Defining New Pathways to Manage the Ongoing Emergence of Bat Rabies in Latin America

Detection of rabies virus in Callithrix penicillata (Geoffroy, 1812) in Montes Claros, Minas Gerais State, Brazil

This report describes the occurrence of the rabies virus in two species of wild animals in the urban area of Montes Claros (MOC), Minas Gerais State, Brazil, in May 2023. The virus has been detected in frugivorous chiropterans (Artibeus sp) and marmosets (Callithrix penicillata). This is the first notified case of the rabies virus in the species C. penicillata in the urban area of MOC. Our findings show that the rabies virus is circulating in the urban area of MOC; therefore, permanent preventive measures must be adopted to avoid infection of other animals and humans.

Rapid taxonomic categorization of short, abundant virus sequences for ecological analyses

Public health concerns about recent viral epidemics have motivated researchers to seek novel ways to understand pathogen infection in native, wildlife hosts. With its deep history of tools and perspectives for understanding the abundance and distribution of organisms, ecology can shed new light on viral infection dynamics. However, datasets allowing deep explorations of viral communities from an ecological perspective are lacking. We sampled 1086 bats from two, adjacent Puerto Rican caves and tested them for infection by herpesviruses, resulting in 3131 short, viral sequences. Using percent identity of nucleotides and a machine learning algorithm (affinity propagation), we categorized herpesviruses into 43 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) to be used in place of species in subsequent ecological analyses. Herpesvirus metacommunities demonstrated long-tailed rank frequency distributions at all analyzed levels of host organization (i.e., individual, population, and community). Although 13 herpesvirus OTUs were detected in more than one host species, OTUs generally exhibited host specificity by infecting a single core host species at a significantly higher prevalence than in all satellite species combined. We describe the natural history of herpesvirus metacommunities in Puerto Rican bats and suggest that viruses follow the general law that communities comprise few common and many rare species. To guide future efforts in the field of viral ecology, hypotheses are presented regarding mechanisms that contribute to these patterns.

Rabies Virus-Neutralizing Antibodies in Free-Ranging Invasive Wild Boars (Sus scrofa) from Brazil

Rabies, one of the most lethal global zoonoses, affects all mammals. It remains circulating worldwide in sylvatic cycles through terrestrial and airborne reservoirs, and in Brazil, bats are currently the main reservoirs and source of transmission. Wild boars, an important invasive alien species in Brazil, are a proven food source for hematophagous bats and may participate in the Brazilian sylvatic cycle of rabies. We evaluated the presence of this pathogen in hunted wild boars from the São Paulo state using histopathology, the direct fluorescent antibody test (DFA), viral isolation in cell culture (VICC), the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT), and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The results of histopathological, DFA, VICC, and RT-qPCR analysis were negative for all samples; seven serum samples tested positive in the RFFIT, and titers ranged from 0.13 IU/mL to 0.5 IU/mL. The presence of rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies in the studied wild boars suggests the circulation of the virus in these animals. Educative actions directed at hunters should include information on the prevention of this important zoonosis.

Spatial-temporal risk factors in the occurrence of rabies in Mexico

Rabies is a zoonotic disease that affects livestock worldwide. The distribution of rabies is highly correlated with the distribution of the vampire bat Desmodus rotundus, the main vector of the disease. In this study, climatic, topographic, livestock population, vampire distribution and urban and rural zones were used to estimate the risk for presentation of cases of rabies in Mexico by co- Kriging interpolation. The highest risk for the presentation of cases is in the endemic areas of the disease, i.e. the States of Yucatán, Chiapas, Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Veracruz, San Luis Potosí, Nayarit and Baja California Sur. A transition zone for cases was identified across northern Mexico, involving the States of Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, and Durango. The variables topography, vampire distribution, bovine population and rural zones are the most important to explain the risk of cases in livestock. This study provides robust estimates of risk and spread of rabies based on geostatistical methods. The information presented should be useful for authorities responsible of public and animal health when they plan and establish strategies preventing the spread of rabies into rabies-free regions of México.

Risk Factors Associated with Soil-Transmitted Helminths in Dog Feces That Contaminate Public Areas of Warsaw, Poland

A constant increase in dog numbers, especially in large towns, has been observed recently. The presence of dogs in urban spaces increases the risk of pollution by dogs' feces, which may contain growth forms of parasites including canine, soil-transmitted helminths (cSTHs), most of which have a proven zoonotic potential. This study assessed the frequency of occurrence and estimated the potential risk associated with the presence of cSTHs in dogs' feces left uncollected in urban areas. The study material consisted of 200 fecal samples obtained from city and dog parks situated in selected Warsaw districts. Each fecal sample was processed using the flotation technique. Eggs of cSTHs, including Toxocara canis, Toxascaris leonina, Trichuris vulpis, and hookworms from the Ancylostomatidae family were found in 23 (11.5%) of the examined fecal samples. The most prevalent species were hookworms from the family Ancylostomatidae (8%). The presence of parasites was confirmed in 14 out of 20 studied locations (70%), including eight city parks (72.7%) and six dog parks (66.7%). City and dog parks did not differ significantly in the frequency of parasite occurrence. This study indicated that dogs' feces, left uncollected, may cause environmental contamination with cSTHs. It also indicated that the presence of dogs' feces in public areas and the associated presence of parasites is still a problem.

Empowering Riverine Communities in the Amazon: Strategies for Preventing Rabies

Rabies, caused by the Lyssavirus genus, is a highly lethal zoonotic disease transmitted by animals such as bats and domestic and wild carnivores to humans, claiming nearly 100% of lives. In Brazil, recent evidence suggests an increasing role of bats in human deaths from rabies, particularly in the Amazon region. This neglected tropical disease disproportionately affects impoverished and vulnerable populations in rural areas, where approximately 80% of human cases are concentrated. This article presents research conducted in riverine communities of the Tapajós/Arapiuns Extractive Reserve in Brazil to combat rabies in September 2022. The study adopted a participatory and collaborative approach, involving community members, healthcare professionals, and educators. Prioritizing proactive interventions, the health team administered prophylactic vaccinations to 30 individuals residing in communities exposed to the Lyssavirus. Educational activities focused on dispelling myths and raising awareness about preventive measures, with 100% of individuals reporting prior doubts about the disease, emphasizing the essential nature of the clarification, especially regarding preventive aspects. This study underscores the importance of community involvement, personalized interventions, and ongoing education to effectively combat rabies. By reinforcing public health policies and promoting health education, we can empower communities to take proactive measures in rabies prevention, leading to a reduction in incidence and an improvement in quality of life.

High risk of bat bites in an indigenous village in Brazil: Warning of the re-emergence of rabies among the Maxakali People

Bat-mediated human rabies is a viral zoonotic disease that poses a serious threat to the public health of traditional peoples, especially indigenous populations that maintain primitive cultural and social habits, such as the Maxakali ethnic group, located in the southeastern region of Brazil. The sociocultural habit of this population led to the emergence between April and May 2022 of the viral spillover of rabies transmitted by bats, which decimated the lives of four children from this population who maintained contact with this animal as a recreational practice. Because the vampire bats Desmodus rotundus have exceptional ecology and social characteristics that can have important effects on the dynamics of viral dispersion in this indigenous population, I present the dynamics of contact between native children and the bat and the meaning of this relationship, which involves ritualistic and recreational significance. As important as knowing the reasons for this practice is discussing some intrinsic and extrinsic factors that imply risks that intensify the vulnerability of this population to the transmission of the rabies virus at any time. In view of this, I warn of the need to adopt efficient strategies to mitigate the risks of a new emergency in this region. Although emergency containment measures were carried out during the critical period of the outbreak, such animal and environmental control actions must become routine programmatic and structuring interventions. Essential for rabies surveillance in this population is to develop culturally adapted interethnic health education campaigns to guarantee the accessibility of the Maxakali indigenous people to the content taught, so that any attempt at domestication, captivity and recreational practices with bats of any species is discouraged, thus avoiding a possible re-emergence of this anthropozoonosis that has impacted not only the epidemiological scenario in this region, but throughout Brazil, and also throughout Latin America.

Dispersion and diversification of Lyssavirus rabies transmitted from haematophagous bats Desmodus rotundus: a phylogeographical study

Rabies is worldwide zoonosis caused by Lyssavirus rabies (RABV) a RNA negative sense virus with low level of fidelity during replication cycle. Nucleoprotein of RABV is the most conserved between all five proteins of the virus and is the most used gene for phylogenetic and phylogeographic studies. Despite of rabies been very important in Public Health concern, it demands continuous prophylactic care for herbivores with economic interest, such as cattle and horses. The main transmitter of RABV for these animals in Brazil is the hematophagous bats Desmodus rotundus. The aim of this study was to determine the dispersion over time and space of RABV transmitted by D. rotundus. Samples of RABV from the State of São Paulo (SP), Southeast Brazil isolated from the central nervous system (CNS) of cattle, were submitted to RNA extraction, RT-PCR, sequencing and phylogeographic analyzes with BEAST (Bayesian Evolutionary Analysis Sampling Trees) v 2.5 software. Was possible to identify high rate of diversification in starts sublineages of RABV what are correlated with a behavior of D. rotundus, the main transmitter of rabies to cattle. This study also highlights the importance of continuous monitoring of genetic lineages of RABV in Brazil.

No Evidence of Rabies Exposure in Wild Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) of Northeast Brazil

Rabies transmitted by wildlife is the main source of human rabies mortality in Latin America and considered an emerging disease. The common marmoset Callithrix jacchus of Brazil is the only known primate reservoir of rabies worldwide. We tested whether alive free-ranging C. jacchus were exposed to rabies in four northeast states that have previously reported rabies-positive dead C. jacchus (Pernambuco and Bahia) or not (Paraíba and Rio Grande do Norte). Our results show no evidence of rabies antibodies or infection in the sampled C. jacchus, suggesting that apparently healthy marmosets are not widely exposed to rabies over their natural range.

Genomic Surveillance of Rabies Virus in Georgian Canines

Rabies is a fatal zoonosis that is considered a re-emerging infectious disease. Although rabies remains endemic in canines throughout much of the world, vaccination programs have essentially eliminated dog rabies in the Americas and much of Europe. However, despite the goal of eliminating dog rabies in the European Union by 2020, sporadic cases of dog rabies still occur in Eastern Europe, including Georgia. To assess the genetic diversity of the strains recently circulating in Georgia, we sequenced seventy-eight RABV-positive samples from the brain tissues of rabid dogs and jackals using Illumina short-read sequencing of total RNA shotgun libraries. Seventy-seven RABV genomes were successfully assembled and annotated, with seventy-four of them reaching the coding-complete status. Phylogenetic analyses of the nucleoprotein (N) and attachment glycoprotein (G) genes placed all the assembled genomes into the Cosmopolitan clade, consistent with the Georgian origin of the samples. An amino acid alignment of the G glycoprotein ectodomain identified twelve different sequences for this domain among the samples. Only one of the ectodomain groups contained a residue change in an antigenic site, an R264H change in the G5 antigenic site. Three isolates were cultured, and these were found to be efficiently neutralized by the human monoclonal antibody A6. Overall, our data show that recently circulating RABV isolates from Georgian canines are predominantly closely related phylogroup I viruses of the Cosmopolitan clade. Current human rabies vaccines should offer protection against infection by Georgian canine RABVs. The genomes have been deposited in GenBank (accessions: OQ603609-OQ603685).

A review of the diet of the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) in the context of anthropogenic change

The common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) maintains a diverse, sanguivorous diet, utilizing a broad range of prey taxa. As anthropogenic change alters the distribution of this species, shifts in predator-prey interactions are expected. Understanding prey richness and patterns of prey selection is, thus, increasingly informative from ecological, epidemiological, and economic perspectives. We reviewed D. rotundus diet and assessed the geographical, taxonomical, and behavioral features to find 63 vertebrate species within 21 orders and 45 families constitute prey, including suitable host species in regions of invasion outside D. rotundus' range. Rodentia contained the largest number of species utilized by D. rotundus, though cattle were the most commonly reported prey source, likely linked to the high availability of livestock and visibility of bite wounds compared to wildlife. Additionally, there was tendency to predate upon species with diurnal activity and social behavior, potentially facilitating convenient and nocturnal predation. Our review highlights the dietary heterogeneity of D. rotundus across its distribution. We define D. rotundus as a generalist predator, or parasite, depending on the ecological definition of its symbiont roles in an ecosystem (i.e., lethal vs. non-lethal blood consumption). In view of the eminent role of D. rotundus in rabies virus transmission and its range expansion, an understanding of its ecology would benefit public health, wildlife management, and agriculture.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42991-023-00358-3.

Preventive healthcare among dogs and cats in Chile is positively associated with emotional owner-companion animal bond and socioeconomic factors

Global companion animal population has been increasing as well as the number of dogs and cats being considered as a family member. However, it is unclear whether this close relationship could be associated with higher preventive healthcare in companion animals. Using data from 7,048 questionnaires of dogs and 3,271 of cats from the First National Study on Responsible Companion Animal Ownership, we estimated the proportion of preventive healthcare in companion animals of Chile. We also conducted a general linear mixed-effect regression model to identify socioeconomic factors and indicators of the emotional owners-companion animal bond that could influence owners' practices related to vaccination, parasite control, and veterinary visits. Based on the owner's answers, Chile has a satisfactory overall rates of parasite control (71%) and annual veterinary visits (65%) but a low vaccination coverage of both dogs (39%) and cats (25%). 'Purebred', 'live in urban areas', 'acquired by monetary compensation', and 'dog species' were associated with a higher probability of preventive healthcare in companion animals. Conversely, this probability was lower among senior animals compared to adults, males, and those owned by the Silent Generation or Baby Boomers (i.e., owners born before 1964). 'Sleeping inside', 'acquired for an emotional reason' (e.g., companionship), and 'considered a family member' were positively associated with at least one of assessed preventive measures. Our findings suggest that emotional owner-companion animal bonds could positively impact the frequency and quality of preventive healthcare in dogs and cats. However, owners who totally disagreed that a companion animal is a "family member" were also associated with a higher likelihood of vaccination uptake and veterinary visits for their animals. This highlights that owner's compliance with veterinary preventive healthcare is multifactorial. Chile has a high prevalence of infectious diseases circulating among dogs and cats and increasingly close contacts between owners and companion animals due to emotional bonds. Thus, our study calls for One Health approaches to reduce the risks of cross-species disease transmission. Specifically, increasing vaccination coverage of companion animals in Chile is the most urgent preventive measure needed, especially among cats, males, and older animals. Expand preventive healthcare among dogs and cats will promote public and animal health, including local wildlife that is susceptible to infectious diseases circulating in companion animals.

Effects of culling vampire bats on the spatial spread and spillover of rabies virus

Controlling pathogen circulation in wildlife reservoirs is notoriously challenging. In Latin America, vampire bats have been culled for decades in hopes of mitigating lethal rabies infections in humans and livestock. Whether culls reduce or exacerbate rabies transmission remains controversial. Using Bayesian state-space models, we show that a 2-year, spatially extensive bat cull in an area of exceptional rabies incidence in Peru failed to reduce spillover to livestock, despite reducing bat population density. Viral whole genome sequencing and phylogeographic analyses further demonstrated that culling before virus arrival slowed viral spatial spread, but reactive culling accelerated spread, suggesting that culling-induced changes in bat dispersal promoted viral invasions. Our findings question the core assumptions of density-dependent transmission and localized viral maintenance that underlie culling bats as a rabies prevention strategy and provide an epidemiological and evolutionary framework to understand the outcomes of interventions in complex wildlife disease systems.

Revealing the complexity of vampire bat rabies "spillover transmission"

BACKGROUND

The term virus 'spillover' embodies a highly complex phenomenon and is often used to refer to viral transmission from a primary reservoir host to a new, naïve yet susceptible and permissive host species. Spillover transmission can result in a virus becoming pathogenic, causing disease and death to the new host if successful infection and transmission takes place.

MAIN TEXT

The scientific literature across diverse disciplines has used the terms virus spillover, spillover transmission, cross-species transmission, and host shift almost indistinctly to imply the complex process of establishment of a virus from an original host (source/donor) to a naïve host (recipient), which have close or distant taxonomic or evolutionary ties. Spillover transmission may result in unsuccessful onward transmission, if the virus dies off before propagation. Alternatively, successful viral establishment in the new host can occur if subsequent secondary transmission among individuals of the same novel species and among other sympatric susceptible species occurred. As such, virus spillover transmission is a common yet highly complex phenomenon that encompasses multiple subtle stages that can be deconstructed to be studied separately to better understand the drivers of disease emergence. Rabies virus (RABV) is a well-documented viral pathogen which still inflicts heavy impact on humans, companion animals, wildlife, and livestock throughout Latin America due substantial spatial temporal and ecological-natural and expansional-overlap with several virus reservoir hosts. Thereby, the rabies disease system represents a robust avenue through which the drivers and uncertainties surrounding spillover transmission can be unravel at its different subtle stages to better understand how they may be affected by coarse, medium, and fine scale variables.

CONCLUSIONS

The continued study of viral spillover transmission necessitates the elucidation of its complexities to better assess the cross-scale impacts of ecological forces linked to the propensity of spillover success. Improving capacities to reconstruct and predict spillover transmission would prevent public health impacts on those most at risk populations across the globe.

Genomic Characterization of Three Novel Bartonella Strains in a Rodent and Two Bat Species from Mexico

Rodents and bats are the most diverse mammal group that host Bartonella species. In the Americas, they were described as harboring Bartonella species; however, they were mostly characterized to the genotypic level. We describe here Bartonella isolates obtained from blood samples of one rodent (Peromyscus yucatanicus from San José Pibtuch, Yucatan) and two bat species (Desmodus rotundus from Progreso, and Pteronotus parnellii from Chamela-Cuitzmala) from Mexico. We sequenced and described the genomic features of three Bartonella strains and performed phylogenomic and pangenome analyses to decipher their phylogenetic relationships. The mouse-associated genome was closely related to Bartonella vinsonii. The two bat-associated genomes clustered into a single distinct clade in between lineages 3 and 4, suggesting to be an ancestor of the rodent-associated Bartonella clade (lineage 4). These three genomes showed <95% OrthoANI values compared to any other Bartonella genome, and therefore should be considered as novel species. In addition, our analyses suggest that the B. vinsonii complex should be revised, and all B. vinsonii subspecies need to be renamed and considered as full species. The phylogenomic clustering of the bat-associated Bartonella strains and their virulence factor profile (lack of the Vbh/TraG conjugation system remains of the T4SS) suggest that it should be considered as a new lineage clade (L5) within the Bartonella genus.

An Overview of Anthropogenic Actions as Drivers for Emerging and Re-Emerging Zoonotic Diseases

Population growth and industrialization have led to a race for greater food and supply productivity. As a result, the occupation and population of forest areas, contact with wildlife and their respective parasites and vectors, the trafficking and consumption of wildlife, the pollution of water sources, and the accumulation of waste occur more frequently. Concurrently, the agricultural and livestock production for human consumption has accelerated, often in a disorderly way, leading to the deforestation of areas that are essential for the planet's climatic and ecological balance. The effects of human actions on other ecosystems such as the marine ecosystem cause equally serious damage, such as the pollution of this habitat, and the reduction of the supply of fish and other animals, causing the coastal population to move to the continent. The sum of these factors leads to an increase in the demands such as housing, basic sanitation, and medical assistance, making these populations underserved and vulnerable to the effects of global warming and to the emergence of emerging and re-emerging diseases. In this article, we discuss the anthropic actions such as climate changes, urbanization, deforestation, the trafficking and eating of wild animals, as well as unsustainable agricultural intensification which are drivers for emerging and re-emerging of zoonotic pathogens such as viral (Ebola virus, hantaviruses, Hendravirus, Nipah virus, rabies, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus disease-2), bacterial (leptospirosis, Lyme borreliosis, and tuberculosis), parasitic (leishmaniasis) and fungal pathogens, which pose a substantial threat to the global community. Finally, we shed light on the urgent demand for the implementation of the One Health concept as a collaborative global approach to raise awareness and educate people about the science behind and the battle against zoonotic pathogens to mitigate the threat for both humans and animals.

Drivers of Spatial Expansions of Vampire Bat Rabies in Colombia

Spatial expansions of vampire bat-transmitted rabies (VBR) are increasing the risk of lethal infections in livestock and humans in Latin America. Identifying the drivers of these expansions could improve current approaches to surveillance and prevention. We aimed to identify if VBR spatial expansions are occurring in Colombia and test factors associated with these expansions. We analyzed 2336 VBR outbreaks in livestock reported to the National Animal Health Agency (Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario-ICA) affecting 297 municipalities from 2000-2019. The area affected by VBR changed through time and was correlated to the reported number of outbreaks each year. Consistent with spatial expansions, some municipalities reported VBR outbreaks for the first time each year and nearly half of the estimated infected area in 2010-2019 did not report outbreaks in the previous decade. However, the number of newly infected municipalities decreased between 2000-2019, suggesting decelerating spatial expansions. Municipalities infected later had lower cattle populations and were located further from the local reporting offices of the ICA. Reducing the VBR burden in Colombia requires improving vaccination coverage in both endemic and newly infected areas while improving surveillance capacity in increasingly remote areas with lower cattle populations where rabies is emerging.

Rabies in a Captive Lowland Tapir (Tapirus terrestris)

Rabies is a severe viral zoonosis of mammals and causes irreversible neurological damage. We describe the clinical presentation and anatomopathological lesions of rabies in a captive lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) in Bauru, São Paulo State, Brazil. The clinical course of the disease lasted 6 days and was characterized by progressive neurological deterioration and death. The main anatomopathological findings were non-suppurative encephalitis and presence of Negri bodies within neurons. Direct immunofluorescence and mouse inoculation tests were positive for rabies virus. This is the first report of rabies in a lowland tapir and highlights the importance of disease prevention under managed care and continuous control measures in urbanized environments.

Ecological determinants of rabies virus dynamics in vampire bats and spillover to livestock

The pathogen transmission dynamics in bat reservoirs underpin efforts to reduce risks to human health and enhance bat conservation, but are notoriously challenging to resolve. For vampire bat rabies, the geographical scale of enzootic cycles, whether environmental factors modulate baseline risk, and how within-host processes affect population-level dynamics remain unresolved. We studied patterns of rabies exposure using an 11-year, spatially replicated sero-survey of 3709 Peruvian vampire bats and co-occurring outbreaks in livestock. Seroprevalence was correlated among nearby sites but fluctuated asynchronously at larger distances. A generalized additive mixed model confirmed spatially compartmentalized transmission cycles, but no effects of bat demography or environmental context on seroprevalence. Among 427 recaptured bats, we observed long-term survival following rabies exposure and antibody waning, supporting hypotheses that immunological mechanisms influence viral maintenance. Finally, seroprevalence in bats was only weakly correlated with outbreaks in livestock, reinforcing the challenge of spillover prediction even with extensive data. Together our results suggest that rabies maintenance requires transmission among multiple, nearby bat colonies which may be facilitated by waning of protective immunity. However, the likelihood of incursions and dynamics of transmission within bat colonies appear largely independent of bat ecology. The implications of these results for spillover anticipation and controlling transmission at the source are discussed.

Genotyping of rabies positive samples isolated from animals in Mato Grosso and Rondônia - Brazil

Lyssavirus is a genus that causes infectious disease transmit by bats transmit, which results in economic losses in livestock and public health problems. From 2005 to 2019, more than 49 thousand cases of the disease were registered in animals in Brazil, with 3418 registered in Mato Grosso (MT). The lack of information on the genetic diversity and distribution of the rabies virus in MT was the motivation for carrying out this study. A total of 117 samples of brain tissue from cattle, horses, donkeys, mules and sheep from 29 municipalities in the state of MT and one municipality in Rondônia were used. Direct immunofluorescence and/or biological tests performed from 2014 to 2021 indicated that all samples were positive for the disease. RNA was extracted and molecular analysis was performed using RT-PCR for the N gene. Of the 117 samples analyzed, 50 were amplified by RT-PCR, purified and sequenced. The samples showed 93.13%-100% identity with the rabies virus. The sequences were submitted to phylogenetic analysis that resulted in a tree of four clades; these were genetically grouped into distinct regions within the Desmodus rotundus lineage. The results of the geolocation of clades will be useful to guide monitoring, control and health surveillance programs in MT.

Geographic Distribution of Common Vampire Bat Desmodus rotundus (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae) Shelters: Implications for the Spread of Rabies Virus to Cattle in Southeastern Brazil

Desmodus rotundus bats show a complex social structure and developed adaptive characteristics, considered key features of a pathogen disseminator, such as the rabies virus, among bats and other mammals, including cattle and humans. Our aim was to understand the correlation between the environment and the ecological features of these bats in bovine rabies outbreaks. Geostatistical analyses were performed, covering 104 cattle positives for rabies, between 2016 and 2018, in 25 municipalities, in addition to the characteristics of D. rotundus colonies mapped during this period in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Data from the shelters showed that 86.15% were artificial, mainly abandoned houses (36.10%) and manholes (23.87%), in addition to demonstrating a correlation between these shelters and a higher concentration of bovine rabies cases. Due to their adaptive capacity, these bats choose shelters close to the food source, such as livestock. In Brazil, D. rotundus is the main transmitter of rabies and the cause of outbreaks in cattle and deaths in humans, considering the advance of humans in previously preserved ecosystems. There seems to be a correlation between the impact of anthropic changes on the environment, mainly for the expansion of pasture for cattle and the outbreaks of bovine rabies in this area.

Of love and other demons: depicting human rabies in Colombia

Human rabies has been described by various cultures in many countries around the world. Gabriel García Márquez's novel Of love and other demons recounts the story of a girl who, in colonial Colombia in the 18^th century, was bitten by a rabid dog. This paper aims to review the general status of the disease in Colombia and interweave it with García Márquez's book. Developed countries have successfully controlled dog-mediated rabies virus transmission, whereas in some countries in Latin America wildlife and canine rabies are still an issue. Our approach suggests that although the measures that have been taken to mitigate dog-transmitted rabies have worked well in most parts of the world, greater efforts are required to control sylvatic rabies transmitted by bats or other mammals, as occurs in Colombia. Since developing countries are the most affected by the disease at present, transdisciplinary commitment between human and veterinary sectors is necessary to fight against rabies virus transmission.

Longitudinal deep sequencing informs vector selection and future deployment strategies for transmissible vaccines

Vaccination is a powerful tool in combating infectious diseases of humans and companion animals. In most wildlife, including reservoirs of emerging human diseases, achieving sufficient vaccine coverage to mitigate disease burdens remains logistically unattainable. Virally vectored "transmissible" vaccines that deliberately spread among hosts are a potentially transformative, but still theoretical, solution to the challenge of immunising inaccessible wildlife. Progress towards real-world application is frustrated by the absence of frameworks to guide vector selection and vaccine deployment prior to major in vitro and in vivo investments in vaccine engineering and testing. Here, we performed deep sequencing on field-collected samples of Desmodus rotundus betaherpesvirus (DrBHV), a candidate vector for a transmissible vaccine targeting vampire bat-transmitted rabies. We discovered 11 strains of DrBHV that varied in prevalence and geographic distribution across Peru. The phylogeographic structure of DrBHV strains was predictable from both host genetics and landscape topology, informing long-term DrBHV-vectored vaccine deployment strategies and identifying geographic areas for field trials where vaccine spread would be naturally contained. Multistrain infections were observed in 79% of infected bats. Resampling of marked individuals over 4 years showed within-host persistence kinetics characteristic of latency and reactivation, properties that might boost individual immunity and lead to sporadic vaccine transmission over the lifetime of the host. Further, strain acquisitions by already infected individuals implied that preexisting immunity and strain competition are unlikely to inhibit vaccine spread. Our results support the development of a transmissible vaccine targeting a major source of human and animal rabies in Latin America and show how genomics can enlighten vector selection and deployment strategies for transmissible vaccines.

Descriptive and Time-Series Analysis of Rabies in Different Animal Species in Mexico

The spatio-temporal epidemiology of rabies has related the influence of environmental factors and anthropogenic changes on the movements of the hematophagous bat Desmodus rotundus. In Mexico, D. rotundus is the main transmitter of the rabies virus for different livestock species, modifying annually the fluctuation of the number of cases of rabies and its dissemination in subtropical areas and regions considered free of the disease. The purpose of this study was to perform a descriptive analysis of the distribution of cases of rabies in Mexico, and to perform a time-series analysis to evaluate stationarity and to predict the number of cases for the following year. A total of 3,469 cases were reported in the period of interest, of which the 89.1% occurred in cattle, 4.3% in horses, 1.5% in sheep, 0.6% in goats, 0.01% in pig, 3.1% in vampire bats, 0.3% in cervids, 0.2% in skunks, 0.1% in insectivorous bats, 0.1% in foxes, 0.1% in buffaloes, and 0.02% in coatis; 0.5% were not identified. The most frequent antigenic variants reported were AgV11, AgV5, and AgV3, associated with D. rotundus. The distribution of cases in bats correlates with the distribution of cases in domestic and wild animals; however, cases were observed in wild species in non-endemic areas of Mexico, like the State of Chihuahua. The additive model used in the time-series analysis showed a seasonal pattern with a peak of cases at the beginning of each year, from January to March. The model showed a good predicting value; the Pearson correlation coefficient R2 was 0.705. The highest probability for the occurrence of rabies cases in the different species estimated by Ordinary Kriging was in the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, involving the states of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Chiapas, and Yucatan. This study confirms that rabies in domestic and wild species is endemic in tropical and subtropical areas—however, cases have been observed in new geographic areas—and provides useful information to support actions to stop the spread of the rabies virus or the reservoir, and for planning vaccination strategies considering time and place.

Spatio-temporal dynamics of rabies and habitat suitability of the common marmoset Callithrix jacchus in Brazil

Rabies transmitted by wildlife is now the main source of human rabies in the Americas. The common marmoset, Callithrix jacchus, is considered a reservoir of rabies causing sporadic and unpredictable human deaths in Brazil, but the extent of the spillover risk to humans remains unknown. In this study, we described the spatiotemporal dynamics of rabies affecting C. jacchus reported to Brazil’s Ministry of Health passive surveillance system between 2008 and 2020, and combined ecological niche modelling with C. jacchus occurrence data to predict its suitable habitat. Our results show that 67 outbreaks (91 cases) of rabies affecting C. jacchus were reported by 41 municipalities between January 2008 and October 2020, with a mean of 5 outbreaks/year [range: 1–14]. The maximum number of outbreaks and municipalities reporting cases occurred in 2018, coinciding with higher surveillance of primate deaths due to Yellow Fever. A mean of 3 [1–9] new municipalities reported outbreaks yearly, suggesting potential spatial expansions of the C. jacchus variant in northeastern Brazil and emerging rabies spillover from vampire bat Desmodus rotundus to C. jacchus in the north and south. Outbreaks were concentrated in the states of Ceará (72%) and Pernambuco (16%) up to 2012, but are now reported in Piauí since 2013, in Bahia since 2017 (D. rotundus’ antigenic variant, AgV3) and in Rio de Janeiro since 2019 (AgV3). Besides confirming suitable habitat for this primate in the northeast and the east coast of Brazil, our Maximum Entropy model also predicted suitable habitat on the north and the west states of the country but predicted low habitat suitability among inland municipalities of the Caatinga biome reporting rabies. Our findings revealed new areas reporting rabies infecting C. jacchus, highlighting the need to implement strategies limiting spillover to humans and to better understand the drivers of C. jacchus rabies dynamics.

Rabies virus is the deadliest virus affecting mammals. In Brazil, rabies transmitted by the common marmoset primate is emerging and causing unpredictable human deaths. This primate once endemic to the northeast of the country has now invaded regions in the south throughout human-mediated introductions. However, the dynamics of rabies in this primate and the extend of spillover risk to humans remain unknown. We found that outbreaks of rabies in this marmoset reported to the Ministry of Health are continuously reported in new areas, including three new states since 2012 and three states reporting rabies originated from the common vampire bat. We also showed that this primate has suitable habitat to invade other states in the north and west of Brazil. Preventive strategies should be implemented to limit further rabies spillover to humans in new areas.

The Importance of Accurate Host Species Identification in the Framework of Rabies Surveillance, Control and Elimination

Accurate host identification is paramount to understand disease epidemiology and to apply appropriate control measures. This is especially important for multi-host pathogens such as the rabies virus, a major and almost invariably fatal zoonosis that has mobilized unanimous engagement at an international level towards the final goal of zero human deaths due to canine rabies. Currently, diagnostic laboratories implement a standardized identification using taxonomic keys. However, this method is challenged by high and undiscovered biodiversity, decomposition of carcasses and subjective misevaluation, as has been attested to by findings from a cohort of 242 archived specimens collected across Sub-Saharan Africa and submitted for rabies diagnosis. We applied two simple and cheap methods targeting the Cytochrome b and Cytochrome c oxidase subunit I to confirm the initial classification. We therefore suggest prioritizing a standardized protocol that includes, as a first step, the implementation of taxonomic keys at a family or subfamily level, followed by the molecular characterization of the host species.

The Myotis chiloensis Guano Virome: Viral Nucleic Acid Enrichments for High-Resolution Virome Elucidation and Full Alphacoronavirus Genome Assembly

Bats are widespread mammals of the order Chiroptera. They are key for ecosystem functioning, participating in crucial processes. Their unique ability amongst mammals to fly long distances, their frequently large population sizes, and their longevity favor infectious agent persistence and spread. This includes a large variety of viruses, encompassing many important zoonotic ones that cause severe diseases in humans and domestic animals. Despite this, the understanding of the viral ecological diversity residing in bat populations remains unclear, which complicates the determination of the origins of zoonotic viruses. To gain knowledge on the viral community of a widely distributed insectivorous bat species, we characterized the guano virome of a native Chilean bat species (Myotis chiloensis (Waterhouse, 1840)). By applying a novel enrichment strategy, we were able to secure a consequent percentage of viral reads, providing unprecedented resolution for a bat virome. This in turn enabled us to identify and assemble a new bat alphacoronavirus from Chilean bats closely related to PEDV, an important viral pathogen with high mortality rates in suckling piglets. This study highlights the importance of applying and improving high-resolution virome studies in this vital order to ultimately enhance epidemiological surveillance for potentially zoonotic pathogens.

Review of the Nutrition Situation in Jordan: Trends and Way Forward

Jordan is witnessing an escalating pace of nutrition transition, which may be associated with an increased burden of malnutrition and related non-communicable diseases. This review analyzes the nutrition situation in Jordan by exploring specific nutrition indicators, namely infant and young child feeding, low birthweight, micronutrient deficiencies, anthropometric indicators, and food consumption patterns. Results showed that although most children were ever breastfed and early initiation of breastfeeding had a two-fold increasing trend, rates of exclusive breastfeeding below 6 months of age and continued breastfeeding until two years of age were low. Complementary feeding indicators, particularly minimum diet diversity and minimum acceptable diet standards, were suboptimal. An overall low burden of stunting, wasting, and underweight among children under 5 years and remarkable progress in optimizing iodine status among school-aged children were reported. Conversely, the burden of low birthweight and overweight/obesity exacerbated, coexisting with anemia, vitamin A deficiency, and vitamin D deficiency. Overall, fruit and vegetable consumption were inadequate. The consumption of soft drinks and salt on the other hand was higher than recommended. This review acknowledges the double burden of malnutrition in Jordan and recommends the prioritization and evaluation of interventions towards improving the population's nutritional status and achieving nutrition targets.

Fatal Case of Rabies in a Captive White-Tailed Deer: A Case Report from Chiapas, Mexico

Rabies is a fatal viral infection that causes enc ephalitis in warm-blooded animals, including humans. Dog-transmitted rabies is considered eradicated in Mexico; however, rabies is not being tested in livestock with neurological symptoms (one of the main manifestations of rabies disease). In this case report, we describe a rabies case in a white-tailed deer in the Santo Domingo ranch, in Catazajá, Chiapas, Mexico, where white-tailed deer are kept under captivity, and are meant for human consumption. This is the first report of a rabies case in white-tailed deer in Mexico. We also describe the challenges to obtain a rabies diagnosis and the lack of public health policies to ensure containment of the disease, as well as the lack of awareness among farmers in the area. One single confirmed case of rabies indicates that more animals are affected by the disease. The risk for human health and economical losses will remain unknown until rabies tests are routinely performed in animals that present neurological symptoms.

Rabies in Costa Rica - Next Steps Towards Controlling Bat-Borne Rabies After its Elimination in Dogs

Rabies is an acute, progressive encephalitis caused by a lyssavirus, with the highest case fatality of any conventional infectious disease. More than 17 different lyssaviruses have been described, but rabies virus is the most widely distributed and important member of the genus. Globally, tens of thousands of human fatalities still occur each year. Although all mammals are susceptible, most human fatalities are caused by the bites of rabid dogs, within lesser developed countries. A global plan envisions the elimination of human rabies cases caused via dogs by the year 2030. The combination of prophylaxis of exposed humans and mass vaccination of dogs is an essential strategy for such success. Regionally, the Americas are well on the way to meet this goal. As one example of achievement, Costa Rica, a small country within Central America, reported the last autochthonous case of human rabies transmitted by a dog at the end of the 1970s. Today, rabies virus transmitted by the common vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus, as well as other wildlife, remains a major concern for humans, livestock, and other animals throughout the region. This review summarizes the historical occurrence of dog rabies and its elimination in Costa Rica, describes the current occurrence of the disease with a particular focus upon affected livestock, discusses the ecology of the vampire bat as the primary reservoir relevant to management, details the clinical characteristics of recent human rabies cases, and provides suggestions for resolution of global challenges posed by this zoonosis within a One Health context.