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Wei Y, Zeng Q, Gou H, Bao S. Update on feline calicivirus: viral evolution, pathogenesis, epidemiology, prevention and control. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1388420. [PMID: 38756726 PMCID: PMC11096512 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1388420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a prevalent and impactful viral pathogen affecting domestic cats. As an RNA virus, FCV exhibits high mutability and genetic plasticity, enabling its persistence within cat populations. Viral genetic diversity is associated with a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from asymptomatic infections and mild oral and upper respiratory tract diseases to the potential development of virulent systemic, and even fatal conditions. This diversity poses distinctive challenges in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases caused by FCV. Over the past four decades, research has significantly deepened understanding of this pathogen, with an emphasis on molecular biology, evolutionary dynamics, vaccine development, and disease management strategies. This review discusses various facets of FCV, including its genomic structure, evolution, innate immunity, pathogenesis, epidemiology, and approaches to disease management. FCV remains a complex and evolving concern in feline health, requiring continuous research to enhance understanding of its genetic diversity, to improve vaccine efficacy, and to explore novel treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Huitian Gou
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Shijun Bao
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
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2
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Duclos AA, Guzmán Ramos PJ, Mooney CT. Virulent systemic feline calicivirus infection: a case report and first description in Ireland. Ir Vet J 2024; 77:1. [PMID: 38336785 PMCID: PMC10854173 DOI: 10.1186/s13620-024-00262-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Virulent systemic feline calicivirus (VS-FCV) infection is an emerging disease. It is distinct from classic oronasal calicivirus infection as it manifests with unique systemic signs including severe cutaneous ulcerations, limb oedema, and high mortality, even in adequately vaccinated cats. Devastating epizootic outbreaks with hospital-acquired infections have been described in the United States, the United Kingdom, continental Europe and Australia with up to 54 cats affected in one outbreak and a mortality rate of up to 86%. This highly contagious and potentially fatal disease has not yet been reported in Ireland. CASE PRESENTATION An 11-month-old male neutered vaccinated domestic shorthair cat was presented with a 10-day history of lethargy, decreased appetite and progressively worsening pitting oedema in all four limbs. The signs were first noted after another kitten from a high-density cat shelter was introduced in to the household. Additional physical examination findings included marked pyrexia, and lingual and cutaneous ulcers. Virulent systemic feline calicivirus was diagnosed based on compatible history and clinical signs, exclusion of other causes, and calicivirus isolation by RT-PCR both in blood and oropharyngeal samples. Negative calicivirus RT-PCR in blood following resolution of the clinical signs further supported the diagnosis. CONCLUSION This case represents the first known case of VS-FCV infection in Ireland. Given the severity of the clinical signs, and the high risk for epizootic outbreaks, Irish veterinarians should be aware of the disease to ensure prompt diagnosis and implementation of adequate preventive measures, in order to limit the threat that this disease represents for the wider cat population and particularly given the risk of hospital-acquired VS-FCV infection. Virulent systemic calicivirus should be suspected in cats with pyrexia of unknown origin, oedema or ulceration affecting the limbs or the face, and exposure to rescue cats from high-density households.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine A Duclos
- Small Animal Clinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Pedro J Guzmán Ramos
- Small Animal Clinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Carmel T Mooney
- Small Animal Clinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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3
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Cao L, Liu J, Li Y, Xie D, Yan Q, Li Q, Cao Y, Du W, Li J, Ye Z, Zhou D, Kang C, Cao S. Biological Characteristics of Feline Calicivirus Epidemic Strains in China and Screening of Broad-Spectrum Protective Vaccine Strains. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1858. [PMID: 38140261 PMCID: PMC10747013 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11121858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 12/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is one of the most important pathogens causing upper respiratory tract diseases in cats, posing a serious health threat to these animals. At present, FCV is mainly prevented through vaccination, but the protective efficacy of vaccines in China is limited. In this study, based on the differences in capsid proteins of isolates from different regions in China, as reported in our previous studies, seven representative FCV epidemic strains were selected and tested for their viral titers, virulence, immunogenicity, and extensive cross-protection. Subsequently, vaccine strains were selected to prepare inactivated vaccines. The whole-genome sequencing and analysis results showed that these seven representative FCV strains and 144 reference strains fell into five groups (A, B, C, D, and E). The strains isolated in China mainly fall into groups C and D, exhibiting regional characteristics. These Chinese isolates had a distant evolutionary relationship and low homology with the current FCV-255 vaccine strain. The screened FCV-HB7 and FCV-HB10 strains displayed desirable in vitro culture characteristics, with the highest virus proliferation titers (109.5 TCID50/mL) at 36 h post inoculation at a dose of 0.01 MOI. All five cats infected intranasally with FCV-HB7 or FCV-HB10 strains showed obvious clinical symptoms of FCV. The symptoms of cats infected with the FCV-HB7 strain were more severe than those infected with the FCV-HB10 strain. Both the single-strain inactivated immunization and combined bivalent inactivated vaccine immunization of FCV-HB7 and FCV-HB10 induced high neutralizing antibody titers in five cats immunized. Moreover, bivalent inactivated vaccine immunization protected cats from FCV-HB7 and FCV-HB10 strains. The cross-neutralizing antibody titer against seven representative FCV epidemic strains achieved by combined bivalent inactivated vaccine immunization was higher than that achieved by single-strain immunization, which was much higher than that achieved by commercial vaccine FCV-255 strain immunization. The above results suggest that the FCV-HB7 and FCV-HB10 strains screened in this study have great potential to become vaccine strains with broad-spectrum protective efficacy. However, their immune protective efficacy needs to be further verified by multiple methods before clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longlong Cao
- Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430070, China; (L.C.); (Y.L.); (Q.Y.); (Q.L.); (W.D.); (J.L.); (Z.Y.); (D.Z.)
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jian Liu
- Shanghai Animal Disease Prevention and Control Center, Shanghai 201103, China;
| | - Yongfan Li
- Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430070, China; (L.C.); (Y.L.); (Q.Y.); (Q.L.); (W.D.); (J.L.); (Z.Y.); (D.Z.)
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Denglong Xie
- Zhejiang Hisun Animal Healthcare Products Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 311400, China;
| | - Quanhui Yan
- Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430070, China; (L.C.); (Y.L.); (Q.Y.); (Q.L.); (W.D.); (J.L.); (Z.Y.); (D.Z.)
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Qiuyan Li
- Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430070, China; (L.C.); (Y.L.); (Q.Y.); (Q.L.); (W.D.); (J.L.); (Z.Y.); (D.Z.)
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yiran Cao
- Department of Life Science, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK;
| | - Wenxin Du
- Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430070, China; (L.C.); (Y.L.); (Q.Y.); (Q.L.); (W.D.); (J.L.); (Z.Y.); (D.Z.)
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jiakang Li
- Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430070, China; (L.C.); (Y.L.); (Q.Y.); (Q.L.); (W.D.); (J.L.); (Z.Y.); (D.Z.)
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zijun Ye
- Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430070, China; (L.C.); (Y.L.); (Q.Y.); (Q.L.); (W.D.); (J.L.); (Z.Y.); (D.Z.)
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Dengyuan Zhou
- Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430070, China; (L.C.); (Y.L.); (Q.Y.); (Q.L.); (W.D.); (J.L.); (Z.Y.); (D.Z.)
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Chao Kang
- Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430070, China; (L.C.); (Y.L.); (Q.Y.); (Q.L.); (W.D.); (J.L.); (Z.Y.); (D.Z.)
| | - Shengbo Cao
- Wuhan Keqian Biology Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430070, China; (L.C.); (Y.L.); (Q.Y.); (Q.L.); (W.D.); (J.L.); (Z.Y.); (D.Z.)
- National Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
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4
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Lu C, Liu X, Song R, Tao W, Yu Y, Yang H, Shan H, Zhang C. Genetic and pathogenicity analysis for the two FCV strains isolated from Eastern China. Vet Res Commun 2023; 47:2127-2136. [PMID: 37454000 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-023-10167-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the diversity and regularity of two new feline calicivirus (FCV) isolates, QD-7 and QD-164, were investigated. The genomes of these new strains were compared with 39 strains from the NCBI database including isolates from China, United States, Germany, South Korea, the United Kingdom and Japan. The nucleotide sequence identities ranged from 75-88%, indicating a high degree of variability. These variations were not related to distributions of the virus by time of isolation and geographical location. Cats that were experimentally infected with the new isolate QD-164 showed typical clinical symptoms of sneezing, fever and conjunctivitis and all recovered within 30 days. In contrast, QD-7 infections were asymptomatic and the virus was cleared within 16 days. These results indicate that QD-7 and QD-164 were naturally attenuated strains. NNS mutations characteristic of highly virulent strains at positions 441-443 were absent in QD-7 while QD-164 possessed an N at position 442. This indicated that mutations in regions 441-443 may be linked to disease severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengyun Lu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xuejiao Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Ranran Song
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Weijie Tao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yongle Yu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Haiyan Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Hu Shan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Chuanmei Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China.
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5
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Kuhlmeier E, Chan T, Agüí CV, Willi B, Wolfensberger A, Beisel C, Topolsky I, Beerenwinkel N, Stadler T, Jones S, Tyson G, Hosie MJ, Reitt K, Hüttl J, Meli ML, Hofmann-Lehmann R. Detection and Molecular Characterization of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta Variant and the Specific Immune Response in Companion Animals in Switzerland. Viruses 2023; 15:245. [PMID: 36680285 PMCID: PMC9864232 DOI: 10.3390/v15010245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
In human beings, there are five reported variants of concern of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2). However, in contrast to human beings, descriptions of infections of animals with specific variants are still rare. The aim of this study is to systematically investigate SARS-CoV-2 infections in companion animals in close contact with SARS-CoV-2-positive owners ("COVID-19 households") with a focus on the Delta variant. Samples, obtained from companion animals and their owners were analyzed using a real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and next-generation sequencing (NGS). Animals were also tested for antibodies and neutralizing activity against SARS-CoV-2. Eleven cats and three dogs in nine COVID-19-positive households were RT-qPCR and/or serologically positive for the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant. For seven animals, the genetic sequence could be determined. The animals were infected by one of the pangolin lineages B.1.617.2, AY.4, AY.43 and AY.129 and between zero and three single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were detected between the viral genomes of animals and their owners, indicating within-household transmission between animal and owner and in multi-pet households also between the animals. NGS data identified SNPs that occur at a higher frequency in the viral sequences of companion animals than in viral sequences of humans, as well as SNPs, which were exclusively found in the animals investigated in the current study and not in their owners. In conclusion, our study is the first to describe the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant transmission to animals in Switzerland and provides the first-ever description of Delta-variant pangolin lineages AY.129 and AY.4 in animals. Our results reinforce the need of a One Health approach in the monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn Kuhlmeier
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tatjana Chan
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Cecilia Valenzuela Agüí
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
- SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Barbara Willi
- Clinic for Small Animal Internal Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Aline Wolfensberger
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christian Beisel
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ivan Topolsky
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
- SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Niko Beerenwinkel
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
- SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Tanja Stadler
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
- SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Sarah Jones
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Grace Tyson
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Margaret J. Hosie
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Katja Reitt
- Center for Laboratory Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic Services, Frohbergstrasse 3, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Julia Hüttl
- Center for Laboratory Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic Services, Frohbergstrasse 3, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Marina L. Meli
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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6
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Hofmann-Lehmann R, Hosie MJ, Hartmann K, Egberink H, Truyen U, Tasker S, Belák S, Boucraut-Baralon C, Frymus T, Lloret A, Marsilio F, Pennisi MG, Addie DD, Lutz H, Thiry E, Radford AD, Möstl K. Calicivirus Infection in Cats. Viruses 2022; 14:937. [PMID: 35632680 PMCID: PMC9145992 DOI: 10.3390/v14050937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common pathogen in domestic cats that is highly contagious, resistant to many disinfectants and demonstrates a high genetic variability. FCV infection can lead to serious or even fatal diseases. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European countries, presents the current knowledge of FCV infection and fills gaps with expert opinions. FCV infections are particularly problematic in multicat environments. FCV-infected cats often show painful erosions in the mouth and mild upper respiratory disease and, particularly in kittens, even fatal pneumonia. However, infection can be associated with chronic gingivostomatitis. Rarely, highly virulent FCV variants can induce severe systemic disease with epizootic spread and high mortality. FCV can best be detected by reverse-transcriptase PCR. However, a negative result does not rule out FCV infection and healthy cats can test positive. All cats should be vaccinated against FCV (core vaccine); however, vaccination protects cats from disease but not from infection. Considering the high variability of FCV, changing to different vaccine strain(s) may be of benefit if disease occurs in fully vaccinated cats. Infection-induced immunity is not life-long and does not protect against all strains; therefore, vaccination of cats that have recovered from caliciviral disease is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Margaret J. Hosie
- MRC—University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK;
| | - Katrin Hartmann
- Clinic of Small Animal Medicine, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany;
| | - Herman Egberink
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - Uwe Truyen
- Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Séverine Tasker
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK;
- Linnaeus Veterinary Limited, Shirley, Solihull B90 4BN, UK
| | - Sándor Belák
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health (BVF), Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 7036, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden;
| | | | - Tadeusz Frymus
- Department of Small Animal Diseases with Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Albert Lloret
- Fundació Hospital Clínic Veterinari, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - Fulvio Marsilio
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy;
| | - Maria Grazia Pennisi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Università di Messina, 98168 Messina, Italy;
| | - Diane D. Addie
- Veterinary Diagnostic Services, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK;
| | - Hans Lutz
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Etienne Thiry
- Veterinary Virology and Animal Viral Diseases, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health Research Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Liège University, B-4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Alan D. Radford
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK;
| | - Karin Möstl
- Institute of Virology, Department for Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria;
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7
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Spiri AM, Novacco M, Meli ML, Stirn M, Riond B, Fogle JE, Boretti FS, Herbert I, Hosie MJ, Hofmann-Lehmann R. Modified-Live Feline Calicivirus Vaccination Elicits Cellular Immunity against a Current Feline Calicivirus Field Strain in an Experimental Feline Challenge Study. Viruses 2021; 13:v13091736. [PMID: 34578316 PMCID: PMC8473420 DOI: 10.3390/v13091736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common cat virus associated with oral ulcerations and virulent-systemic disease. Efficacious FCV vaccines protect against severe disease but not against infection. The high genetic diversity of FCV poses a challenge in vaccine design. Protection against FCV has been related to humoral and cellular immunity; the latter has not been studied in detail. This study investigates the cellular and humoral immune response of specified pathogen-free (SPF) cats after modified-live FCV F9 vaccinations and two heterologous FCV challenges by the analysis of lymphocyte subsets, cytokine mRNA transcription levels, interferon (IFN)-γ release assays in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), anti-FCV antibodies, and neutralisation activity. Vaccinated cats developed a Th1 cytokine response after vaccination. Vaccination resulted in antibodies with neutralising activity against the vaccine but not the challenge viruses. Remarkably, IFN-γ-releasing PBMCs were detected in vaccinated cats upon stimulation with the vaccine strain and the first heterologous FCV challenge strain. After the first experimental infection, the mRNA transcription levels of perforin, granzyme B, INF-γ, and antiviral factor MX1 and the number of IFN-γ-releasing PBMCs when stimulated with the first challenge virus were higher in vaccinated cats compared to control cats. The first FCV challenge induced crossneutralising antibodies in all cats against the second challenge virus. Before the second challenge, vaccinated cats had a higher number of IFN-γ-releasing PBMCs when stimulated with the second challenge virus than control cats. After the second FCV challenge, there were less significant differences detected between the groups regarding lymphocyte subsets and cytokine mRNA transcription levels. In conclusion, modified-live FCV vaccination induced cellular but not humoral crossimmunity in SPF cats; innate immune mechanisms, secretory and membranolytic pathways, and IFN-γ-releasing PBMCs seem to be important in the host immune defence against FCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea M. Spiri
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.N.); (M.L.M.); (M.S.); (B.R.); (R.H.-L.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +41-44-635-83-78
| | - Marilisa Novacco
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.N.); (M.L.M.); (M.S.); (B.R.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Marina L. Meli
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.N.); (M.L.M.); (M.S.); (B.R.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Martina Stirn
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.N.); (M.L.M.); (M.S.); (B.R.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Barbara Riond
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.N.); (M.L.M.); (M.S.); (B.R.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Jonathan E. Fogle
- Comparative Immunology Research Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA;
| | - Felicitas S. Boretti
- Clinic for Small Animal Internal Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Imogen Herbert
- Medical Research Council-University of Glasgow, Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (I.H.); (M.J.H.)
| | - Margaret J. Hosie
- Medical Research Council-University of Glasgow, Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (I.H.); (M.J.H.)
| | - Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.N.); (M.L.M.); (M.S.); (B.R.); (R.H.-L.)
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8
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Spiri AM, Riond B, Stirn M, Novacco M, Meli ML, Boretti FS, Herbert I, Hosie MJ, Hofmann-Lehmann R. Modified-Live Feline Calicivirus Vaccination Reduces Viral RNA Loads, Duration of RNAemia, and the Severity of Clinical Signs after Heterologous Feline Calicivirus Challenge. Viruses 2021; 13:1505. [PMID: 34452370 PMCID: PMC8402717 DOI: 10.3390/v13081505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common cat virus causing clinical signs such as oral ulcerations, fever, reduced general condition, pneumonia, limping and occasionally virulent-systemic disease. Efficacious FCV vaccines protect against severe disease but not against infection. FCV is a highly mutagenic RNA virus whose high genetic diversity poses a challenge in vaccine design. The use of only one modified-live FCV strain over several decades might have driven the viral evolution towards more vaccine-resistant variants. The present study investigated the clinical signs, duration, and amount of FCV shedding, RNAemia, haematological changes and acute phase protein reaction in SPF cats after subcutaneous modified-live single strain FCV vaccination or placebo injection and two subsequent oronasal heterologous FCV challenge infections with two different field strains. Neither clinical signs nor FCV shedding from the oropharynx and FCV RNAemia were detected after vaccination. After the first experimental infection, vaccinated cats had significantly lower clinical scores, less increased body temperature and lower acute phase protein levels than control cats. The viral RNA loads from the oropharynx and duration and amount of RNAemia were significantly lower in the vaccinated animals. No clinical signs were observed in any of the cats after the second experimental infection. In conclusion, FCV vaccination was beneficial for protecting cats from severe clinical signs, reducing viral loads and inflammation after FCV challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea M. Spiri
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (B.R.); (M.S.); (M.N.); (M.L.M.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Barbara Riond
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (B.R.); (M.S.); (M.N.); (M.L.M.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Martina Stirn
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (B.R.); (M.S.); (M.N.); (M.L.M.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Marilisa Novacco
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (B.R.); (M.S.); (M.N.); (M.L.M.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Marina L. Meli
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (B.R.); (M.S.); (M.N.); (M.L.M.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Felicitas S. Boretti
- Clinic for Small Animal Internal Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Imogen Herbert
- Medical Research Council-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (I.H.); (M.J.H.)
| | - Margaret J. Hosie
- Medical Research Council-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (I.H.); (M.J.H.)
| | - Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (B.R.); (M.S.); (M.N.); (M.L.M.); (R.H.-L.)
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9
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Klaus J, Zini E, Hartmann K, Egberink H, Kipar A, Bergmann M, Palizzotto C, Zhao S, Rossi F, Franco V, Porporato F, Hofmann-Lehmann R, Meli ML. SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Dogs and Cats from Southern Germany and Northern Italy during the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Viruses 2021; 13:1453. [PMID: 34452319 PMCID: PMC8402904 DOI: 10.3390/v13081453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has affected millions of people globally since its first detection in late 2019. Besides humans, cats and, to some extent, dogs were shown to be susceptible to SARS-CoV-2, highlighting the need for surveillance in a One Health context. Seven veterinary clinics from regions with high incidences of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) were recruited during the early pandemic (March to July 2020) for the screening of patients. A total of 2257 oropharyngeal and nasal swab specimen from 877 dogs and 260 cats (including 18 animals from COVID-19-affected households and 92 animals with signs of respiratory disease) were analyzed for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA using reverse transcriptase real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) targeting the viral envelope (E) and RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) genes. One oropharyngeal swab from an Italian cat, living in a COVID-19-affected household in Piedmont, tested positive in RT-qPCR (1/260; 0.38%, 95% CI: 0.01-2.1%), and SARS-CoV-2 infection of the animal was serologically confirmed six months later. One oropharyngeal swab from a dog was potentially positive (1/877; 0.1%, 95% CI: 0.002-0.63%), but the result was not confirmed in a reference laboratory. Analyses of convenience sera from 118 animals identified one dog (1/94; 1.1%; 95% CI: 0.02-5.7%) from Lombardy, but no cats (0/24), as positive for anti-SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain (RBD) antibodies and neutralizing activity. These findings support the hypothesis that the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in pet cat and dog populations, and hence, the risk of zoonotic transmission to veterinary staff, was low during the first wave of the pandemic, even in hotspot areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Klaus
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (R.H.-L.); (M.L.M.)
| | - Eric Zini
- AniCura Istituto Veterinario Novara, Strada Provinciale 9, 28060 Granozzo con Monticello, Novara, Italy; (E.Z.); (C.P.); (F.R.); (V.F.); (F.P.)
- Clinic for Small Animal Internal Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Animal Medicine, Production and Health, University of Padova, Viale dell′Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - Katrin Hartmann
- Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Clinic of Small Animal Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany; (K.H.); (M.B.)
| | - Herman Egberink
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands; (H.E.); (S.Z.)
| | - Anja Kipar
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 268, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Michèle Bergmann
- Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Clinic of Small Animal Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany; (K.H.); (M.B.)
| | - Carlo Palizzotto
- AniCura Istituto Veterinario Novara, Strada Provinciale 9, 28060 Granozzo con Monticello, Novara, Italy; (E.Z.); (C.P.); (F.R.); (V.F.); (F.P.)
| | - Shan Zhao
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands; (H.E.); (S.Z.)
- Research Center of Swine Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Francesco Rossi
- AniCura Istituto Veterinario Novara, Strada Provinciale 9, 28060 Granozzo con Monticello, Novara, Italy; (E.Z.); (C.P.); (F.R.); (V.F.); (F.P.)
| | - Vittoria Franco
- AniCura Istituto Veterinario Novara, Strada Provinciale 9, 28060 Granozzo con Monticello, Novara, Italy; (E.Z.); (C.P.); (F.R.); (V.F.); (F.P.)
| | - Federico Porporato
- AniCura Istituto Veterinario Novara, Strada Provinciale 9, 28060 Granozzo con Monticello, Novara, Italy; (E.Z.); (C.P.); (F.R.); (V.F.); (F.P.)
| | - Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (R.H.-L.); (M.L.M.)
| | - Marina L. Meli
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (R.H.-L.); (M.L.M.)
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10
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Beatty JA, Hartmann K. Advances in Feline Viruses and Viral Diseases. Viruses 2021; 13:v13050923. [PMID: 34067533 PMCID: PMC8156448 DOI: 10.3390/v13050923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Julia A. Beatty
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences and Centre for Companion Animal Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University, Hong Kong, China
- Correspondence:
| | - Katrin Hartmann
- Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany;
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11
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Klaus J, Meli ML, Willi B, Nadeau S, Beisel C, Stadler T, Egberink H, Zhao S, Lutz H, Riond B, Rösinger N, Stalder H, Renzullo S, Hofmann-Lehmann R. Detection and Genome Sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 in a Domestic Cat with Respiratory Signs in Switzerland. Viruses 2021; 13:496. [PMID: 33802899 PMCID: PMC8002591 DOI: 10.3390/v13030496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the emergence of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in late 2019, domestic cats have been demonstrated to be susceptible to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) under natural and experimental conditions. As pet cats often live in very close contact with their owners, it is essential to investigate SARS-CoV-2 infections in cats in a One-Health context. This study reports the first SARS-CoV-2 infection in a cat in a COVID-19-affected household in Switzerland. The cat (Cat 1) demonstrated signs of an upper respiratory tract infection, including sneezing, inappetence, and apathy, while the cohabiting cat (Cat 2) remained asymptomatic. Nasal, oral, fecal, fur, and environmental swab samples were collected twice from both cats and analyzed by RT-qPCR for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA. Both nasal swabs from Cat 1 tested positive. In addition, the first oral swab from Cat 2 and fur and bedding swabs from both cats were RT-qPCR positive. The fecal swabs tested negative. The infection of Cat 1 was confirmed by positive SARS-CoV-2 S1 receptor binding domain (RBD) antibody testing and neutralizing activity in a surrogate assay. The viral genome sequence from Cat 1, obtained by next generation sequencing, showed the closest relation to a human sequence from the B.1.1.39 lineage, with one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) difference. This study demonstrates not only SARS-CoV-2 infection of a cat from a COVID-19-affected household but also contamination of the cats' fur and bed with viral RNA. Our results are important to create awareness that SARS-CoV-2 infected people should observe hygienic measures to avoid infection and contamination of animal cohabitants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Klaus
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.L.M.); (H.L.); (B.R.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Marina L. Meli
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.L.M.); (H.L.); (B.R.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Barbara Willi
- Clinic for Small Animal Internal Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (B.W.); (N.R.)
| | - Sarah Nadeau
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058 Basel, Switzerland; (S.N.); (C.B.); (T.S.)
- SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Beisel
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058 Basel, Switzerland; (S.N.); (C.B.); (T.S.)
| | - Tanja Stadler
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zurich, 4058 Basel, Switzerland; (S.N.); (C.B.); (T.S.)
- SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Herman Egberink
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands; (H.E.); (S.Z.)
| | - Shan Zhao
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands; (H.E.); (S.Z.)
| | - Hans Lutz
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.L.M.); (H.L.); (B.R.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Barbara Riond
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.L.M.); (H.L.); (B.R.); (R.H.-L.)
| | - Nina Rösinger
- Clinic for Small Animal Internal Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (B.W.); (N.R.)
| | - Hanspeter Stalder
- Institute for Virology and Immunology IVI, Sensemattstrasse 293, 3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland; (H.S.); (S.R.)
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3001 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Sandra Renzullo
- Institute for Virology and Immunology IVI, Sensemattstrasse 293, 3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland; (H.S.); (S.R.)
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3001 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.L.M.); (H.L.); (B.R.); (R.H.-L.)
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12
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Marenzoni ML, Conti MB, Rossi E, Rinoldo R, Franceschini R, Tesei E, Porciello F, Mancini S, Favi B, Gamboni M, Boni P, Raffaele O, Desario C, Franciosini MP, Buonavoglia C, Decaro N. Detection of environmental contamination with feline and canine parvoviruses: new perspectives and challenges. J Appl Microbiol 2020; 131:499-512. [PMID: 33325600 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To develop a protocol for environmental sampling to detect parvoviruses of dogs and cats in the environment. METHODS AND RESULTS Environmental contamination was carried out using different dilutions of parvovirus-contaminated materials; further field samplings were performed in areas in which clinical cases of parvovirus infections were present. Sterile cotton swabs and sponges for microbial surface sampling were used. Viruses were detected in these samples with different methods: conventional PCR, nested PCR and real-time PCR, detecting viral DNA; virus isolation, detecting infectious virus; and a commercial rapid enzyme immunoassay, detecting viral antigen. No substantial differences were observed in the two sampling methods, although the sponge was more convenient for sampling rough surfaces. Molecular assays were the most sensitive methods, identifying even very low amounts of viral DNA (up to 10 copies of viral DNA/10 µl of sample). Virus isolation and the rapid test detected the viruses only at the highest viral concentrations, both in the experimental setting and field conditions. CONCLUSIONS Environmental sampling and molecular protocols were effective in detecting environmental contamination with parvoviruses. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The protocol will be useful to identify possible sources of infection and to assess the efficacy of disinfection protocols in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Marenzoni
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - M B Conti
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - E Rossi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - R Rinoldo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - R Franceschini
- Department of Engineering of Sustainability, Guglielmo Marconi University, Rome, Italy
| | - E Tesei
- Servizio Veterinario, Area Igiene degli Alimenti di Origine Animale, Dipartimento di Prevenzione, Azienda Sanitaria Universitaria Friuli Centrale, Udine, Italy
| | - F Porciello
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - S Mancini
- Servizio di Sanità Animale, ASL 1 Umbria, Perugia, Italy
| | - B Favi
- Servizio di Sanità Animale, ASL 1 Umbria, Perugia, Italy
| | - M Gamboni
- Private Practictioner, Central Italy, Perugia, Italy
| | - P Boni
- Private Practictioner, Central Italy, Perugia, Italy
| | - O Raffaele
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - C Desario
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, Valenzano (Bari), Italy
| | - M P Franciosini
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - C Buonavoglia
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, Valenzano (Bari), Italy
| | - N Decaro
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, Valenzano (Bari), Italy
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