Mycotoxins’ Toxicological Mechanisms Involving Humans, Livestock and Their Associated Health Concerns: A Review

A comb-shaped microfluidic aptasensor for rapid and sensitive on-site simultaneous detection of aflatoxin B1 and deoxynivalenol

Mycotoxins are widely found as co-contaminants in agricultural products and their derivatives. However, on-site monitoring of multiple mycotoxins remains a significant challenge. We developed an electrochemical aptasensor integrating microelectrodes and microfluidics for simultaneous aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and deoxynivalenol (DON) detection. Its sensing interface had dual working electrodes modified with two specific aptamers, sharing a counter and a reference electrode. The microfluidic chip's comb-shaped structure enhanced aptamer-target binding. Using a buffer with redox probes for electrochemical detection, we achieve label-free quantitative detection of both toxins within 20 min. The sensor had detection limits of 7.74 pg/mL for AFB1 and 0.172 ng/mL for DON, with linear detection ranges of 0.03-300 ng/mL and 0.3-3000 ng/mL respectively. It exhibited excellent specificity, repeatability and stability. In summary, this electrochemical aptasensor enables rapid and sensitive on-site detection of AFB1 and DON, safeguarding food safety during grain storage for early monitoring and prevention.

Structural Similarity, Activity, and Toxicity of Mycotoxins: Combining Insights from Unsupervised and Supervised Machine Learning Algorithms

A large number of mycotoxins and related fungal metabolites have not been assessed in terms of their toxicological impacts. Current methodologies often prioritize specific target families, neglecting the complexity and presence of co-occurring compounds. This work addresses a fundamental question: Can we assess molecular similarity and predict the toxicity of mycotoxins in silico using a defined set of molecular descriptors? We propose a rapid nontarget screening approach for multiple classes of mycotoxins, integrating both unsupervised and supervised machine learning models, alongside molecular and physicochemical descriptors to enhance the understanding of structural similarity, activity, and toxicity. Clustering analyses identify natural clusters corresponding to the known mycotoxin families, indicating that mycotoxins belonging to the same cluster share similar molecular properties. However, topological descriptors play a significant role in distinguishing between acutely toxic and nonacutely toxic compounds. Random forest (RF) and neural networks (NN), combined with molecular descriptors, contribute to improved knowledge and predictive capability regarding mycotoxin toxicity profiles. RF allows the prediction of toxicity using data reflecting mainly structural features and performs well in the presence of descriptors reflecting biological activity. NN models prove to be more sensitive to biological activity descriptors than RF. The use of descriptors encompassing structural complexity and diversity, chirality and symmetry, connectivity, atomic charge, and polarizability, together with descriptors representing lipophilicity, absorption, and permeation of molecules, is crucial for predicting toxicity, facilitating broader toxicological evaluations.

Unraveling the occupational exposure to mycotoxins in a waste management setting: results from a case study in Norway

Introduction

Waste management represents an occupational setting where fungi are significant contaminants. This study aimed to assess the exposure of waste workers to mycotoxins through a human biomonitoring study.

Methods

A total of 33 workers and 19 controls provided spot urine samples to determine 10 mycotoxins' urinary biomarkers using liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Risk characterization was performed using hazard quotient and margin of exposure assessments.

Results

The results indicated that workers were exposed to six out of the 10 mycotoxins tested, with the following detection rates: deoxynivalenol (91%, 30/33), ochratoxin A (33%, 11/33), zearalenone (17%, 5/33), α-zearalenol (12%, 4/33), β-zearalenol (12%, 4/33), and HT-2 toxin (3%, 1/33). Within controls and outwith controls, were exposed to 5/10 and 2/10 mycotoxins, respectively. All participants exhibited hazard quotients for deoxynivalenol and zearalenone below one, indicating that the exposure is unlikely to pose a health risk. However, when considering the margin of exposure determined for ochratoxin A, 18% of the total participants presented results below 200 for non-neoplastic effects, and 100% of the total participants presented values below 10,000 for neoplastic effects, suggesting potential health concerns that require further assessment.

Discussion

This study highlights the need for future research on occupational exposure to mycotoxins in waste management settings.

Pleurotus spp.-an effective way in degradation mycotoxins? A comprehensive review

Mycotoxins-secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungal species-occur as a global problem in agriculture due to the reduction in crop quality and the negative effects on human and animal health. There is a need to develop environment-friendly methods of detoxification. In recent years, a number of biological methods for the removal/degradation of mycotoxins have been described. One of them-particularly interesting due to its high effectiveness-is mycoremediation, which involves the ability of Pleurotus spp. mushrooms to remove toxic contaminants from the environment and food. Pleurotus spp. biosynthesizes ligninolytic enzymes, such as laccase and manganese peroxidase that are the main factors of enzymatic degradation of various pollutants, including mycotoxins. The degradation process of mycotoxins (especially aflatoxins) with the participation of isolated enzymes reaches approximately 30-100%, depending on the culture conditions, substrate, and mediators used. In the food industry, their application may include, among others, the detoxification of animal feed from mycotoxins or fermentation products (e.g., juices and wines). While these applications are promising, they require further research to expand toxicological knowledge and optimize their use. This review presents current research on this new and very promising topic related to the use of edible Pleurotus spp. mushrooms in the process of biological degradation of toxic fungal metabolites.

Mycotoxin exposure through the consumption of processed cereal food for children (< 5 years old) from rural households of Oshana, a region of Namibia

Mycotoxin exposure from contaminated food is a significant global health issue, particularly among vulnerable children. Given limited data on mycotoxin exposure among Namibian children, this study investigated mycotoxin types and levels in foods, evaluated dietary mycotoxin exposure from processed cereal foods in children under age five from rural households in Oshana region, Namibia. Mycotoxins in cereal-based food samples (n = 162) (mahangu flour (n = 35), sorghum flour (n = 13), mahangu thin/thick porridge (n = 54), oshikundu (n = 56), and omungome (n = 4)) were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1, 35.8%), zearalenone (27.2%), fumonisin B1 (FB1, 24.1%), citrinin (CIT, 12.4%) and deoxynivalenol (10.5%) were the major mycotoxins quantified. Food samples (35.8% (n = 58) and 6.2% (n = 10)) exceeded the 0.1 µg/kg AFB1 and 200 µg/kg FB1 EU limit for children's food, respectively. Several emerging mycotoxins including the neurotoxic 3-nitropropionic acid, moniliformin (MON), and tenuazonic acid were quantified in over 50% of all samples. Co-occurrence of AFB1, CIT, and FB1 detected in 4.9% (n = 8) samples, which could heighten food safety concerns. Regarding exposure assessment and risk characterization, average probable dietary intake for AFB1 from all ready-to-eat-foods was 0.036 µg/kg bw/day, which resulted in margin of exposures (MOE) of 11 and 0.65 risk cancer cases/year/100,000 people, indicating a risk of chronic aflatoxicosis. High tolerable daily intake values for FB1, and MOE for beauvericin and MON exceeded reference values. Consumption of a diversified diet and interventions including timely planting and harvesting, best grain storage, and other standard postharvest food handling practices are needed to mitigate mycotoxin exposure through contaminated cereal foods and to safeguard the health of the rural children in Namibia.

Alterations in the proteomes of HepG2 and IHKE cells inflicted by six selected mycotoxins

Toxic fungal secondary metabolites, referred to as mycotoxins, emerge in moldy food and feed and constitute a potent but often underestimated health threat for humans and animals. They are structurally diverse and can cause diseases after dietary intake even in low concentrations. To elucidate cellular responses and identify cellular targets of mycotoxins, a bottom-up proteomics approach was used. We investigated the effects of the mycotoxins aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, citrinin, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol and penitrem A on the human hepatoblastoma cell line HepG2 and of ochratoxin A and citrinin on the human kidney epithelial cell line IHKE. Incubations were carried out at sub-cytotoxic concentrations to monitor molecular effects before acute cell death mechanisms predominate. Through these experiments, we were able to detect specific cellular responses that point towards the mycotoxins' mode of action. Besides very well-described mechanisms like the ribotoxicity of the trichothecenes, we observed not yet described effects on different cellular mechanisms. For instance, trichothecenes lowered the apolipoprotein abundance and aflatoxin B1 affected proteins related to inflammation, ribogenesis and mitosis. Ochratoxin A and citrinin upregulated the minichromosomal maintenance complex and nucleotide synthesis in HepG2 and downregulated histones in IHKE. Penitrem A reduced enzyme levels of the sterol biosynthesis. These results will aid in the elucidation of the toxicodynamic properties of this highly relevant class of toxins.

The relationship between aflatoxin M1 and immunoglobulin levels in cows' colostrum

The purpose of the present research was to assess the amounts of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and immunoglobulin (IgA, IgG, and IgM) in cow colostrum samples, as well as their relationship. The sampling involved 90 cows (54 Montofon and 36 Simmental) from 15 independent farms. An appropriate number of samples from the total mixed ration (TMR) used in feeding the cows were collected simultaneously with the colostrum samples. AFB1 in feed, AFM1, and immunoglobulin (IgA, IgG, and IgM) levels in colostrum were evaluated using the ELISA method. The AFM1 level in colostrum samples exceeded the maximum allowed values for raw milk. Ig levels were higher in Montofon-breed cows' colostrum than in Simmentals. However, it was determined that neither the breed nor the lactation number significantly affected the colostrum Ig level. It was determined that there was no linear relationship between the number of lactations and immunoglobulin levels or between AFM1 and immunoglobulin levels in colostrum. Similarly, it was determined that there was no linear relationship between the AFB1 level in the feed and the AFM1 level in the colostrum of animals consuming these feeds.

Environmental mycotoxins: A potential etiological factor for neurodegenerative diseases?

Mycotoxins are potential environmental risk factors for neurodegenerative diseases. These toxins penetrate the central nervous system via a compromised blood-brain barrier, which may cause oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, these can also contribute to amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaque accumulation, Tau protein hyperphosphorylation, and neurofibrillary tangle formation. Mycotoxins also activate microglia, cause neuronal apoptosis, and disrupt central nervous system function. This study examines the evidence linking mycotoxin exposure to neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. We explore mechanisms such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, blood-brain barrier disruption, neuroinflammation, and direct neurotoxic effects. Epidemiological studies show regional variations in mycotoxin prevalence and corresponding neurodegenerative disease incidences, supporting this association. We also review current approaches to mitigate mycotoxin exposure and discuss the challenges and opportunities in developing strategies to prevent or slow neurodegenerative disease progression. This work highlights the need for increased awareness and research on mycotoxins as modifiable risk factors in neurological health.

Machine learning driven metal oxide-based portable sensor array for on-site detection and discrimination of mycotoxins in corn sample

Cereals, grains, and feedstuffs are prone to contamination by fungi during various stages from growth to storage. These fungi may produce harmful mycotoxins impacting food quality and safety. Thus, the development of quick and reliable methods for on-site application is crucial for ensuring food safety and quality monitoring. Herein, we have developed an efficient sensor array based on hierarchically modified metal oxides with azodye-based metal complexes for on-site detection and segregation of harmful mycotoxins present in corn samples. The functionalized material has been fully characterized utilizing various sophisticated techniques. The sensor array successfully detected and differentiated five different mycotoxins with 100 % efficiency, validated by linear discriminant analysis (LDA) score plots. The limit of detection, as determined from calibration curves, ranges from 0.02 to 0.09 ppm for the respective mycotoxins. Additionally, the sensor array has also demonstrated 100 % accuracy in discriminating binary and ternary ratios of mycotoxins in real sample analyses.

Enzymatic Degradation of Ochratoxin A: The Role of Ultra-Pure Water

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic mycotoxin, making its removal from food essential for public health. This study examines OTA degradation by porcine pancreatic lipase (PPL) in ultra-pure water versus buffer systems through in vitro assays and molecular modeling. The results show that PPL fully degrades OTA in ultra-pure water within 7 h at 44 °C, whereas only partial degradation occurs in phosphate buffer. After 4 h, PPL in water degrades 91% of OTA, compared to only 12% in buffer. The enzyme's half-life is longer in water (~4 h 4 min) than in phosphate buffer (~2 h 30 min), suggesting better stability in water. Other buffers, including acetate, citrate, and borate, confirmed higher degradation efficiency in low-conductivity, acidic environments similar to ultra-pure water. Additionally, using the model compound p-nitrophenyl octanoate (p-NPO), it was found that p-NPO degrades faster in buffer, likely due to a salting-out effect. Molecular modeling and circular dichroism analysis indicate that PPL's secondary structure in water promotes an ideal conformation for OTA binding. This study suggests ultra-pure water as a greener, sustainable option for reducing mycotoxins in food, with broad industrial applications.

Contamination Status and Health Risk Assessment of 73 Mycotoxins in Four Edible and Medicinal Plants Using an Optimized QuEChERS Pretreatment Coupled with LC-MS/MS

The current status of multi-mycotoxin contamination in edible and medicinal plants demands urgent development of high-throughput analytical methods for mycotoxin detection. In this study, a reliable and sensitive method for the simultaneous analysis of 73 mycotoxins was established and successfully applied to detect mycotoxins in 260 samples of four dual-purpose plants (lotus seed, coix seed, licorice root, and dried tangerine peel). Sample preparation involved optimized QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe) extraction combined with liquid-liquid extraction purification, and an enhanced ion pair library was established to reduce matrix interference and improve the method's universality. Method validation demonstrated recovery rates ranging from 61.6% to 118.6% for all compounds, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) below 15%. The limits of detection (LODs) and quantification (LOQs) ranged from 0.25-12.25 μg/kg and 0.5-25 μg/kg, respectively. Based on the contamination analysis and health risk assessment using Margin of Exposure (MOE) and Hazard Index (HI) methods, we found that multi-mycotoxin contamination is highly prevalent in edible and medicinal plants, with different components being susceptible to invasion by distinct fungal genera. Seed-type plants showed high susceptibility to Aspergillus (53.3%) and Fusarium (22.2%) contamination, with MOE values below 10,000 for aflatoxins indicating potential health risks. Physical state and good storage conditions significantly influenced contamination levels, with fragmented samples showing substantially higher mycotoxin levels. Additionally, mycotoxins with associated biosynthetic metabolic pathways were frequently detected simultaneously in highly contaminated samples. Based on these findings, we recommend implementing strict moisture control during storage, maintaining intact product form where possible, and establishing comprehensive supplier qualification systems. This study provides valuable reference for monitoring mycotoxin contamination in similar plants.

Development of a mesoporous polypyrrole nanofiber mat for simultaneous detection of multiple mycotoxins in various foods

Due to health hazards and co-contamination of mycotoxins, efficient separation and detection of multiple mycotoxins in food is highly desirable yet challenging. In this study, we prepared a novel mesoporous polypyrrole nanofiber mat (M-PPy NFM) for extracting multiple mycotoxins from food. The mesoporous effects and multifunctional PPy contribute to higher recovery and purification efficiency of M-PPy NFM for mycotoxins by facilitating hydrogen bonding and π-π interaction. Under optimized conditions, a simple, eco-friendly solid phase extraction (SPE) method coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was developed for mycotoxin detection. This innovative method demonstrates good linearity (0.9991-0.9999), low detection limits (0.03-0.33 μg kg-1), satisfactory recoveries (92.0 %-108.0 %) and precision (0.3 %-11.7 %). Notably, it significantly reduces organic solvent consumption to 3.1 mL while minimizing adsorbent usage to 5.0 mg. Moreover, M-PPy NFM could be reused ten times. This study confirms the huge potential of M-PPy NFM for efficient applications in mycotoxin extraction and determination.

Pioneering Role of Nanopore Single-Molecule Sensing in Environmental and Food Surveillance

In recent years, environmental and food safety have garnered substantial focus due to their intimate connection with human health. Numerous biosensors have been developed for identifying deleterious compounds; however, these biosensors reveal certain limitations. Nanopore sensors, featuring nano-scaled pore size, have demonstrated outstanding performance in terms of rapidity, sensitivity, and selectivity as a single-molecule technique for environmental and food surveillance. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of nanopore applications in these two fields. To elucidate the pioneering roles of nanopores, analytes are categorized into three distinct groups, including metal ions, synthetic contaminants, and biotoxins. Moreover, a variety of strategies are involved, such as the coalescence with ligand probes, the implementation of chemical reactions, the functionalization of nanopores, etc. These scientific studies showcase the versatility and diversity of the nanopore technique, paving the way for further developments of nanopore technology in environmental and food safety.

Health risk assessment and determination of bisphenol A and aflatoxin M1 in infant formula

BACKGROUND

Bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the chemical compounds used in food packaging, so it can migrate from the packaging into food. Also, environmental pollution of this compound is high due to its high use. Therefore, it may enter food chains through the environment. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is one of the common mycotoxins in milk. Its presence has been reported worldwide. Infant formula is an alternative to human milk. The main ingredient of this product is cow's milk.

AIMS

This study aimed to investigate the levels and risk assessment of BPA and aflatoxin M1 in infant formula.

METHODS

Samples were purchased from 7 leading brands of infant formula in pharmacies. The samples were extracted according to common protocols and then injected into HPLC and analyzed with a fluorescence detector for both contaminants.

RESULTS

BPA wasn't detected in infant formula samples, but the presence of AFM1was confirmed in 11% of the samples. Of course, there is no risk in this regard with the risk assessment.

CONCLUSION

Infant formula samples are not of concern for infants in terms of BPA and aflatoxin M1. However, continuous monitoring is recommended for this product.

Complex immunotoxic effects of T-2 Toxin on the murine spleen and thymus: Oxidative damage, inflammasomes, apoptosis, and immunosuppression

T-2 toxin (T-2), a highly stable and toxic mycotoxin, poses a significant public health risk as an inevitable environmental pollutant. However, the mechanisms behind its immunotoxic and immunosuppressive effects are not fully understood. For this study, sixty healthy 4-week-old male C57BL/6 N mice were divided randomly into four groups and treated for 28 days with T-2 concentrations of 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mg/kg. Our findings revealed significant damage to the thymus and spleen that was proportional to the dose administered, as evidenced by changes in organ indices and histopathological abnormalities. We observed mitochondrial swelling, chromatin condensation, and nuclear structure disruptions in these organs. Even at low doses (0.5 mg/kg), T-2 administration resulted in significant immunosuppression, as evidenced by disturbed blood parameters and altered CD4 + /CD8 + ratios. Elevated ROS and MDA levels indicate oxidative damage, whereas SOD, T-AOC, CAT, and GSH levels are reduced in both the thymus and spleen. Furthermore, the levels of NLRP3, ASC, caspase-1, and IL-1β proteins were significantly elevated, indicating the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. Additionally, activation of the apoptosis pathway was demonstrated by an increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and heightened activation of caspase-3 and -9. Transcriptomic analysis elucidated the pivotal role of mitochondrial pathways in T-2-induced immunotoxicity. This study elucidates the significant immunotoxic effects of T-2 on the murine spleen and thymus, detailing the underlying mechanisms of T-2-induced immunosuppression. The key mechanisms identified include oxidative stress, activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, apoptosis, and mitochondrial dysfunction. These findings reveal critical pathways through which T-2 impairs immune system functionality and provide a basis for developing targeted therapeutic strategies to mitigate its immunotoxic effects.

A Review of the Mycotoxin Family of Fumonisins, Their Biosynthesis, Metabolism, Methods of Detection and Effects on Humans and Animals

Fumonisins, a class of mycotoxins predominantly produced by Fusarium species, represent a major threat to food safety and public health due to their widespread occurrence in staple crops including peanuts, wine, rice, sorghum, and mainly in maize and maize-based food and feed products. Although fumonisins occur in different groups, the fumonisin B series, particularly fumonisin B1 (FB1) and fumonisin B2 (FB2), are the most prevalent and toxic in this group of mycotoxins and are of public health significance due to the many debilitating human and animal diseases and mycotoxicosis they cause and their classification as by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a class 2B carcinogen (probable human carcinogen). This has made them one of the most regulated mycotoxins, with stringent regulatory limits on their levels in food and feeds destined for human and animal consumption, especially maize and maize-based products. Numerous countries have regulations on levels of fumonisins in foods and feeds that are intended to protect human and animal health. However, there are still gaps in knowledge, especially with regards to the molecular mechanisms underlying fumonisin-induced toxicity and their full impact on human health. Detection of fumonisins has been advanced through various methods, with immunological approaches such as Enzyme-Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay (ELISA) and lateral flow immunoassays being widely used for their simplicity and adaptability. However, these methods face challenges such as cross-reactivity and matrix interference, necessitating the need for continued development of more sensitive and specific detection techniques. Chromatographic methods, including HPLC-FLD, are also employed in fumonisin analysis but require meticulous sample preparation and derivitization due to the low UV absorbance of fumonisins. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the fumonisin family, focusing on their biosynthesis, occurrence, toxicological effects, and levels of contamination found in foods and the factors affecting their presence. It also critically evaluates the current methods for fumonisin detection and quantification, including chromatographic techniques and immunological approaches such as ELISA and lateral flow immunoassays, highlighting the challenges associated with fumonisin detection in complex food matrices and emphasizing the need for more sensitive, rapid, and cost-effective detection methods.

A disposable microfluidic aptasensor for one-step and real-time detection of sub-femtomolar-level aflatoxin B1 in food

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a highly toxic substance found in food, necessitating rapid and sensitive detection methods. Combining interfacial capacitive sensing with AC electrothermal (ACET) enrichment, an aptasensor based on a PCB electrode array is developed for real-time detection of trace AFB1. Owing to the sensitive solid-liquid capacitance with a pF-level resolution, AFB1 detection at sub-femtomolar level is achieved. The induced ACET flows enrich AFB1 molecules towards the electrode surface during capacitance measurement, enabling a one-step detection containing target enrichment, with an overall time of 20 s without any extra concentrating devices or processes. This sensor has a low detection limit of 620 aM, a selectivity of 2262:1 against interferences, and a wide semi-log linear range from 1 fM to 10 pM. It is with a cost below 1 US dollar for disposable detection and a convenient operation for on-site application. The detection of AFB1 in three types of quality control samples demonstrates a good feasibility for food safety inspection.

Impact of Metabolites from Foodborne Pathogens on Cancer

Foodborne pathogens are microorganisms that cause illness through contamination, presenting significant risks to public health and food safety. This review explores the metabolites produced by these pathogens, including toxins and secondary metabolites, and their implications for human health, particularly concerning cancer risk. We examine various pathogens such as Salmonella sp., Campylobacter sp., Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes, detailing the specific metabolites of concern and their carcinogenic mechanisms. This study discusses analytical techniques for detecting these metabolites, such as chromatography, spectrometry, and immunoassays, along with the challenges associated with their detection. This study covers effective control strategies, including food processing techniques, sanitation practices, regulatory measures, and emerging technologies in pathogen control. This manuscript considers the broader public health implications of pathogen metabolites, highlighting the importance of robust health policies, public awareness, and education. This review identifies research gaps and innovative approaches, recommending advancements in detection methods, preventive strategies, and policy improvements to better manage the risks associated with foodborne pathogens and their metabolites.

The Role of AFB1, OTA, TCNs, and Patulin in Forensic Sciences: Applications in Autopsy, Criminal Investigations, and Public Health Prevention

Mycotoxins, specifically aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), trichothecenes (TCNs), and patulin, are a group of secondary metabolites that can contaminate food, leading to severe health implications for humans. Their detection and analysis within forensic toxicology are crucial, particularly as they can be implicated in cases of poisoning, foodborne illnesses, or lethal chronic exposure. However, little is known about the application that mycotoxins could have in forensic investigations and especially about the possibility of extracting and quantifying these molecules on tissues or post-mortem fluids collected at autopsy. We propose a review of the scientific literature on autopsy case studies in which the presence of mycotoxins on cadavers in cases of acute and chronic exposure has been investigated and identified. This review demonstrates how the analysis of mycotoxins on cadavers could be fundamental in the study of mushroom poisonings or even in the investigation of the chronic effects of mycotoxins on the human organism, by virtue of the known carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of many of them. This paper aims to explore the multifaceted role of mycotoxins within forensic sciences, focusing on their detection methods, implications in criminal contexts, and their potential as forensic evidence, thereby underscoring the critical importance they could assume in post-mortem toxicology, public health prevention, and forensic investigations.

Nutritional compounds and risk assessment of mycotoxins in ecological and conventional nuts

This comprehensive study aimed to determine the level of nutritional compounds (20 amino acids, 11 phenolic acids, and 8 vitamins) and hazard compounds (14 mycotoxins) in ten types of conventional and ecological nuts from 25 countries. Moreover, chronic and acute toxicological risk assessment of mycotoxins was performed. Examined constituents were determined using LC-MS/MS. Ecological pine nuts showed the highest level of amino acids (233.87 g kg-1) compared to conventional (207 g kg-1), pecans-phenolic acids (816.6 mg kg-1 in ecological and 761 mg kg-1 in conventional), while pistachios-vitamins (3471.4 mg kg-1 in ecological and 3098.4 mg kg-1 in conventional). Increased concentration of mycotoxins was determined in conventional peanuts (54 μg kg-1) and walnuts (49.9 μg kg-1). Children were the most exposed population to acute intoxication with HT-2 toxin in conventional pistachios (20.66% ARfD). The results confirmed the nutritional importance of ecological nuts and emphasized the need for continuous screening of mycotoxins.

Dietary Mycotoxins: An Overview on Toxicokinetics, Toxicodynamics, Toxicity, Epidemiology, Detection, and Their Mitigation with Special Emphasis on Aflatoxicosis in Humans and Animals

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi and ubiquitous dietary contaminants. Aflatoxins, a group of mycotoxins with high prevalence and toxicity, have raised a high level of public health concern, the most prevalent and toxic being aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Many aspects appertaining to AFB1 poisoning are not well understood. Yet this information is necessary to devise appropriate surveillance and mitigation strategies against human and animal aflatoxicosis. This review provides an in-depth update of work carried out on mycotoxin poisoning, particularly aflatoxicosis in humans and animals, to identify gaps in knowledge. Hypotheses explaining the functional significance of mycotoxins in fungal biology and their dietary epidemiological data are presented and briefly discussed. The toxicology of aflatoxins and the challenges of their mitigation are discussed in depth. It was concluded that the identification of potential mycotoxin-hazard-prone food items and quantification of the associated risk of cancer ailments in humans is a prime priority. There is a dearth of reliable sampling methodologies for estimating AFB1 in animal feed. Data update on AFB1 in animal feed and its implication in animal production, mitigation strategies, and elucidation of risk factors to this hazard is required. To reduce the burden of aflatoxins, surveillance employing predictive technology, and biocontrol strategies seem promising approaches.

Effects of mycotoxin-producing fungi on the fitness and gut bacterial community of the soil springtail Folsomia candida

Mycotoxin-producing fungi are widespread and their adverse effects on mammals have been investigated; however, their impacts on soil invertebrates are not fully understood. Folsomia candida is a model soil arthropod that represents an important part of the soil invertebrate community. This study investigated the consequences of F. candida grazing on mycotoxin-producing fungi Fusarium verticillioides, F. graminearum, Aspergillus ochraceus, and A. nidulans. Consuming mycotoxin-producing fungi affected the body size and reproductive ability of F. candida, and altered the gut bacterial composition, with decreased Proteobacteria and increased Actinobacteria (Microbacterium) abundances. Notably, the abundance of foodborne fungi can be detected. Furthermore, certain bacteria isolated from F. candida's gut inhibited the growth of corresponding mycotoxin-producing fungi. The gut bacteria that inhibited mycotoxin-producing fungi growth in Aspergillus groups were also associated with poor fitness parameters and larger disruption in gut microbiota. Importantly, switching back to yeast diets reversed both the fitness parameters and gut bacterial composition. Together, our study demonstrated that grazing of mycotoxin-producing fungi by F. candida resulted in reduced physiological parameters and disturbed the gut bacterial community, and those changes can be restored by switching back to yeast diets, which indicates a strong resilience of springtails to mycotoxin-producing fungi.

IMPORTANCE

Mycotoxin-producing fungi are widespread in nature and raise concerns for human and livestock health. Although they share the same ecosystem, interactions between mycotoxin-producing fungi and soil arthropods are not well understood. In this study, we report an unexpected finding that the soil arthropod Folsomia candida is rather tolerant to these mycotoxin-producing fungi. F. candida can survive solely on mycotoxin-producing fungi as a food source with reduced physiological parameters. Moreover, the gut microbial community is disturbed by mycotoxin-producing fungi, and some of the bacteria isolated from F. candida's gut can inhibit the growth of corresponding fungi. Notably, the altered physiological parameters and gut microbiota are restored when a normal diet is reintroduced, suggesting F. candida's resilience to mycotoxin-producing fungi. These findings clarify the impact of toxin-producing diets on F. candida, shedding light on how organisms can build resilience to environmental stimuli.

Mycotoxin Biodegradation by Bacillus Bacteria-A Review

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by various types of fungi that are known to contaminate various food products; their presence in the food chain poses significant risks to human and animal health and leads to enormous economic losses in the food and feed industry worldwide. Ensuring food safety and quality by detoxifying mycotoxin is therefore of paramount importance. Several procedures to control fungal toxins have been extensively investigated, such as preventive measures, physical and chemical methods, and biological strategies. In recent years, microbial degradation of mycotoxins has attracted much attention due to its reliability, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. Notably, bacterial species from the Bacillus genus have emerged as promising candidates for mycotoxin decontamination owing to their diverse metabolic capabilities and resilience in harsh environmental conditions. This review manuscript aims to provide a summary of recent studies on the biodegradation of fungal toxins by Bacillus bacteria, thereby illustrating their potential applications in the development of mycotoxin-degrading products.

Sodium butyrate alleviates T-2 toxin-induced liver toxicity and renal toxicity in quails by modulating oxidative stress-related Nrf2 signaling pathway, inflammation, and CYP450 enzyme system

T-2 toxin is a member of class A aspergilloides toxins, one of the most prevalent mycotoxins that contaminate feed and food. Direct ingestion of animals or feed contaminated by T-2 toxin can cause various animal diseases. Butyrate is an organic fatty acid featuring a four-carbon chain, which is commonly found in the form of sodium butyrate (NaB). NaB has several biological functions and pharmacological effects. However, the role of sodium butyrate in alleviating T-2 toxin-induced hepatorenal toxicity has not been explored. In this study, 240 juvenile quails were evenly assigned into 4 groups. The experimental setup comprised four groups: The control group received a standard diet; the toxin group received a diet containing 0.9 mg/kg T-2 toxin; the butyrate group received a diet containing 0.5 g/kg NaB; and the T-2 treatment group received a diet containing both 0.9 mg/kg T-2 toxin and 0.5 g/kg NaB. We evaluated the histopathological changes in the kidney and liver on Days 14 and 28 and explored the molecular mechanisms involving oxidative stress, inflammation, and expression of nuclear xenobiotic receptors (NXRs). Our results showed that T-2 toxin exposure-induced inflammation in the liver and kidney by activating the oxidative stress pathway and modulating expression of NXRs to regulate related CYP450 isoforms, ultimately leading to histopathological injury in the liver and kidney, whereas sodium butyrate ameliorated this injury. These results offer novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the protective effects of sodium butyrate in mitigating T-2 toxin-induced hepatorenal injury in juvenile quails. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The mechanisms of T-2 toxin toxicity have been well described in experimental animals, but studies in birds are limited. With the development of society, the market scale of quails farming has been expanding, and the value of quails meat and eggs is increasing; there is an urgent need to clarify the harm of T-2 toxin to quails and its mechanism.

Mycotoxins in Food: Cancer Risks and Strategies for Control

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by fungi such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium, contaminating various food crops and posing severe risks to food safety and human health. This review discusses mycotoxins' origins, significance, and impact, particularly in relation to cancer risk. Major mycotoxins like aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone, and patulin are examined, along with their sources and affected foods. The carcinogenic mechanisms of these toxins, including their biochemical and molecular interactions, are explored, as well as epidemiological evidence linking mycotoxin exposure to cancer in high-risk populations. The review also highlights critical methodologies for mycotoxin detection, including HPLC, GC-MS, MS, and ELISA, and the sample preparation techniques critical for accurate analysis. Strategies for controlling mycotoxin contamination, both pre- and post-harvest, are discussed, along with regulations from organizations like the FAO and WHO. Current challenges in detection sensitivity, cost, and control effectiveness are noted. Future research is needed to develop innovative analytical techniques, improve control strategies, and address the influence of climate change on mycotoxin production. Finally, global collaboration and emerging technologies are essential for advancing mycotoxin control and enhancing food safety.

Assessment of the microbial contamination in "Do It Yourself" (DIY) stores - a holistic approach to protect workers' and consumers' health

Introduction

In "Do-It-Yourself" (DIY) stores, workers from the wood department are considered woodworkers. Given the health risks associated with woodworking, particularly from fungi and their metabolites, this study aims to assess microbial contamination and health risks for both workers and customers.

Methods

The study was developed in 13 DIY stores in Lisbon Metropolitan Area, Portugal. It employed a comprehensive sampling approach combining active (MAS-100, Andersen six-stage, Coriolis μ, and SKC Button Aerosol Sampler) and passive (electrostatic dust collectors, surface swabs, e-cloths, settled dust, filters from vacuumed dust, filtering respiratory protection devices, and mechanical protection gloves) methods to assess microbial contamination. A Lighthouse Handheld Particle Counter HH3016- IAQ was used to monitor the particulate matter size, temperature, and humidity.

Results

The wood exhibition area presented the highest fungal load, while the payment area exhibited the highest bacterial load. MAS-100 detected the highest fungal load, and surface swabs had the highest bacterial load. Penicillium sp. was the most frequently observed fungal species, followed by Aspergillus sp. Mycotoxins, namely mycophenolic acid, griseofulvin, and aflatoxin G1, were detected in settled dust samples and one filter from the vacuum cleaner from the wood exhibition area. Cytotoxicity evaluation indicates the wood-cutting area has the highest cytotoxic potential. Correlation analysis highlights relationships between fungal contamination and particle size and biodiversity differences among sampling methods.

Discussion

The comprehensive approach applied, integrating numerous sampling methods and laboratory assays, facilitated a thorough holistic analysis of this specific environment, enabling Occupational and Public Health Services to prioritize interventions for accurate exposure assessment and detailed risk management.

Dietary Aflatoxin G1 exposure causes an imbalance between pulmonary tissue-resident alveolar macrophages and monocyte-derived macrophages in both mother and offspring mice

Aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) is a mycotoxin commonly found in agricultural products, including dried fruits, meat, and milk products. Oral AFG1 administration induced tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-dependent chronic pulmonary inflammation, promoting AFG1-induced damage in alveolar epithelial cell, which is associated with lung adenocarcinoma. Pulmonary macrophages may be divided into tissue-resident alveolar macrophages (TRAMs) and monocyte-derived macrophages (MoMs), which involve in chronic lung inflammation. However, whether these macrophages contribute to AFG1-induced chronic pulmonary inflammation remains unknown. In this study, we found oral AFG1 administration disrupted the balance between TRAMs and MoMs, increasing MoMs infiltration and decreasing the number of TRAMs. AFG1 upregulated TNF-α expression in MoMs, but downregulated sialic acid binding Ig-like lectin F (Siglec-F) expression in TRAMs. Inhibition of TNF-α-dependent inflammation rescued the imbalance between TRAMs and MoMs in AFG1-treated lung tissues. Additionally, AFG1 stimulated MoMs differentiation to the proinflammatory M1 phenotype in vitro. Using a specific in vitro TRAM model, AFG1 downregulated Siglec-F and the M2 phenotypic markers arginase 1 and YM1, and upregulated the M1 phenotypic markers IL-6, iNOS and TNF-α, altering the TRAMs phenotype to the pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype in vitro. Additionally, mouse maternal dietary exposure to AFG1 caused an imbalance in pulmonary macrophages, decreasing TRAMs and increasing MoMs population in offspring, which was associated with proliferative lesions in the alveolar septa. Thus, dietary AFG1 exposure triggered an imbalance in pulmonary macrophages in both mother and offspring mice, and induced pro-inflammatory phenotypic alterations, which contributed to AFG1-induced chronic lung inflammation. These results provide clues to how AFG1-induced immunotoxicity and genotoxicity in humans might be prevented.

Liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry-based metabolomics revealing the effects of zearalenone and alpha-zearalenol on human endometrial cancer cells

Human exposure to mycotoxins through food involve a mixture of compounds, which can be harmful to human health. The Fusarium fungal species are known to produce zearalenone (ZEN), a non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin, and its metabolite alpha-zearalenol (α-ZEL), both of which possess endocrine-disruptive properties. Given their potential harm to human health through food exposure, investigating the combined effects of ZEN and α-ZEL becomes crucial. Hence, the combined impact of ZEN and α-ZEL study hold significant importance. This in vitro study delves into the critical area, examining their combined impact on the proliferation and metabolic profile of endometrial cancer Ishikawa cells via sulforhodamine, clonogenic, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) based untargeted metabolomics. Low concentrations of ZEN (25 nm), α-ZEL (10 nm), or a combination of both were observed to significantly enhance cell proliferation of Ishikawa cells, as evidenced by PCNA immunostaining, immunoblotting as well and clonogenic assays. The metabolomics revealed the perturbations in glycerophospholipid metabolism, nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism and phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan biosynthesis provides valuable insights into potential mechanism by which these mycotoxins may facilitate cell proliferation. However, further investigations are warranted to comprehensively understand the implications of these findings and their possible implications for human health.

Fusarium spp.: infections and intoxications

The genus Fusarium, member of the Hypocreaceae family, comprises over 500 spp. with an ever-evolving taxonomy. These fungi, some highly pathogenic, primarily affect various plants, including major crops like maize, rice, cereals, and potatoes, leading to significant agricultural losses and contributing to human undernutrition in certain regions. Additionally, Fusarium spp. produce harmful mycotoxins like trichothecenes, fumonisins, zearalenones, etc., posing health risks to animals and humans. These toxins generally transferred to food items can cause diverse issues, including organ failure, cancer, and hormonal disturbances, with effects sometimes appearing years after exposure. The fungi's vast genetic repertoire enables them to produce a range of virulence factors, leading to infections in both animals and humans, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. Fusarium spp. can cause systemic infections and local infections like keratitis. Due to limited antifungal effectiveness and biofilm formation, these infections are often challenging to treat with poor outcomes.

Co-occurrence of mycotoxins in stored maize from southern and southwestern Ethiopia

Maize grain samples collected from 129 small-scale farmers' stores in southern and southwestern Ethiopia were analysed by LC-MS/MS for a total of 218 mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites of which 15% were regulated mycotoxins. Mycotoxins produced by Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Fusarium accounted for 31%, 17%, and 12% of the metabolites, respectively. Most of the current samples were contaminated by masked and/or emerging mycotoxins with moniliformin being the most prevalent one, contaminating 93% of the samples. Each sample was co-contaminated by 3 to 114 mycotoxins/fungal metabolites. Zearalenone, fumonisin B1, and deoxynivalenol were the dominant mycotoxins, occurring in 78%, 61%, and 55% of the samples with mean concentrations of 243, 429, and 530 µg/kg, respectively. The widespread co-occurrence of several mycotoxins in the samples may pose serious health risks due to synergistic/additional effects.

Tenuazonic acid-induced mycotoxicosis in an immunosuppressed mouse model and its prophylaxis with cinnamaldehyde

Patients with impaired immune systems are particularly vulnerable to infections. With the increasing number of immunocompromised patients, it becomes necessary to design studies that evaluate the effects of toxic contaminants that are a part of our daily lives. Simultaneously, the management of these toxic components also becomes essential. Therefore, the present study evaluated the possible protective role of cinnamaldehyde (Cin) against tenuazonic acid-induced mycotoxicosis in the immunosuppressed murine model. Tenuazonic acid (TeA), a toxin usually produced by Alternaria species, is a common contaminant in tomato and tomato-based products. Evaluating the potential toxicity of a hazardous chemical necessitates the use of in vitro, in vivo, and in silico methods. Here, the immunomodulatory effect of TeA was assessed in vitro using mouse splenocytes. In silico docking was carried out for the tumour markers of eight organs and TeA. The haematological, histopathological, and biochemical aspects were analysed in vivo. The sub-chronic intoxication of mice with TeA showed elevated malondialdehyde, reduced catalase, and superoxide dismutase production, along with abnormal levels of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine transaminase. The treatment with Cin prevented TeA-induced alterations of antioxidant defense enzyme activities and significantly forbade TeA-induced organ damage, showing therapeutic effects and toxicity reduction in TeA-induced mycotoxicosis.

Co-contamination and interactions of multiple mycotoxins and heavy metals in rice, maize, soybeans, and wheat flour marketed in Shanghai City

Mycotoxins and heavy metals extensively contaminate grains and grain products, posing severe health risks. This work implements validated ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) methods to quantify the concentration of 12 mycotoxins and five heavy metals in rice, maize, soybeans, and wheat flour samples marketed in Shanghai. The mixed contamination characteristics were analyzed using correlation cluster analysis and co-contamination index, and the probabilities of all cross combinations of contaminations were analyzed using a self-designed JAVA language program. The results showed that grains and grain products were frequently contaminated with both mycotoxins and heavy metals, mostly with deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON), 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON), ochratoxin A (OTA), aflatoxins, fumonisin B1 (FB1), fumonisin B2 (FB2), fumonisin B3 (FB3), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr) and cadmium (Cd). All the samples (100 %) were contaminated with two or more contaminants, and 77.3 % of the samples were co-contaminated with more than four contaminants. In cereals and cereal products, the following combinations were closely associated: (FB3 +3-ADON), (FB1 +As), (FB1 +FB2), (DON+FB1), (DON+Cd), (As+Cd), (DON+Cd+As), (FB1 +FB2 +As), and (DON+3-ADON+15-ADON). The results indicated that mycotoxins and heavy metals frequently co-occurred in Shanghai grains and grain products, and they provided primary data for safety assessments, early warnings, and regulatory measures on these contaminants to protect public health.

Analysis of the impact of drying on common wheat quality and safety

Mycotoxin contamination in grain has been an ongoing concern in the world. Wheat, as a staple crop in China, is particularly notable for its mycotoxin contamination. The main mycotoxins in wheat include deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivates, zearalenone (ZEN) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). After harvest, drying process is an effective technique and a necessary step to ensure the long-term safe storage of wheat. In this study, the moisture content, the concentrations of total fungi and main mycotoxins in post-harvest wheat of three wheat growing areas in the North China Plain were examined, and the effect of different drying methods on wheat quality was evaluated. The results showed that 87.5% of wheat samples were simultaneously contaminated with two or more mycotoxins. Due to the pre-harvest heavy rainfall, the moisture content, the levels of total fungi and mycotoxins in wheat samples of Liaocheng city were significantly higher compared to other regions. Moreover, the effects of different drying methods on the starch gelatinization and viscosity properties of wheat were investigated. The results showed that both natural air drying and dryer drying altered the crystal structure within starch particles and affected the gelatinization and viscosity properties of wheat starch. However, there is no significant difference between the wheat samples treated with two drying methods.

Synthesis and characterization of aluminosilicate and zinc silicate from sugarcane bagasse fly ash for adsorption of aflatoxin B1

Sugarcane bagasse fly ash, a residual product resulting from the incineration of biomass to generate power and steam, is rich in SiO2. Sodium silicate is a fundamental material for synthesizing highly porous silica-based adsorbents to serve circular practices. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a significant contaminant in animal feeds, necessitates the integration of adsorbents, crucial for reducing aflatoxin concentrations during the digestive process of animals. This research aimed to synthesize aluminosilicate and zinc silicate derived from sodium silicate based on sugarcane bagasse fly ash, each characterized by a varied molar ratio of aluminum (Al) to silicon (Si) and zinc (Zn) to silicon (Si), respectively. The primary focus of this study was to evaluate their respective capacities for adsorbing AFB1. It was revealed that aluminosilicate exhibited notably superior AFB1 adsorption capabilities compared to zinc silicate and silica. Furthermore, the adsorption efficacy increased with higher molar ratios of Al:Si for aluminosilicate and Zn:Si for zinc silicate. The N2 confirmed AFB1 adsorption within the pores of the adsorbent. In particular, the aluminosilicate variant with a molar ratio of 0.08 (Al:Si) showcased the most substantial AFB1 adsorption capacity, registering at 88.25% after an in vitro intestinal phase. The adsorption ability is directly correlated with the presence of surface acidic sites and negatively charged surfaces. Notably, the kinetics of the adsorption process were best elucidated through the application of the pseudo-second-order model, effectively describing the behavior of both aluminosilicate and zinc silicate in adsorbing AFB1.

Comprehensive Review of Aflatoxin and Ochratoxin A Dynamics: Emergence, Toxicological Impact, and Advanced Control Strategies

Filamentous fungi exhibit remarkable adaptability to diverse substrates and can synthesize a plethora of secondary metabolites. These metabolites, produced in response to environmental stimuli, not only confer selective advantages but also encompass potentially deleterious mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, exemplified by those originating from Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium species, represent challenging hazards to both human and animal health, thus warranting stringent regulatory control. Despite regulatory frameworks, mycotoxin contamination remains a pressing global challenge, particularly within cereal-based matrices and their derived by-products, integral components of animal diets. Strategies aimed at mitigating mycotoxin contamination encompass multifaceted approaches, including biological control modalities, detoxification procedures, and innovative interventions like essential oils. However, hurdles persist, underscoring the imperative for innovative interventions. This review elucidated the prevalence, health ramifications, regulatory paradigms, and evolving preventive strategies about two prominent mycotoxins, aflatoxins and ochratoxin A. Furthermore, it explored the emergence of new fungal species, and biocontrol methods using lactic acid bacteria and essential mustard oil, emphasizing their efficacy in mitigating fungal spoilage and mycotoxin production. Through an integrative examination of these facets, this review endeavored to furnish a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted challenges posed by mycotoxin contamination and the emergent strategies poised to ameliorate its impact on food and feed safety.

The Potential of Multi-Screening Methods and Omics Technologies to Detect Both Regulated and Emerging Mycotoxins in Different Matrices

Mycotoxins are well-known secondary metabolites produced by several fungi that grow and occur in different crops during both pre-harvest and post-harvest conditions. The contamination and occurrence of mycotoxins currently represent some of the major issues in the entire agri-food system. The quantification of mycotoxins in different feeds and foodstuffs is extremely difficult because of the low concentration ranges; therefore, both sample collection and preparation are essential to providing accurate detection and reliable quantification. Currently, several analytical methods are available for the detection of mycotoxins in both feed and food products, and liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) represents the most reliable instrumental approach. In particular, the fast development of high-throughput methods has made it possible to screen and analyze, in the same analytical run and with high accuracy, multiple mycotoxins, such as those regulated, masked, or modified, and emerging ones. Therefore, the aim of this review is to provide an overview of the state of the art of mycotoxins occurrence, health-related concerns, and analyses, discussing the need to perform multi-screening approaches combined with omics technologies to simultaneously analyze several mycotoxins in different feed and food matrices. This approach is expected to provide more comprehensive information about the profile and distribution of emerging mycotoxins, thus enhancing the understanding of their co-occurrence and impact on the entire production chain.

The Biosynthesis, Structure Diversity and Bioactivity of Sterigmatocystins and Aflatoxins: A Review

Sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins are a group of mycotoxins mainly isolated from fungi of the genera Aspergillus. Since the discovery of sterigmatocystins in 1954 and aflatoxins in 1961, many scholars have conducted a series of studies on their structural identification, synthesis and biological activities. Studies have shown that sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins have a wide range of biological activities such as antitumour, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiplasmodial, etc. The sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins had been shown to be hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic in animals. This review attempts to give a comprehensive summary of progress on the chemical structural features, synthesis, and bioactivity of sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins reported from 1954 to April 2024. A total of 72 sterigmatocystins and 20 aflatoxins are presented in this review. This paper reviews the chemical diversity and potential activity and toxicity of sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins, enhances the understanding of sterigmatocystins and aflatoxins that adversely affect humans and animals, and provides ideas for their prevention, research and development.

Analysis of Mycotoxins and Cytotoxicity of Airborne Molds Isolated from the Zoological Garden-Screening Research

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this paper was to assess the airborne mold contamination, secondary metabolite profiles, and cytotoxicity of the dominant fungal species isolated from the air in selected rooms at a Zoological Garden.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fungal concentrations were measured with MAS-100 air samplers. The collected airborne fungi were identified using a combination of morphological and molecular methods. The cytotoxicity of 84 strains belonging to two Penicillium and Aspergillus genera was determined using the quantitative colorimetric MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium salt) assay. The mycotoxins were detected using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a mass spectrometry detector.

RESULTS

The ITS gene was amplified and sequenced to identify the 132 species. For mycotoxicological and cytotoxicity analyses, 52 Penicillium isolates and 32 Aspergillus representatives were selected. Cytotoxicity was confirmed in 97.6% of cases analyzed. Using the LC-MS/MS method, 42 out of 84 strains produced at least one of the following toxins: ochratoxin A, ochratoxin B, patulin, gliotoxin, roquefortine C, griseofulvin, sterigmatocystin, fumonisin B2, moniliformin, and mycophenolic acid.

CONCLUSIONS

Analytical methods for assessing the presence of mycotoxins in fungal isolates collected directly from the air have proven to be an effective tool. Our research provides new information on the occurrence of potentially toxin-producing molds within a zoo.

Harnessing the power of bacterial laccases for xenobiotic degradation in water: A 10-year overview

Industrialization and population growth are leading to the production of significant amounts of sewage containing hazardous xenobiotic compounds. These compounds pose a threat to human and animal health, as well as the overall ecosystem. To combat this issue, chemical, physical, and biological techniques have been used to remove these contaminants from water bodies affected by human activity. Biotechnological methods have proven effective in utilizing microorganisms and enzymes, particularly laccases, to address this problem. Laccases possess versatile enzymatic characteristics and have shown promise in degrading different xenobiotic compounds found in municipal, industrial, and medical wastewater. Both free enzymes and crude enzyme extracts have demonstrated success in the biotransformation of these compounds. Despite these advancements, the widespread use of laccases for bioremediation and wastewater treatment faces challenges due to the complex composition, high salt concentration, and extreme pH often present in contaminated media. These factors negatively impact protein stability, recovery, and recycling processes, hindering their large-scale application. These issues can be addressed by focusing on large-scale production, resolving operation problems, and utilizing cutting-edge genetic and protein engineering techniques. Additionally, finding novel sources of laccases, understanding their biochemical properties, enhancing their catalytic activity and thermostability, and improving their production processes are crucial steps towards overcoming these limitations. By doing so, enzyme-based biological degradation processes can be improved, resulting in more efficient removal of xenobiotics from water systems. This review summarizes the latest research on bacterial laccases over the past decade. It covers the advancements in identifying their structures, characterizing their biochemical properties, exploring their modes of action, and discovering their potential applications in the biotransformation and bioremediation of xenobiotic pollutants commonly present in water sources.

Aflatoxins: Occurrence, biosynthesis, mechanism of action and effects, conventional/emerging detection techniques

Aflatoxins (AFs) are toxic secondary metabolites prevalent in various food and agricultural products, posing significant challenges to global food safety. The detection and quantification of AFs through high-precision analytical techniques are crucial in mitigating AF contamination levels and associated health risks. Variousmethods,including conventional and emerging techniques, have been developed for detecting and quantifyingAFsinfood samples. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the global occurrence of AF in food commodities, covering their biosynthesis, mode of action, and effects on humans and animals. Additionally, the review discusses different conventional strategies, including chromatographic and immunochemical approaches, for AF quantification and identification in food samples. Furthermore, emerging AF detection strategies, such as solid-state gas sensors and electronic nose technologies, along with their applications, limitations, and future perspectives, were reviewed. Sample purification, along with their respective advantages and limitations, are also discussed herein.

Exposure assessment of children to dietary mycotoxins: A pilot study conducted in Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil

Exposure to mycotoxins through food is a major health concern, especially for youngsters. This study performed a preliminary investigation on children's exposure to dietary mycotoxins in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. Sampling procedures were conducted between August and December 2022, to collect foods (N = 213) available for consumption in the households of children (N = 67), including preschoolers (aged 3-6 years, n = 21), schoolers (aged 7-10 years, n = 15), and adolescents (aged 11-17 years, n = 31) cared in the Vila Lobato Community Social Medical Center of Ribeirão Preto. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was used to determine concentrations of the mycotoxins in foods. Mycotoxins measured in all foods comprised aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON) and ochratoxin A (OTA). Higher incidence and levels were found for FBs, ZEN, and DON in several commonly consumed foods. Furthermore, 32.86 % foods had two to four quantifiable mycotoxins in various combinations. The mean estimated daily intake (EDI) values were lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for AFs, FBs, and ZEN, but higher than the TDI (1.0 µg/kg bw/day) for DON, hence indicating a health risk for all children age groups. Preschoolers and adolescents were exposed to DON through wheat products (EDIs: 2.696 ± 7.372 and 1.484 ± 2.395 µg/kg body weight (bw)/day, respectively), while schoolers were exposed through wheat products (EDI: 1.595 ± 1.748 µg/kg bw/day) and rice (EDI: 1.391 ± 1.876 µg/kg bw/day). The results indicate that wheat-based foods and rice may be risky to children, implying the need for stringent measures to avoid DON contamination in these products.

Pathological consequences, metabolism and toxic effects of trichothecene T-2 toxin in poultry

Contamination of feed with mycotoxins has become a severe issue worldwide. Among the most prevalent trichothecene mycotoxins, T-2 toxin is of particular importance for livestock production, including poultry posing a significant threat to animal health and productivity. This review article aims to comprehensively analyze the pathological consequences, metabolism, and toxic effects of T-2 toxin in poultry. Trichothecene mycotoxins, primarily produced by Fusarium species, are notorious for their potent toxicity. T-2 toxin exhibits a broad spectrum of negative effects on poultry species, leading to substantial economic losses as well as concerns about animal welfare and food safety in modern agriculture. T-2 toxin exposure easily results in negative pathological consequences in the gastrointestinal tract, as well as in parenchymal tissues like the liver (as the key organ for its metabolism), kidneys, or reproductive organs. In addition, it also intensely damages immune system-related tissues such as the spleen, the bursa of Fabricius, or the thymus causing immunosuppression and increasing the susceptibility of the animals to infectious diseases, as well as making immunization programs less effective. The toxin also damages cellular processes on the transcriptional and translational levels and induces apoptosis through the activation of numerous cellular signaling cascades. Furthermore, according to recent studies, besides the direct effects on the abovementioned processes, T-2 toxin induces the production of reactive molecules and free radicals resulting in oxidative distress and concomitantly occurring cellular damage. In conclusion, this review article provides a complex and detailed overview of the metabolism, pathological consequences, mechanism of action as well as the immunomodulatory and oxidative stress-related effects of T-2 toxin. Understanding these effects in poultry is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate the impact of the T-2 toxin on avian health and food safety in the future.

Advancing Global Health Surveillance of Mycotoxin Exposures using Minimally Invasive Sampling Techniques: A State-of-the-Science Review

Mycotoxins are a heterogeneous group of toxins produced by fungi that can grow in staple crops (e.g., maize, cereals), resulting in health risks due to widespread exposure from human consumption and inhalation. Dried blood spot (DBS), dried serum spot (DSS), and volumetric tip microsampling (VTS) assays were developed and validated for several important mycotoxins. This review summarizes studies that have developed these assays to monitor mycotoxin exposures in human biological samples and highlights future directions to facilitate minimally invasive sampling techniques as global public health tools. A systematic search of PubMed (MEDLINE), Embase (Elsevier), and CINAHL (EBSCO) was conducted. Key assay performance metrics were extracted to provide a critical review of the available methods. This search identified 11 published reports related to measuring mycotoxins (ochratoxins, aflatoxins, and fumonisins) using DBS/DSS and VTS assays. Multimycotoxin assays adapted for DBS/DSS and VTS have undergone sufficient laboratory validation for applications in large-scale population health and human biomonitoring studies. Future work should expand the number of mycotoxins that can be measured in multimycotoxin assays, continue to improve multimycotoxin assay sensitivities of several biomarkers with low detection rates, and validate multimycotoxin assays across diverse populations with varying exposure levels. Validated low-cost and ultrasensitive minimally invasive sampling methods should be deployed in human biomonitoring and public health surveillance studies to guide policy interventions to reduce inequities in global mycotoxin exposures.

Spatial-temporal distribution of deoxynivalenol, aflatoxin B1, and zearalenone in the solid-state fermentation basin of traditional vinegar and their potential correlation with microorganisms

This study revealed the spatial-temporal distribution of deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and zearalenone (ZEN) during the acetic acid fermentation (AAF) of aromatic vinegar and the corresponding correlation with the microbial community. A total of 324 samples were collected during the AAF process to analyze the mycotoxin content. The average DON content fluctuated during the first 7 d, while the average AFB1 and ZEN levels increased at 5-7 d and 7-11 d, respectively, remaining stable until the end of fermentation. In addition, the significant AFB1 and ZEN content variation was limited to the cross-sectional sampling planes in the fermentation basin, while DON was heterogeneously distributed on the cross-sectional, horizontal, and vertical sampling planes. Furthermore, the redundancy analysis and Spearman correlation coefficients revealed close relationships between three mycotoxins and certain bacterial and fungal species. This study provides new information regarding the mycotoxins during solid-state fermentation of traditional vinegar.

Deoxynivalenol exposure induces oxidative stress and apoptosis in human keratinocytes via PI3K/Akt and MAPK signaling pathway

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin frequently occurring in human and animal food worldwide, which raises increasing public health concerns. In the present study, we used human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) as an in vitro model to explore the cytotoxic effect of DON. The results showed that the cells exhibited varying degrees of damage, including decreased cell number and viability, cell shrinkage and floating, when treated with 0.125, 0.25, and 0.5 μg/mL DON for 6, 12, and 24 h, respectively. Furthermore, exposure to DON for 24 h significantly increased the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and prominently decreased the superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity. Additionally, DON exposure induced mitochondrial damage and cell apoptosis through reducing mitochondrial membrane potential. Then, we performed RNA-sequencing to investigate the molecular changes in HaCaT cells after DON exposure. The RNA-sequencing results revealed that DON exposure altered the gene expression involved in apoptosis, MAPK signaling pathway, and PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Moreover, DON exposure significantly decreased the mRNA and protein expression of Bcl-2, and increased the mRNA and protein expression of Bax, Caspase 3 and COX-2, the protein expression of PI3K, and the phosphorylation levels of Akt, ERK, p38, and JNK. Taken together, these findings suggest that DON exposure could induce cell damage, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in HaCaT cells through the activation of PI3K/Akt and MAPK pathways.

Antimicrobial and Mycotoxin Reducing Properties of Lactic Acid Bacteria and Their Influence on Blood and Feces Parameters of Newborn Calves

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of in acid whey (AW) multiplied Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LUHS135 (L.pl135), Lacticaseibacillus paracasei LUHS244 (L.pc244), and their biomass combination on newborn calves' feces and blood parameters. Additionally, the antimicrobial and mycotoxin-reducing properties and the resistance to antibiotics of the tested lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains were analyzed. In order to ensure effective biomass growth in AW, technological parameters for the supplement preparation were selected. Control calves were fed with a standard milk replacer (SMR) and treated groups (from the 2nd day of life until the 14th day) were supplemented with 50 mL of AWL.pl135, AWL.pc244, and AWL.pl135×L.pc244 (25 mL AWL.pl135 + 25 mL AWL.pc244) in addition to SMR. It was established that L.pl135 and L.pc244 possess broad antimicrobial activities, are non-resistant to the tested antibiotics, and reduce mycotoxin concentrations in vitro. The optimal duration established for biomass growth was 48 h (LAB count higher than 7.00 log10 CFU mL-1 was found after 48 h of AW fermentation). It was established that additional feeding of newborn calves with AWL.pl135, AWL.pc244, and AWL.pl135×L.pc244 increased lactobacilli (on average by 7.4%), and AWL.pl135 and AWL.pc244 reduced the numbers of Enterobacteriaceae in calves' feces. The tested supplements also reduced the lactate concentration (on average, by 42.5%) in calves' blood. Finally, the tested supplements had a positive influence on certain health parameters of newborn calves; however, further research is needed to validate the mechanisms of the beneficial effects.

Rapid Detection of Single- and Co-Contaminant Aflatoxins and Fumonisins in Ground Maize Using Hyperspectral Imaging Techniques

Aflatoxins and fumonisins, commonly found in maize and maize-derived products, frequently co-occur and can cause dangerous illness in humans and animals if ingested in large amounts. Efforts are being made to develop suitable analytical methods for screening that can rapidly detect mycotoxins in order to prevent illness through early detection. A method for classifying contaminated maize by applying hyperspectral imaging techniques including reflectance in the visible and near-infrared (VNIR) and short-wave infrared (SWIR) regions, and fluorescence was investigated. Machine learning classification models in combination with different preprocessing methods were applied to screen ground maize samples for naturally occurring aflatoxin and fumonisin as single contaminants and as co-contaminants. Partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and support vector machine (SVM) with the radial basis function (RBF) kernel were employed as classification models using cut-off values of each mycotoxin. The classification performance of the SVM was better than that of PLS-DA, and the highest classification accuracies for fluorescence, VNIR, and SWIR were 89.1%, 71.7%, and 95.7%, respectively. SWIR imaging with the SVM model resulted in higher classification accuracies compared to the fluorescence and VNIR models, suggesting that as an alternative to conventional wet chemical methods, the hyperspectral SWIR imaging detection model may be the more effective and efficient analytical tool for mycotoxin analysis compared to fluorescence or VNIR imaging models. These methods represent a food safety screening tool capable of rapidly detecting mycotoxins in maize or other food ingredients consumed by animals or humans.

Foodborne Diseases Due to Underestimated Hazard of Joint Mycotoxin Exposure at Low Levels and Possible Risk Assessment

The subject of this review paper is to evaluate the underestimated hazard of multiple mycotoxin exposure of animals/humans for the appearance of foodborne ailments and diseases. The significance of joint mycotoxin interaction in the development of foodborne diseases is discussed, and appropriate conclusions are made. The importance of low feed/food levels of some target mycotoxins co-contaminations in food and feedstuffs for induction of target foodborne mycotoxicoses is also studied in the available literature. The appropriate hygiene control and the necessary risk assessment in regard to possible hazards for animals and humans are also discussed, and appropriate suggestions are made. Some internationally recognized prophylactic measures, management of the risk, and the necessity of elaboration of new international regulations in regard to the maximum permitted levels are also carefully discussed and analysed in the cases of multiple mycotoxin contaminations. The necessity of harmonization of mycotoxin regulations and control measures at international levels is also discussed in order to facilitate food trade between the countries and to ensure global food safety.

Mycotoxins and consumers' awareness: Recent progress and future challenges

While food shortages have become an important challenge, providing safe food resources is a point of interest on a global scale. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites that are formed through various fungi species. They are mainly spread through diets such as food or beverages. About one quarter of the world's food is spoiled with mycotoxins. As this problem is not resolved, it represents a significant threat to global food security. Besides the current concerns regarding the contamination of food items by these metabolites, the lack of knowledge by consumers and their possible growth and toxin production attracted considerable attention. While globalization provides a favorite condition for some countries, food security still is challenging for most countries. There are various approaches to reducing the mycotoxigenic fungi growth and formation of mycotoxins in food, include as physical, chemical, and biological processes. The current article will focus on collecting data regarding consumers' awareness of mycotoxins. Furthermore, a critical overview and comparison among different preventative approaches to reduce risk by consumers will be discussed. Finally, the current effect of mycotoxins on global trade, besides future challenges faced by mycotoxin contamination on food security, will be discussed briefly.

Microfluidizing Technique Application for Algerian Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Effects Enhanced Volatile Content, Antimicrobial, and Anti-Mycotoxigenic Properties

Medicinal plant extracts are a promising source of bioactive minor contents. The present study aimed to evaluate the distinguished volatile content of Algerian Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf before and after the microfluidization process and their related antimicrobial and anti-mycotoxigenic impacts and changes. The GC-MS apparatus was utilized for a comparative examination of Algerian lemongrass essential oil (LGEO) with its microfluidization nanoemulsion (MF-LGEO) volatile content. The MF-LGEO was characterized using Zetasizer and an electron microscope. Cytotoxicity, antibacterial, and antifungal activities were determined for the LGEO and MF-LGEO. The result reflected changes in the content of volatiles for the MF-LGEO. The microfluidizing process enhanced the presence of compounds known for their exceptional antifungal and antibacterial properties in MF-LGEO, namely, neral, geranial, and carvacrol. However, certain terpenes, such as camphor and citronellal, were absent, while decanal, not found in the raw LGEO, was detected. The droplet diameter was 20.76 ± 0.36 nm, and the polydispersity index (PDI) was 0.179 ± 0.03. In cytotoxicity studies, LGEO showed higher activity against the HepG2 cell line than MF-LGEO. Antibacterial LGEO activity against Gram-positive bacteria recorded an inhibitory zone from 41.82 ± 2.84 mm to 58.74 ± 2.64 mm, while the zone ranged from 12.71 ± 1.38 mm to 16.54 ± 1.42 mm for Gram-negative bacteria. Antibacterial activity was enhanced to be up to 71.43 ± 2.54 nm and 31.54 ± 1.01 nm for MF-LGEO impact against Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens. The antifungal effect was considerable, particularly against Fusarium fungi. It reached 17.56 ± 1.01 mm and 13.04 ± 1.37 mm for LGEO and MF-LGEO application of a well-diffusion assay, respectively. The MF-LGEO was more promising in reducing mycotoxin production in simulated fungal growth media due to the changes linked to essential compounds content. The reduction ratio was 54.3% and 74.57% for total aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OCA) contents, respectively. These results reflect the microfluidizing improvement impact regarding the LGEO antibacterial, antifungal and anti-mycotoxigenic properties.