this device can assist households in adjusting their energy-wasting habits. Through two experimental studies, this paper examines how a descriptive normative message, indicating that the majority of US households have already purchased a smart energy device, can increase individuals’ intention to purchase the device. Both studies consider the moderating influence of the self-construal, which refers to individuals’ consideration of themselves as either part of a group (interdependent self-construal) or independent from others (independent self-construal). The first study (n = 231) reveals that a descriptive norm (versus no norm) leads to a higher purchase intention through an enhanced normative influence regardless of participants’ self-construal. The second study (n = 128) adds to the finding that combining a descriptive norm with a self-benefit (versus environmental) frame more strongly impacts the purchase intent of individuals with a dominant independence. No significant differences are identified between the two benefit frames’ effectiveness among individuals with a dominant interdependence.