Fibronectin expression is critical for liver fibrogenesis in vivo and in vitro

Pharmacological effects of bioactive agents in earthworm extract: A comprehensive review

This review compiles information from the literature on the chemical composition, pharmacological effects, and molecular mechanisms of earthworm extract (EE) and suggests possibilities for clinical translation of EE. We also consider future trends and concerns in this domain. We summarize the bioactive components of EE, including G-90, lysenin, lumbrokinase, antimicrobial peptides, earthworm serine protease (ESP), and polyphenols, and detail the antitumor, antithrombotic, antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, wound-healing, antifibrotic, and hypoglycemic activities and mechanisms of action of EE based on existing in vitro and in vivo studies. We further propose the potential of EE for clinical translation in anticancer and lipid-modifying therapies, and its promise as source of a novel agent for wound healing and resistance to antibiotic tolerance. The earthworm enzyme lumbrokinase embodies highly effective anticoagulant and thrombolytic properties and has the advantage of not causing bleeding phenomena due to hyperfibrinolysis. Its antifibrotic properties can reduce the excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix. The glycolipoprotein extract G-90 can effectively scavenge reactive oxygen groups and protect cellular tissues from oxidative damage. Earthworms have evolved a well-developed defense mechanism to fight against microbial infections, and the bioactive agents in EE have shown good antibacterial, fungal, and viral properties in in vitro and in vivo experiments and can alleviate inflammatory responses caused by infections, effectively reducing pain. Recent studies have also highlighted the role of EE in lowering blood glucose. EE shows high medicinal value and is expected to be a source of many bioactive compounds.

Delivery technologies for therapeutic targeting of fibronectin in autoimmunity and fibrosis applications

Fibronectin (FN) is a critical component of the extracellular matrix (ECM) contributing to various physiological processes, including tissue repair and immune response regulation. FN regulates various cellular functions such as adhesion, proliferation, migration, differentiation, and cytokine release. Alterations in FN expression, deposition, and molecular structure can profoundly impact its interaction with other ECM proteins, growth factors, cells, and associated signaling pathways, thus influencing the progress of diseases such as fibrosis and autoimmune disorders. Therefore, developing therapeutics that directly target FN or its interaction with cells and other ECM components can be an intriguing approach to address autoimmune and fibrosis pathogenesis.

A reduced proteomic signature in critically ill Covid-19 patients determined with plasma antibody micro-array and machine learning

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 is a complex, multi-system disease with varying severity and symptoms. Identifying changes in critically ill COVID-19 patients' proteomes enables a better understanding of markers associated with susceptibility, symptoms, and treatment. We performed plasma antibody microarray and machine learning analyses to identify novel proteins of COVID-19.

METHODS

A case-control study comparing the concentration of 2000 plasma proteins in age- and sex-matched COVID-19 inpatients, non-COVID-19 sepsis controls, and healthy control subjects. Machine learning was used to identify a unique proteome signature in COVID-19 patients. Protein expression was correlated with clinically relevant variables and analyzed for temporal changes over hospitalization days 1, 3, 7, and 10. Expert-curated protein expression information was analyzed with Natural language processing (NLP) to determine organ- and cell-specific expression.

RESULTS

Machine learning identified a 28-protein model that accurately differentiated COVID-19 patients from ICU non-COVID-19 patients (accuracy = 0.89, AUC = 1.00, F1 = 0.89) and healthy controls (accuracy = 0.89, AUC = 1.00, F1 = 0.88). An optimal nine-protein model (PF4V1, NUCB1, CrkL, SerpinD1, Fen1, GATA-4, ProSAAS, PARK7, and NET1) maintained high classification ability. Specific proteins correlated with hemoglobin, coagulation factors, hypertension, and high-flow nasal cannula intervention (P < 0.01). Time-course analysis of the 28 leading proteins demonstrated no significant temporal changes within the COVID-19 cohort. NLP analysis identified multi-system expression of the key proteins, with the digestive and nervous systems being the leading systems.

CONCLUSIONS

The plasma proteome of critically ill COVID-19 patients was distinguishable from that of non-COVID-19 sepsis controls and healthy control subjects. The leading 28 proteins and their subset of 9 proteins yielded accurate classification models and are expressed in multiple organ systems. The identified COVID-19 proteomic signature helps elucidate COVID-19 pathophysiology and may guide future COVID-19 treatment development.

Shared and Compartment-Specific Processes in Nucleus Pulposus and Annulus Fibrosus During Intervertebral Disc Degeneration

Elucidating how cell populations promote onset and progression of intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) has the potential to enable more precise therapeutic targeting of cells and mechanisms. Single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) is performed on surgically separated annulus fibrosus (AF) (19,978; 26,983 cells) and nucleus pulposus (NP) (20,884; 24,489 cells) from healthy and diseased human intervertebral discs (IVD). In both tissue types, depletion of cell subsets involved in maintenance of healthy IVD is observed, specifically the immature cell subsets - fibroblast progenitors and stem cells - indicative of an impairment of normal tissue self-renewal. Tissue-specific changes are also identified. In NP, several fibrotic populations are increased in degenerated IVD, indicating tissue-remodeling. In degenerated AF, a novel disease-associated subset is identified, which expresses disease-promoting genes. It is associated with pathogenic biological processes and the main gene regulatory networks include thrombospondin signaling and FOXO1 transcription factor. In NP and AF cells thrombospondin protein promoted expression of genes associated with TGFβ/fibrosis signaling, angiogenesis, and nervous system development. The data reveal new insights of both shared and tissue-specific changes in specific cell populations in AF and NP during IVD degeneration. These identified mechanisms and molecules are novel and more precise targets for IDD prevention and treatment.

Microarray meta-analysis reveals comprehensive effects of 3,4,5-tricaffeolyquinic acid in cell differentiation and signaling

Caffeoylquinic acids (CQA) are polyphenolic compounds found in fruits, vegetables, coffee, and spices that have exhibited several beneficial activities, including antioxidant, antibacterial, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiviral, antidiabetic, and cardiovascular effects. A derivative, TCQA (3,4,5-Tri-O-caffeoylquinic acid), has also shown both neurogenic and pigment differentiation potential. A transcriptomic-based meta-analysis was conducted to explore potential biochemical processes and molecular targets of TCQA. This approach involved integrating data from various cell and tissue types, including human amniotic stem cells, human neural stem cells, human dermal papilla cells, and the brain cortex of aging model mice. It offered a comprehensive perspective on the significant gene regulations in response to TCQA treatment. The objective was to uncover the mechanism and novel targets of TCQA, facilitating a further understanding of its functions. New areas of interest found were TCQA's effect on adipogenesis, heart, and muscle tissue development. In addition, significantly enhanced biological activities found through meta-analysis included cell cycle, VEGFA-VEGFR2 pathway, and BMP signaling. Overall, a comprehensive functional and visual analysis using available biological databases uncovered the multi-target potential of this natural compound.

Sex Drives Functional Changes in the Progression and Regression of Liver Fibrosis

Liver fibrosis is a common and reversible feature of liver damage associated with many chronic liver diseases, and its onset is influenced by sex. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms of liver fibrosis and regeneration, focusing on understanding the mechanistic gaps between females and males. We injected increasing doses of carbon tetrachloride into female and male mice and maintained them for a washout period of eight weeks to allow for liver regeneration. We found that male mice were more prone to developing severe liver fibrosis as a consequence of early chronic liver damage, supported by the recruitment of a large number of Ly6Chigh MoMφs and neutrophils. Although prolonged liver damage exacerbated the fibrosis in mice of both sexes, activated HSCs and Ly6Chigh MoMφs were more numerous and active in the livers of female mice than those of male mice. After eight weeks of washout, only fibrotic females reported no activated HSCs, and a phenotype switching of Ly6Chigh MoMφs to anti-fibrogenic Ly6Clow MoMφs. The early stages of liver fibrosis mostly affected males rather than females, while long-term chronic liver damage was not influenced by sex, at least for liver fibrosis. Liver repair and regeneration were more efficient in females than in males.

CREKA-modified liposomes target activated hepatic stellate cells to alleviate liver fibrosis by inhibiting collagen synthesis and angiogenesis

Activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are considered the key driver of excessive extracellular matrix and abnormal angiogenesis, which are the main pathological manifestations of hepatic fibrosis. However, the absence of specific targeting moieties has rendered the development of HSC-targeted drug delivery systems a significant obstacle in the treatment of liver fibrosis. Here we have identified a notable increase in fibronectin expression on HSCs, which positively correlates with the progression of hepatic fibrosis. Thus, we decorated PEGylated liposomes with CREKA, a peptide with high affinity for fibronectin, to facilitate the targeted delivery of sorafenib to activated HSCs. The CREKA-coupled liposomes exhibited enhanced cellular uptake in the human hepatic stellate cell line LX2 and selective accumulation in CCl4-induced fibrotic liver through the recognition of fibronectin. When loaded with sorafenib, the CREKA-modified liposomes effectively suppressed HSC activation and collagen accumulation in vitro. Furthermore. in vivo results demonstrated that the administration of sorafenib-loaded CREKA-liposomes at a low dose significantly mitigated CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis, prevented inflammatory infiltration and reduced angiogenesis in mice. These findings suggest that CREKA-coupled liposomes have promising potential as a targeted delivery system for therapeutic agents to activated HSCs, thereby providing an efficient treatment option for hepatic fibrosis. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: In liver fibrosis, activated hepatic stellate cells (aHSCs) are the key driver of extracellular matrix and abnormal angiogenesis. Our investigation has revealed a significant elevation in fibronectin expression on aHSCs, which is positively associated with the progression of hepatic fibrosis. Thus, we developed PEGylated liposomes decorated with CREKA, a molecule with a high affinity for fibronectin, to facilitate the targeted delivery of sorafenib to aHSCs. The CREKA-coupled liposomes can specifically target aHSCs both in vitro and in vivo. Loading sorafenib into CREKA-Lip significantly alleviated CCl4-induced liver fibrosis, angiogenesis and inflammation at low doses. These findings suggest that our drug delivery system holds promise as a viable therapeutic option for liver fibrosis with minimal risk of adverse effects.

Fibronectin-targeted FUD and PEGylated FUD peptides for fibrotic diseases

Tissue fibrosis is characterized by excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules. Fibronectin (FN) is a glycoprotein found in the blood and tissues, a key player in the assembly of ECM through interaction with cellular and extracellular components. Functional Upstream Domain (FUD), a peptide derived from an adhesin protein of bacteria, has a high binding affinity for the N-terminal 70-kDa domain of FN that plays a crucial role in FN polymerization. In this regard, FUD peptide has been characterized as a potent inhibitor of FN matrix assembly, reducing excessive ECM accumulation. Furthermore, PEGylated FUD was developed to prevent rapid elimination of FUD and enhance its systemic exposure in vivo. Herein, we summarize the development of FUD peptide as a potential anti-fibrotic agent and its application in experimental fibrotic diseases. In addition, we discuss how modification of the FUD peptide via PEGylation impacts pharmacokinetic profiles of the FUD peptide and can potentially contribute to anti-fibrosis therapy.

Hepatic Alarmins and Mitochondrial Dysfunction under Residual Hyperlipidemic Stress Lead to Irreversible NAFLD

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) includes a range of progressive disorders generated by excess lipid accumulation in the liver leading to hepatic steatosis and eventually fibrosis. We aimed to identify by high performance mass spectrometry-based proteomics the main signaling pathways and liver proteome changes induced by hypercholesterolemia in a rabbit atherosclerotic model that induced high accumulation of lipids in the liver.

METHODS

The effect of combined lipid-lowering drugs (statins and anti-PCSK9 monoclonal antibody) were used after the interruption of the hypercholesterolemic diet to identify also the potential mediators, such as alarmins, responsible for the irreversible NAFLD build up under the hyperlipidemic sustained stress.

RESULTS

Proteomic analysis revealed a number of proteins whose abundance was altered. They were components of metabolic pathways including fatty-acid degradation, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Mitochondrial dysfunction indicated alteration at the mitochondrial respiratory chain level and down-regulation of NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase. The expression of a majority of cytochromes (P4502E1, b5, and c) were up-regulated by lipid-lowering treatment. Long-term hyperlipidemic stress, even with a low-fat diet and lipid-lowering treatment, was accompanied by alarmin release (annexins, galectins, HSPs, HMGB1, S100 proteins, calreticulin, and fibronectin) that generated local inflammation and induced liver steatosis and aggressive fibrosis (by high abundance of galectin 3, fibronectin, and calreticulin).

CONCLUSIONS

The novel findings of this study were related to the residual effects of hyperlipidemic stress with consistent, combined lipid-lowering treatment with statin and inhibitor of PCSK9.

Deleterious liver-adipose crosstalk in obesity: Hydroethanolic extract of Lampaya medicinalis Phil. (Verbenaceae) counteracts fatty acid-induced fibrotic marker expression in human hepatocytes

Elevated circulating fatty acids in obesity may induce hepatic steatosis, leading to liver inflammation, fibrosis and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). On the other hand, impaired communication between hepatocytes and adipose tissue (AT) in obesity influences adipose lipolysis and fibrosis, negatively affecting metabolic function. Infusions of Lampaya medicinalis Phil. (Verbenaceae) are used in Chilean folk medicine to treat inflammatory diseases. Hydroethanolic extract of lampaya (HEL) contains flavonoids that may explain its anti-inflammatory effect, but it is unknown whether HEL modulates fibrogenic processes in hepatocytes. We studied lipolysis and expression of fibrosis markers after exposure of visceral AT explants from subjects with obesity to HepG2-secreted factors. In addition, we evaluated the effect of HEL on palmitic acid (PA, C16:0) and oleic acid (OA; C18:1)-induced fibrotic marker expression in HepG2 hepatocytes. Results: Exposure to HepG2-secreted factors increased visceral AT lipolysis and expression of CTGF and collagen I. Exposure to OA/PA elevated collagen I, CTGF, fibronectin, α-smooth muscle actin, MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression in HepG2 cells, and these effects were prevented by HEL co-treatment. Conclusion: HEL effect counteracting OA/PA-induced fibrotic marker expression in HepG2 hepatocytes may represent a preventive approach against hepatic fibrosis and deleterious liver-adipose crosstalk in obesity.

The biodistribution of placental and fetal extracellular vesicles during pregnancy following placentation

Human pregnancy is a highly orchestrated process requiring extensive cross-talk between the mother and the fetus. Extracellular vesicles released by the fetal tissue, particularly the placenta, are recognized as important mediators of this process. More recently, the importance of placental extracellular vesicle biodistribution studies in animal models has received increasing attention as identifying the organs to which extracellular vesicles are targeted to helps us understand more about this communication system. Placental extracellular vesicles are categorized based on their size into macro-, large-, and small-extracellular vesicles, and their biodistribution is dependent on the extracellular vesicle's particle size, the direction of blood flow, the recirculation of blood, as well as the retention capacity in organs. Macro-extracellular vesicles are exclusively localized to the lungs, while large- and small-extracellular vesicles show high levels of distribution to the lungs and liver, while there is inconsistency in the reporting of distribution to the spleen and kidneys. This inconsistency may be due to the differences in the methodologies employed between studies and their limitations. Future studies should incorporate analysis of placental extracellular vesicle biodistribution at the macroscopic level on whole animals and organs/tissues, as well as the microscopic cellular level.

UCHL1, besides leptin and fibronectin, also could be a sensitive marker of the relapsing-remitting type of multiple sclerosis

Research on the markers of immunoregulatory response in multiple sclerosis (MS) is still of great importance. The aim of our study was the evaluation of leptin, fibronectin, and UCHL1 concentrations as potential biomarkers of a relapsing-remitting type of MS (RRMS). Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging (SPRI) biosensors were used for the evaluation of proteins concentrations in 100 RRMS patients and 46 healthy volunteers. Plasma leptin, fibronectin, and UCHL1 concentrations were significantly higher in RRMS patients compared to the control group (p < 0.001, respectively). UCHL1 concentration evaluation revealed the highest diagnostic sensitivity (100%) and negative predictive value (100%) in differentiating MS patients from healthy individuals. There was no significant difference in the UCHL1 concentrations depending on the patient's sex, the presence of relapse within the last 24 months, and the EDSS value (p > 0.05, respectively). In RRMS patients UCHL1 concentration positively correlated with fibronectin levels (r = 0.3928; p < 0.001). In the current cohort of patients plasma UCHL1 concentration was independent of the time of MS relapse and the severity of neurological symptoms. Thus current study may indicate that plasma UCHL1, besides leptin and fibronectin, also could be a promising high-sensitive potential biomarker of relapsing-remitting type of MS. However, these results should be validated with a larger group of patients, taking into account neuroimaging and cerebrospinal fluid analysis data, and by comparing them to patients with other neurological diseases as a control group.

Hepatoprotective effects of norgalanthamine on carbon tetrachloride induced-hepatotoxicity in mice

Norgalanthamine is a major component of Crinum asiaticum var. japonicum that exhibits several biological activities. This study evaluated the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties of norgalanthamine in mice with carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver injury. Norgalanthamine (1 and 10 mg/kg) was orally administered to mice for 7 or 14 days, after which liver injury was induced by CCl₄ (1.5 ml/kg, i.p.). The vehicle and positive controls consisted of phosphate-buffered saline and silymarin (100 mg/kg), respectively. In CCl₄-injured mice, norgalanthamine pretreatment significantly reversed the increases in serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and total bilirubin levels, and the decrease in the serum glucose level. In the liver, norgalanthamine restored the activities of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase, while reducing lipid accumulation and, concurrently, the expression of genes involved in lipid synthesis, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and adipocyte protein-2. Norgalanthamine also ameliorated inflammation by down-regulating the expression of the pro-inflammatory mediators, TNF-α, IL-1β, and MCP-1, and up-regulating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. In addition, norgalanthamine decreased collagen deposition in liver tissue as shown on picrosirius red staining by down-regulating expression of the fibrosis-related genes αSMA and fibronectin. Collectively, these findings imply that norgalanthamine mitigates CCl₄-induced hepatic injury by increasing anti-oxidative activity, down-regulating pro-inflammatory mediators and fibrosis-related genes in the liver.HighlightsNorgalanthamine ameliorated the hepatotoxicity after CCl₄ injury.Norgalanthamine suppressed the activation of Kupffer cells and macrophages.Norgalanthamine down-regulated pro-inflammatory mediators.Norgalanthamine increased anti-oxidative activity via the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway.Norgalanthamine downregulated fibrosis-related genes in the liver.

Candida Administration in 5/6 Nephrectomized Mice Enhanced Fibrosis in Internal Organs: An Impact of Lipopolysaccharide and (1→3)-β-D-Glucan from Leaky Gut

Uremic toxins and gut dysbiosis in advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD) can induce gut leakage, causing the translocation of gut microbial molecules into the systemic circulation. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and (1→3)-β-D-glucan (BG) are the major gut microbial molecules of Gram-negative bacteria and fungi, respectively, and can induce inflammation in several organs. Here, the fibrosis in the kidney, liver, and heart was investigated in oral C. albicans-administered 5/6 nephrectomized (Candida-5/6 Nx) mice. At 20 weeks post 5/6 Nx, Candida-5/6 Nx mice demonstrated increased 24 h proteinuria, liver enzymes, and serum cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10), but not weight loss, systolic blood pressure, hematocrit, serum creatinine, or gut-derived uremic toxins (TMAO and indoxyl sulfate), compared to in 5/6 Nx alone. The gut leakage in Candida-5/6 Nx was more severe, as indicated by FITC-dextran assay, endotoxemia, and serum BG. The areas of fibrosis from histopathology, along with the upregulated gene expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) and Dectin-1, the receptors for LPS and BG, respectively, were higher in the kidney, liver, and heart. In vitro, LPS combined with BG increased the supernatant IL-6 and TNF-α, upregulated the genes of pro-inflammation and pro-fibrotic processes, Dectin-1, and TLR-4 in renal tubular (HK-2) cells and hepatocytes (HepG2), when compared with LPS or BG alone. This supported the pro-inflammation-induced fibrosis and the possible LPS-BG additive effects on kidney and liver fibrosis. In conclusion, uremia-induced leaky gut causes the translocation of gut LPS and BG into circulation, which activates the pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic pathways, causing internal organ fibrosis. Our results support the crosstalk among several organs in CKD through a leaky gut.

Therapeutic Effect of Polymeric Nanomicelles Formulation of LY2157299-Galunisertib on CCl4-Induced Liver Fibrosis in Rats

Hepatic fibrosis (HF) is a major cause of liver-related disorders and together with cancer-associated fibroblasts can favor liver cancer development by modulating the tumor microenvironment. Advanced HF, characterized by an excess of extracellular matrix (ECM), is mediated by TGF- β1, that activates hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and fibroblasts. A TGF-β1 receptor inhibitor, LY2157299 or Galunisertib (GLY), has shown promising results against chronic liver progression in animal models, and we show that it can be further improved by enhancing GLYs bioavailability through encapsulation in polymeric polygalacturonic-polyacrylic acid nanomicelles (GLY-NMs). GLY-NMs reduced HF in an in vivo rat model of liver fibrosis induced by intraperitoneal injection of CCl₄ as shown by the morphological, biochemical, and molecular biology parameters of normal and fibrotic livers. Moreover, GLY-NM was able to induce recovery from HF better than free GLY. Indeed, the encapsulated drug reduces collagen deposition, hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation, prevents fatty degeneration and restores the correct lobular architecture of the liver as well as normalizes the serum parameters and expression of the genes involved in the onset of HF. In summary, GLY-NM improved the pharmacological activity of the free TGF- β1 inhibitor in the in vivo HF treatment and thus is a candidate as a novel therapeutic strategy.

Asthma and Post-Asthmatic Fibrosis: A Search for New Promising Molecular Markers of Transition from Acute Inflammation to Pulmonary Fibrosis

Asthma is a heterogeneous pulmonary disorder, the progression and chronization of which leads to airway remodeling and fibrogenesis. To understand the molecular mechanisms of pulmonary fibrosis development, key genes forming the asthma-specific regulome and involved in lung fibrosis formation were revealed using a comprehensive bioinformatics analysis. The bioinformatics data were validated using a murine model of ovalbumin (OVA)-induced asthma and post-asthmatic fibrosis. The performed analysis revealed a range of well-known pro-fibrotic markers (Cat, Ccl2, Ccl4, Ccr2, Col1a1, Cxcl12, Igf1, Muc5ac/Muc5b, Spp1, Timp1) and a set of novel genes (C3, C3ar1, Col4a1, Col4a2, Cyp2e1, Fn1, Thbs1, Tyrobp) mediating fibrotic changes in lungs already at the stage of acute/subacute asthma-driven inflammation. The validation of genes related to non-allergic bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis on asthmatic/fibrotic lungs allowed us to identify new universal genes (Col4a1 and Col4a2) associated with the development of lung fibrosis regardless of its etiology. The similarities revealed in the expression profiles of nodal fibrotic genes between asthma-driven fibrosis in mice and nascent idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in humans suggest a tight association of identified genes with the early stages of airway remodeling and can be considered as promising predictors and early markers of pulmonary fibrosis.

Toxicity of benzyl benzoate as a food additive and pharmaceutical agent

Benzyl benzoate (BB), one of the benzyl derivates, is a component of brown aromatic resin in cinnamon oil and cough syrups and it is widely used in various fields in the perfume, pharmaceutical, and food industries. It is absorbed and hydrolyzed to benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol. Two different doses of BB (25 mg kg-1 body weight and 100 mg kg-1 body weight) were orally administered to 5-week old male rats for 90 days. Histopathological, morphological, hematological, and biochemical assays were performed in toxicological evaluations. Initial/final body weights, relative organ weights, and food and water consumptions of rats did not change significantly. There were statistically significant differences in terms of monocyte, neutrophil, lymphocyte %, and serum AST levels in control and BB treatment groups. Several histopathological findings were observed in liver, kidney, thymus, prostate, and epididymis tissues of the rats in the treatment groups. Immunohistochemical examinations were also performed in the tissues for fibronectin (FN), type IV collagen, transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2). Alterations in immunolocalization of these markers were observed between the control and the treatment groups. No changes were detected in the sperm count, daily sperm production, and sperm morphology.

Bioreactors for Vocal Fold Tissue Engineering

It is estimated that almost one-third of the United States population will be affected by a vocal fold (VF) disorder during their lifespan. Promising therapies to treat VF injury and scarring are mostly centered on VF tissue engineering strategies such as the injection of engineered biomaterials and cell therapy. VF tissue engineering, however, is a challenging field as the biomechanical properties, structure, and composition of the VF tissue change upon exposure to mechanical stimulation. As a result, the development of long-term VF treatment strategies relies on the characterization of engineered tissues under a controlled mechanical environment. In this review, we highlight the importance of bioreactors as a powerful tool for VF tissue engineering with a focus on the current state of the art of bioreactors designed to mimic phonation in vitro. We discuss the influence of the phonatory environment on the development, function, injury, and healing of the VF tissue and its importance for the development of efficient therapeutic strategies. A concise and comprehensive overview of bioreactor designs, principles, operating parameters, and scalability are presented. An in-depth analysis of VF bioreactor data to date reveals that mechanical stimulation significantly influences cell viability and the expression of proinflammatory and profibrotic genes in vitro. Although the precision and accuracy of bioreactors contribute to generating reliable results, diverse gene expression profiles across the literature suggest that future efforts should focus on the standardization of bioreactor parameters to enable direct comparisons between studies. Impact statement We present a comprehensive review of bioreactors for vocal fold (VF) tissue engineering with a focus on the influence of the phonatory environment on the development, function, injury, and healing of the VFs and the importance of mimicking phonation on engineered VF tissues in vitro. Furthermore, we put forward a strong argument for the continued development of bioreactors in this area with an emphasis on the standardization of bioreactor designs, principles, operating parameters, and oscillatory regimes to enable comparisons between studies.

Alternative splicing and liver disease

Alternative splicing produces complex and dynamic changes in the protein isoforms that are necessary for the proper biological functioning of the metabolic pathways involved in liver development and hepatocyte homeostasis. Changes in the physiological state of alternatively spliced forms are increasingly linked to liver pathologies. This may occur when the expression or function of the set of proteins controlling the alternative splicing processes are altered by external effectors such as oxidative stress and other environmental variations. Studies addressing these modifications reveal a complex interplay between the expression levels of different proteins that regulate the alternative splicing process as well as the changes in alternative splicing. This interplay results in a cascade of different protein isoforms that correlate with the progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, hepatocellular carcinoma, and alcoholic liver disease. However, research on the detailed molecular mechanism underlying the production of these isoforms is needed. It is imperative to identify the physiological processes affected by the differentially spliced isoforms and confirm their role on the onset and maintenance of the pathology. This is required to design potential therapeutic approaches targeting the key splicing changes to revert the pathological condition as well as identify prognostic markers. In this review, we describe the complexity of the splicing process through an example to encourage researchers to go down this path. Subsequently, rather than a catalog of splicing events we have hand-picked and discuss a few selected studies of specific liver pathologies and suggested ways to focus research on these areas.

RNA sequencing of LX-2 cells treated with TGF-β1 identifies genes associated with hepatic stellate cell activation

Background

Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are liver-resident myofibroblast precursors responsible for the production of collagen and maintenance of the hepatic extracellular matrix (ECM). As such, they are generally associated with fibrotic liver diseases. HSCs become “activated” in response to tissue damage or pathogen invasion, a process most commonly driven by transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1). Despite this, the full extent of TGF-β1 signalling in these cells is poorly understood. Clarifying the range and diversity of this signalling will further improve our understanding of the process of HSC activation.

Methods and results

RNA sequencing was used to quantitate the transcriptomic changes induced in LX-2 cells, an activated human HSC line, following TGF-b1 treatment. In total, 5,258 genes were found to be significantly differentially expressed with a false discovery rate cut-off of < 0.1. The topmost deregulated of these genes included those with no currently characterised role in either HSC activation or fibrotic processes, including CIITA and SERPINB2. In silico analysis revealed the prominent signalling pathways downstream of TGF-β1 in LX-2 cells.

Conclusions

In this study, we describe the genes and signalling pathways significantly deregulated in LX-2 cells following TGF-β1 treatment. We identified several highly deregulated genes with no currently characterised role in HSC activation, which may represent novel mediators of fibrotic responses in HSCs or the liver macroenvironment. This work may be of use in the identification of new markers of liver fibrosis and could provide insight into prospective genes or pathways that might be targeted for the amelioration of fibrotic liver disease in the future.

Discoidin Domain Receptor 2 Regulates AT1R Expression in Angiotensin II-Stimulated Cardiac Fibroblasts via Fibronectin-Dependent Integrin-β1 Signaling

This study probed the largely unexplored regulation and role of fibronectin in Angiotensin II-stimulated cardiac fibroblasts. Using gene knockdown and overexpression approaches, Western blotting, and promoter pull-down assay, we show that collagen type I-activated Discoidin Domain Receptor 2 (DDR2) mediates Angiotensin II-dependent transcriptional upregulation of fibronectin by Yes-activated Protein in cardiac fibroblasts. Furthermore, siRNA-mediated fibronectin knockdown attenuated Angiotensin II-stimulated expression of collagen type I and anti-apoptotic cIAP2, and enhanced cardiac fibroblast susceptibility to apoptosis. Importantly, an obligate role for fibronectin was observed in Angiotensin II-stimulated expression of AT1R, the Angiotensin II receptor, which would link extracellular matrix (ECM) signaling and Angiotensin II signaling in cardiac fibroblasts. The role of fibronectin in Angiotensin II-stimulated cIAP2, collagen type I, and AT1R expression was mediated by Integrin-β1-integrin-linked kinase signaling. In vivo, we observed modestly reduced basal levels of AT1R in DDR2-null mouse myocardium, which were associated with the previously reported reduction in myocardial Integrin-β1 levels. The role of fibronectin, downstream of DDR2, could be a critical determinant of cardiac fibroblast-mediated wound healing following myocardial injury. In summary, our findings suggest a complex mechanism of regulation of cardiac fibroblast function involving two major ECM proteins, collagen type I and fibronectin, and their receptors, DDR2 and Integrin-β1.

The Overactivation of NADPH Oxidase during Clonorchis sinensis Infection and the Exposure to N-Nitroso Compounds Promote Periductal Fibrosis

Clonorchis sinensis, a high-risk pathogenic human liver fluke, provokes various hepatobiliary complications, including epithelial hyperplasia, inflammation, periductal fibrosis, and even cholangiocarcinogenesis via direct contact with worms and their excretory-secretory products (ESPs). These pathological changes are strongly associated with persistent increases in free radical accumulation, leading to oxidative stress-mediated lesions. The present study investigated C. sinensis infection- and/or carcinogen N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA)-associated fibrosis in cell culture and animal models. The treatment of human cholangiocytes (H69 cells) with ESPs or/and NDMA increased reactive oxidative species (ROS) generation via the activation of NADPH oxidase (NOX), resulting in augmented expression of fibrosis-related proteins. These increased expressions were markedly attenuated by preincubation with a NOX inhibitor (diphenyleneiodonium chloride) or an antioxidant (N-acetylcysteine), indicating the involvement of excessive NOX-dependent ROS formation in periductal fibrosis. The immunoreactive NOX subunits, p47^phox and p67^phox, were observed in the livers of mice infected with C. sinensis and both infection plus NDMA, concomitant with collagen deposition and immunoreactive fibronectin elevation. Staining intensities are proportional to lesion severity and infection duration or/and NDMA administration. Thus, excessive ROS formation via NOX overactivation is a detrimental factor for fibrogenesis during liver fluke infection and exposure to N-nitroso compounds.

Changes in the proteome of extracellular vesicles shed by rat liver after subtoxic exposure to acetaminophen

To identify changes in extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by the liver following drug-induced liver injury (DILI), rats were treated with a subtoxic dose (500 mg/kg) of the analgesic drug, acetaminophen (APAP). EVs were collected by liver perfusion of sham and APAP-treated rats. Changes in EVs morphology were examined by transmission electron microscopic analysis of negatively stained vesicles. Results from morphometric analysis of EVs revealed striking differences in their size and distribution. Proteome composition of EVs collected by liver perfusion was determined by mass spectrometry using methods of sample preparation that enabled better detection of both highly hydrophobic proteins and proteins with complex post-translational modifications. The collection of EVs after liver perfusion is an approach that enables the isolation of EVs shed not only by isolated hepatocytes, but also by the entire complement of hepatic cells. EVs derived after DILI had a lower content of alpha-1-macroglobulin, ferritin, and members of cytochrome 450 family. Fibronectin, aminopeptidase N, metalloreductase STEAP4, integrin beta, and members of the annexin family were detected only in APAP-treated samples of EVs. These results show that the present approach can provide valuable insights into the response of the liver following drug-induced liver injury.

Differentially expressed proteins obtained by label-free quantitative proteomic analysis reveal affected biological processes and functions in Western diet-induced steatohepatitis

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a pathological manifestation with a progressive incidence in response to the epidemic of hepatic steatosis caused primarily by excessive energy intake. The present study unravels affected biological processes and functions by the presence of NASH in rats using a label-free quantitative proteomic strategy. NASH was induced by a Western high-sugar and high-fat diet for 20 weeks. The liver tissue was collected for histology and for a mass spectrometry-based proteomic protocol. The NASH group showed severe lipidosis, hepatocyte ballooning, and the presence of collagen deposition. Among upregulated proteins in NASH perilipin-2 (Plin-2; F6QBA3; difference [diff]: 2.29), ferritin heavy (Fth1; Q66HI5; diff: 2.19) and light (Ftl1; P02793; diff: 1.75) chains, macrophage migration inhibitory factor 1 (Mif; P30904; diff: 1.69), and fibronectin (Fn1; F1LST1; diff: 0.35) were observed, whereas among downregulated proteins, plectin (Q6S399; diff: -3.34), some Cyp2 family proteins of the cytochrome P450 complex, glutathione S-transferases, flavin-containing monooxygenase 1 (Fmo1; P36365; diff: -2.08), acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase 2 (Acat2; Q5XI22; diff: -2.25), acyl-CoA oxidase 2 (Acox2; F1LNW3; diff: -1.59), and acyl-CoA oxidase 3 (Acox3; F1M9A7; diff: -2.41) were observed. Also, biological processes and functions such as LPS/IL-1 inhibition of RXR, fatty acid metabolism, Nrf2-mediated oxidative stress response, xenobiotic metabolism, and PXR/RXR and CAR/RXR activations were predicted to be affected. In conclusion, the liver of rats with NASH induced by Western diet shows a decreased capacity of metabolizing lipids, fatty acids, and xenobiotic compounds that predispose fibrosis development.

Silencing of CD147 inhibits hepatic stellate cells activation related to suppressing aerobic glycolysis via hedgehog signaling

Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation is a key step that promotes hepatic fibrosis. Emerging evidence suggests that aerobic glycolysis is one of its important metabolic characteristics. Our previous study has reported that CD147, a glycosylated transmembrane protein, contributes significantly to the activation of HSCs. However, whether and how it is involved in the aerobic glycolysis of HSCs activation is unknown. The objective of the present study was to validate the effect of CD147 in HSCs activation and the underlying molecular mechanism. Our results showed that the silencing of CD147 decreased the expression of α-smooth muscle-actin (α-SMA) and collagen I at both mRNA and protein levels. Furthermore, CD147 silencing decreased the glucose uptake, lactate production in HSCs, and repressed the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity, the expression of hexokinase 2 (HK2), glucose transporter 1 (Glut1). The effect of galloflavin, a well-defined glycolysis inhibitor, was similar to CD147 siRNA. Mechanistically, CD147 silencing suppressed glycolysis-associated HSCs activation through inhibiting the hedgehog signaling. Moreover, the hedgehog signaling agonist SAG could rescue the above effect of CD147 silencing. In conclusion, CD147 silencing blockade of aerobic glycolysis via suppression of hedgehog signaling inhibited HSCs activation, suggesting CD147 as a novel therapeutic target for hepatic fibrosis.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10616-021-00460-9.

Differential effects of sodium chloride and monosodium glutamate on kidney of adult and aging mice

Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) is used as flavour enhancer, with potential beneficial effects due to its nutritional value. Given the decline in kidney functions during aging, we investigated the impact of MSG voluntary intake on the kidney of male mice, aged 6 or 18 months. For 2 months, they freely consumed water (control group), sodium chloride (0.3% NaCl) or MSG (1% MSG) in addition to standard diet. Young animals consuming sodium chloride presented signs of proteinuria, hyperfiltration, enhanced expression and excretion of Aquaporin 2 and initial degenerative reactions suggestive of fibrosis, while MSG-consuming mice were similar to controls. In old mice, aging-related effects including proteinuria and increased renal corpuscle volume were observed in all groups. At an advanced age, MSG caused no adverse effects on the kidney compared to controls, despite the presence of a sodium moiety, similar to sodium chloride. These data show that prolonged MSG intake in mice has less impact on kidney compared to sodium chloride, that already in young animals induced some effects on kidney, possibly related to hypertension.

Discovery of triazolyl thalidomide derivatives as anti-fibrosis agents

Triazolyl thalidomide derivative 10e inhibits fibrogenesis by SOCE and TGF-β1/SMAD2/3 signaling pathways.

Higher intestinal and circulatory lactate associated NOX2 activation leads to an ectopic fibrotic pathology following microcystin co-exposure in murine fatty liver disease

Clinical studies implicated an increased risk of intestinal fibrosis in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Our previous studies have shown that microcystin-LR (MC-LR) exposure led to altered gut microbiome and increased abundance of lactate producing bacteria and intestinal inflammation in underlying NAFLD. This led us to further investigate the effects of the MC-LR, a PP2A inhibitor in activating the TGF-β fibrotic pathway in the intestines that might be mediated by increased lactate induced redox enzyme NOX2. Exposure to MC-LR led to higher lactate levels in circulation and in the intestinal content. The higher lactate levels were associated with NOX2 activation in vivo that led to increased Smad2/3-Smad4 co-localization and high alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) immunoreactivity in the intestines. Mechanistically, primary mouse intestinal epithelial cells treated with lactate and MC-LR separately led to higher NOX2 activation, phosphorylation of TGFβR1 receptor and subsequent Smad 2/3-Smad4 co-localization inhibitable by apocynin (NOX2 inhibitor), FBA (a peroxynitrite scavenger) and DMPO (a nitrone spin trap), catalase and superoxide dismutase. Inhibition of NOX2-induced redox signaling also showed a significant decrease in collagen protein thus suggesting a strong redox signaling induced activation of an ectopic fibrotic manifestation in the intestines. In conclusion, the present study provides mechanistic insight into the role of microcystin in dysbiosis-linked lactate production and subsequently advances our knowledge in lactate-induced NOX2 exacerbation of the cell differentiation and fibrosis in the NAFLD intestines.

Dopamine receptor D2 inhibition alleviates diabetic hepatic stellate cells fibrosis by regulating the TGF-β1/Smads and NFκB pathways

Diabetic hepatic fibrosis (DHF) is a progressive liver disease and a chronic complication of diabetes mellitus. The main cause of DHF is the activation of quiescent hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) by high glucose stimulation. Dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2)-mediated dopamine signalling can be involved in the regulation of diabetic liver disease, but the exact role of DRD2 in DHF is still poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the protective effect of DRD2 inhibition on diabetic liver fibrosis and the potential mechanism. We established both streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type 1 diabetes (T1D, fed for 20 weeks) rat model and high glucose (HG, 40 mmol/L)-stimulated HSCs model. The results from both the rats with STZ and the HSCs treated with HG showed increased expression of DRD2, NOX-5, inflammation-related proteins (IL-6 and TNFα) and fibrosis-related proteins (TGF-β1, CO-Ⅰ/Ⅲ/ IV, MMP-2/9 and fibronectin). In vivo, the serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) levels were significantly increased, and hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining, Masson staining, and electron microscopy revealed liver lesions and hepatocyte injury. In addition, HG-treated HSCs exhibited altered oxidative stress - related indexes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), changed and abnormally proliferated in vitro. TGF-β1, the phosphorylated Smad2, nuclear NFκB-p65, phosphorylated NFκB-p65 and phosphorylated IκBα were also increased. Interestingly, haloperidol (DRD2 inhibitor) and n-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC, an active oxygen scavenger) reduced the above-mentioned changes. In conclusion, DRD2 inhibition can reduce diabetic HSCs oxidative damage and fibrotic proliferation partly via the TGF-β1/Smads and NFκB pathways.

Biological characteristics of endometriotic mesenchymal stem cells isolated from ectopic lesions of patients with endometriosis

BACKGROUND

Research into the pathogenesis of endometriosis (EMs) would substantially promote its effective treatment and early diagnosis. However, the aetiology of EMs is poorly understood and controversial despite the progress in EMs research in the last several decades. Currently, accumulating evidence has shed light on the importance of endometrial stem cells (EnSCs) residing in the basal layer of endometrium in the establishment and progression of endometriotic lesions. Therefore, we aimed to identify the differences between EnSCs isolated from the ectopic lesions of EMs patients (EnSC-EM-EC) and EnSCs isolated from eutopic endometrium of control group (EnSC-Control). We further performed preliminary exploration of the potential signalling pathways involved in the above abnormalities.

METHODS

EnSC-EM-EC (n = 12) and EnSC-Control (n = 13) were successfully isolated. Then, the proliferative capacity, migratory capacity and angiogenic potential of EnSCs were evaluated by conventional MTT assay, flow cytometry, wound healing assay, transwell assay, tube formation assay and chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane assay respectively. The expression of 11 angiogenesis-associated biological factors and 11 cytokines secreted by EnSCs and 17 adhesion molecules expressed on EnSCs were determined by protein array assays respectively. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between EnSC-EM-EC and EnSC-Control were analysed by RNA-sequence.

RESULTS

EnSC-EM-EC exhibited unique biological characteristics, including prolonged mitosis, enhanced migratory capacity and enhanced angiogenic potential. Greater amounts of angiogenic factors (especially VEGF and PDGF) were secreted by EnSC-EM-EC than by EnSC-Control; however, the distinct profiles of cytokines secreted by EnSC-EM-EC and adhesion molecules expressed by EnSC-EM-EC require further investigation. A total of 523 DEGs between EnSC-EM-EC and EnSC-Control were identified and analysed using the KEGG and Gene Ontology databases.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results not only improve the understanding of EMs but also contribute to the development of EnSC-EM-EC as a tool for EMs drug discovery. These cells could be of great help in exploiting promising therapeutic targets and new biomarkers for EMs treatment and prognosis.

Erythropoietin-Modified Mesenchymal Stem Cells Enhance Anti-fibrosis Efficacy in Mouse Liver Fibrosis Model

Background:

Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-based cell transplantation is an effective means of treating chronic liver injury, fibrosis and end-stage liver disease. However, extensive studies have found that only a small number of transplanted cells migrate to the site of injury or lesion, and repair efficacy is very limited.

Methods:

Bone marrow-derived MSCs (BM-MSCs) were generated that overexpressed the erythropoietin (EPO) gene using a lentivirus. Cell Counting Kit-8 was used to detect the viability of BM-MSCs after overexpressing EPO. Cell migration and apoptosis were verified using Boyden chamber and flow cytometry, respectively. Finally, the anti-fibrosis efficacy of EPO-MSCs was evaluated in vivo using immunohistochemical analysis.

Results:

EPO overexpression promoted cell viability and migration of BM-MSCs without inducing apoptosis, and EPO-MSC treatment significantly alleviated liver fibrosis in a carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) induced mouse liver fibrosis model.

Conclusion:

EPO-MSCs enhance anti-fibrotic efficacy, with higher cell viability and stronger migration ability compared with treatment with BM-MSCs only. These findings support improving the efficiency of MSCs transplantation as a potential therapeutic strategy for liver fibrosis.

FN1 mRNA expression of fibronectin 1 and distribution of fibronectin-associated leukocytes in humans with chronic diffuse liver diseases

Chronic diffuse liver diseases are characterized by continuous progression of fibrosis, ultimately leading to cirrhosis with the following loss of the normal functioning of this organ due to excessive accumulation of the components of extracellular matrix. To find new, more available diagnostic markers of detecting disorders in the liver, we used methods of antifungal cytofluorometry and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Intensity of exposure of fibronectin and plasmatic membrane of lymphocytes in the group of patients with chronic diffuse diseases compared with the control group of practically healthy donors decreased both inside and on the surface of the cells respectively by 45.3% and 16.2%. Similar tendency towards decrease was observed during the assays of the level of the exposure of fibronectin on the surface and inside the blood granulocytes: by 25.0% and 36.5%, respectively. In the blood of the patients suffering from chronic diffuse diseases, compared with the control group, there was determined reliable increase in percentage of lymphocytes and granulocytes which contain topical fibronectin, by 32.3% and 2.78 times, correspondingly. The level of monocytes (as a percentage) with cell-associated fibronectin and fibronectin localized inside, by contrast, reliably decreased in 2.07 and 4.50 times, respectively. Analysis of the expression of FN1 in lymphocytes of blood of the studied groups using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction revealed decrease in the level of FN1 mRNA expression by 34.0% in the group of ill patients compared with the control group. We determined excellent diagnostic informativeness of the parameters of the level of exposure of fibronectin inside and on the surface of granulocytes and prognostic accuracy of the classifier from these parameters at the level of 100% using the method of support vector machine, SVM. High levels of diagnostic informativeness were recorded for the tests of all types of analyzed leukocytes with cell-associated fibronectin, and the classifiers based on the pair combinations of the tests with cell-associated fibronectin and fibronectin localized within the cells provide high diagnostic accuracy of the prognosis. Because the mentioned indicators are highly-sensitive tests, they can be proposed for early diagnostics and evaluation of the effectiveness of the conducted therapy of chronic diffuse liver diseases, which would allow reducing the use of paracentetic trepanobiopsy, a painful and risky procedure, which still remains the main type of diagnostic.

Combined therapy with ligustrazine and paeonol mitigates hepatic fibrosis through destroying mitochondrial integrity of stellate cell

This study investigates the inhibitory effect and potential mechanism of ligustrazine combined with paeonol on hepatic fibrosis, as to provide a new therapeutic strategy for clinical hepatic fibrosis. The degree of liver injury collagen deposition and inflammation was assessed by hematoxylin and eosin staining, Masson, Sirius red staining and biochemically serum analysis. ATP and ROS levels in each group were detected by chemical fluorescence method. The apoptotic rate was measured by Tunel assay. Mito-Tacker fluorescence staining and mitochondrial DNA copy number were measured to observe the effect of ligustrazine or/and paeonol on mitochondrial function of hepatic stellate cell (HSC). The expression of relevant proteins and genes were evaluated by using immunofluorescence RT-PCR and western blot. Ligustrazine or/and paeonol significantly improve the pathological changes in liver tissue induced by CCl₄, however, they reduced the levels of liver and fibrosis markers in tissue and serum. ROS, NOX1 and NOX2 were significantly increased and GSH was decreased in HSC, with the intervention of Ligustrazine or/and paeonol. We further found that Ligustrazine or/and paeonol can effectively inhibit liver inflammation in vivo. The expression of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-8 was upregulated in HSC. Moreover, Ligustrazine or/and paeonol promotes apoptosis and inhibit proliferation of HSC. Additionally, the inhibiting effects of the drug on collagen deposition was due to the interference with the expression of signaling pathway related proteins and genes such as, MMPS, TGF-β, PDGF and BMP-2 in HSC. Mitochondrial activity of HSC was inhibited by Ligustrazine or/and paeonol. The inhibitory effects of ligustrazine or/and Paeonol on mitochondrial function is partially balanced by mitochondrial protective agent SS-31. Ligustrazine combined with paeonol exerts significant anti-hepatic fibrosis effect in vivo and in vitro. This may due to the disruption of HSC mitochondrial function, thereby induced promoting oxidative stress, apoptosis, inflammation and inhibiting the formation and deposition of extracellular matrix.

Molecular imaging of extracellular matrix proteins with targeted probes using magnetic resonance imaging

The extracellular matrix (ECM) consists of proteins and carbohydrates that supports different biological structures and processes such as tissue development, elasticity, and preservation of organ structure. Diseases involving inflammation, fibrosis, tumor invasion, and injury are all attributed to the transition of the ECM from homeostasis to remodeling, which can significantly change the biochemical and biomechanical features of ECM components. While contrast agents have played an indispensable role in facilitating clinical diagnosis of diseases using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), there is a strong need to develop novel biomarker-targeted imaging probes for in vivo visualization of biological processes and pathological alterations at a cellular and molecular level, for both early diagnosis and monitoring drug treatment. Herein, we will first review the pathological accumulation and characterization of ECM proteins recognized as important molecular features of diseases. Developments in MRI probes targeting ECM proteins such as collagen, fibronectin, and elastin via conjugation of existing contrast agents to targeting moieties and their applications to various diseases, are also reviewed. We have also reviewed our progress in the development of collagen-targeted protein MRI contrast agent with significant improvement in relaxivity and metal binding specificity, and their applications in early detection of fibrosis and metastatic cancer. This article is categorized under: Diagnostic Tools > in vivo Nanodiagnostics and Imaging Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Peptide-Based Structures Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures.

Specific Commensal Bacterium Critically Regulates Gut Microbiota Osteoimmunomodulatory Actions During Normal Postpubertal Skeletal Growth and Maturation

The commensal gut microbiota critically regulates immunomodulatory processes that influence normal skeletal growth and maturation. However, the influence of specific microbes on commensal gut microbiota osteoimmunoregulatory actions is unknown. We have shown previously that the commensal gut microbiota enhances T_H17/IL17A immune response effects in marrow and liver that have procatabolic/antianabolic actions in the skeleton. Segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB), a specific commensal gut bacterium within phylum Firmicutes, potently induces T_H17/IL17A‐mediated immunity. The study purpose was to delineate the influence of SFB on commensal gut microbiota immunomodulatory actions regulating normal postpubertal skeletal development. Two murine models were utilized: SFB‐monoassociated mice versus germ‐free (GF) mice and specific‐pathogen‐free (SPF) mice +/− SFB. SFB colonization was validated by 16S rDNA analysis, and SFB‐induced T_H17/IL17A immunity was confirmed by upregulation of Il17a in ileum and IL17A in serum. SFB‐colonized mice had an osteopenic trabecular bone phenotype, which was attributed to SFB actions suppressing osteoblastogenesis and enhancing osteoclastogenesis. Intriguingly, SFB‐colonized mice had increased expression of proinflammatory chemokines and acute‐phase reactants in the liver. Lipocalin‐2 (LCN2), an acute‐phase reactant and antimicrobial peptide, was substantially elevated in the liver and serum of SFB‐colonized mice, which supports the notion that SFB regulation of commensal gut microbiota osteoimmunomodulatory actions are mediated in part through a gut–liver–bone axis. Proinflammatory T_H17 and T_H1 cells were increased in liver‐draining lymph nodes of SFB‐colonized mice, which further substantiates that SFB osteoimmune‐response effects may be mediated through the liver. SFB‐induction of Il17a in the gut and Lcn2 in the liver resulted in increased circulating levels of IL17A and LCN2. Recognizing that IL17A and LCN2 support osteoclastogenesis/suppress osteoblastogenesis, SFB actions impairing postpubertal skeletal development appear to be mediated through immunomodulatory effects in both the gut and liver. This research reveals that specific microbes critically impact commensal gut microbiota immunomodulatory actions regulating normal postpubertal skeletal growth and maturation. © 2020 The Authors. JBMR Plus published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

PRC1 promotes GLI1-dependent osteopontin expression in association with the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway and aggravates liver fibrosis

Background

PRC1 (Protein regulator of cytokinesis 1) regulates microtubules organization and functions as a novel regulator in Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Wnt/β-catenin is involved in development of liver fibrosis (LF). We aim to investigate effect and mechanism of PRC1 on liver fibrosis.

Methods

Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced mice LF model was established and in vitro cell model for LF was induced by mice primary hepatic stellate cell (HSC) under glucose treatment. The expression of PRC1 in mice and cell LF models was examined by qRT-PCR (quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction), western blot and immunohistochemistry. MTT assay was used to detect cell viability, and western blot to determine the underlying mechanism. The effect of PRC1 on liver pathology was examined via measurement of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and hydroxyproline, as well as histopathological analysis.

Results

PRC1 was up-regulated in CCl₄-induced mice LF model and activated HSC. Knockdown of PRC1 inhibited cell viability and promoted cell apoptosis of activated HSC. PRC1 expression was regulated by Wnt3a signaling, and PRC1 could regulate downstream β-catenin activation. Moreover, PRC1 could activate glioma-associated oncogene homolog 1 (GLI1)-dependent osteopontin expression to participate in LF. Adenovirus-mediated knockdown of PRC1 in liver attenuated LF and reduced collagen deposition.

Conclusions

PRC1 aggravated LF through regulating Wnt/β-catenin mediated GLI1-dependent osteopontin expression, providing a new potential therapeutic target for LF treatment.

A bioengineered living cell construct activates metallothionein/zinc/MMP8 and inhibits TGFβ to stimulate remodeling of fibrotic venous leg ulcers

Venous leg ulcers (VLU) represent a major clinical unmet need, impairing quality of life for millions worldwide. The bioengineered bilayered living cell construct (BLCC) is the only FDA-approved therapy demonstrating efficacy in healing chronic VLU, yet its in vivo mechanisms of action are not well understood. Previously, we reported a BLCC-mediated acute wounding response at the ulcer edge; in this study we elucidated the BLCC-specific effects on the epidermis-free ulcer bed. We conducted a randomized controlled clinical trial (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01327937) enrolling 30 subjects with nonhealing VLUs, and performed genotyping, genomic profiling, and functional analysis on wound bed biopsies obtained at baseline and 1 week after treatment with BLCC plus compression or compression therapy (control). The VLU bed transcriptome featured processes of chronic inflammation and was strikingly enriched for fibrotic/fibrogenic pathways and gene networks. BLCC application decreased expression of profibrotic TGFß1 gene targets and increased levels of TGFß inhibitor decorin. Surprisingly, BLCC upregulated metallothioneins and fibroblast-derived MMP8 collagenase, and promoted endogenous release of MMP-activating zinc to stimulate antifibrotic remodeling, a novel mechanism of cutaneous wound healing. By activating a remodeling program in the quiescent VLU bed, BLCC application shifts nonhealing to healing phenotype. As VLU bed fibrosis correlates with poor clinical healing, findings from this study identify the chronic VLU as a fibrotic skin disease and are first to support the development and application of antifibrotic therapies as a successful treatment approach.

Proteasomal Degradation of Enhancer of Zeste Homologue 2 in Cholangiocytes Promotes Biliary Fibrosis

During biliary disease, cholangiocytes become activated by various pathological stimuli, including transforming growth factor β (TGF-β). The result is an epigenetically regulated transcriptional program leading to a pro-fibrogenic microenvironment, activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), and progression of biliary fibrosis. This study evaluated how TGF-β signaling intersects with epigenetic machinery in cholangiocytes to support fibrogenic gene transcription. We performed RNA sequencing in cholangiocytes with or without TGF-β. Ingenuity pathway analysis identified "HSC Activation" as the highly up-regulated pathway, including overexpression of fibronectin 1 (FN), connective tissue growth factor, and other genes. Bioinformatics identified enhancer of zeste homologue 2 (EZH2) as an epigenetic regulator of the cholangiocyte TGF-β response. EZH2 overexpression suppressed TGF-β-induced FN protein in vitro, suggesting FN as a direct target of EZH2-based repression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays identified an FN promoter element in which EZH2-mediated tri-methylation of lysine 27 on histone 3 is diminished by TGF-β. TGF-β also caused a 50% reduction in EZH2 protein levels. Proteasome inhibition rescued EZH2 protein and led to reduced FN production. Immunoprecipitation followed by mass spectrometry identified ubiquitin protein ligase E3 component N-recognin 4 in complex with EZH2, which was validated by western blotting in vitro. Ubiquitin mutation studies suggested K63-based ubiquitin linkage and chain elongation on EZH2 in response to TGF-β. A deletion mutant of EZH2, lacking its N-terminal domain, abrogates both TGF-β-stimulated EZH2 degradation and FN release. In vivo, cholangiocyte-selective knockout of EZH2 exacerbates bile duct ligation-induced fibrosis whereas MDR2^-/- mice are protected from fibrosis by the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib. Conclusion: TGF-β regulates proteasomal degradation of EZH2 through N-terminal, K63-linked ubiquitination in cholangiocytes and activates transcription of a fibrogenic gene program that supports biliary fibrosis.

Granzyme B as a therapeutic target for wound healing

Introduction: Granzyme B is a serine protease traditionally understood as having a role in immune-mediated cytotoxicity. Over the past decade, this dogma has been challenged, with a new appreciation that granzyme B can exert alternative extracellular roles detrimental to wound closure and remodeling. Granzyme B is elevated in response to tissue injury, chronic inflammation and/or autoimmune skin diseases, resulting in impaired wound healing. Areas covered: This review provides a historical background of granzyme B and a description of how it is regulated. Details are provided on the role of granzyme B in apoptosis as well as newly identified extracellular roles, focusing on those affecting wound healing, including on inflammation, dermal-epidermal junction separation, re-epithelialization, scarring and fibrosis, and autoimmunity. Finally, the use of pharmacological granzyme B inhibitors as potential therapeutic options for wound treatment is discussed. Expert opinion: Endogenous extracellular granzyme B inhibitors have not been identified in human bio-fluids, thus in chronic wound environments granzyme B appears to remain uncontrolled and unregulated. In response, targeted granzyme B inhibitors have been developed for therapeutic applications in wounds. Animal studies trialing inhibitors of granzyme B show improved healing outcomes, and may therefore provide a novel therapeutic approach for wound treatment.

Docosahexaenoic acid inhibits hepatic stellate cell activation to attenuate liver fibrosis in a PPARγ-dependent manner

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has been found to have a hepatoprotective effect. In this study, we investigated the role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) in DHA regulation of liver fibrosis. DHA was found to inhibit hepatic stellate cell (HSC)-LX2 cell viability and downregulate marker proteins of HSC activation. Furthermore, DHA induced cell cycle arrest at G1 phase in HSCs. Antagonism of PPARγ by GW9662 abrogated the effects of DHA on HSCs. Computer-aided molecular docking predicted that DHA bound to PPARγ via hydrogen bonding with residues Ser289, His323, Tyr473, and His499. We overexpressed Ser289 mutant PPARγ in HSC-LX2 cells and investigated fibrotic marker modulation, and found that DHA effects on HSCs were diminished. Thus, bonding with the Ser289 residue might be indispensable for DHA to activate PPARγ to exert its inhibiting effect on activated HSCs. Last, data from a CCl₄-treated mouse model confirmed that PPARγ activation was required for DHA to attenuate liver fibrosis.

Effect of glabridin on collagen deposition in liver and amelioration of hepatocyte destruction in diabetes rats

Abnormalities in insulin hormone levels leads to a hyperglycemic condition of diabetic mellitus. Hyperglycemia seriously induces organ and system destructions. The excessive accumulation of collagen fiber deposits occurs in inflammatory and reorganization processes of chronic liver diseases in type I insulin-dependent diabetes. Regarding the research objective, glabridin (GLB), an active compound of licorice, was used as a daily supplement (40 mg/kg) in order to decrease hepatocyte destruction and collagen deposition in liver tissue of diabetic animals induced by streptozotocin. A total of 40 were randomly allocated to five groups (each, n=10), control, control treated with GLB (GLB), diabetic rats (DM) injected with single dose of streptozotocin (60 mg/kg) to induce a diabetic condition, diabetic rats receiving GLB (DM+GLB; 40 mg/kg) and diabetic rats treated with glibenclamide (DM+GL; 4 mg/kg). Characteristic histopathological changes in liver cells and tissues of rats were determined by Masson's trichrome staining and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Western blotting was used to detect the expression of the key markers, collagen type I and fibronectin proteins. The histological investigation of liver tissue of the DM group revealed that the collagen fiber deposition was increased in the periportal, pericentral and perisinusoidal spaces compared with controls. Hepatocytes appeared as small and fragmented cells in TEM examination. Collagenization of the perisinusoidal space was recently demonstrated to represent a new aspect of the microvascular abnormalities and liver fibrosis. Healthy hepatocytes with round nucleus were observed following supplementation of glabridin. In addition, collagen fiber deposition was reduced in the area adjacent to the perisinusoidal space. The expression of collagen type I and fibronectin decreased strongly following glabridin supplementation in DM+GLB rats compared with DM rats, indicating that the hepatic tissue reorganization regained its normal morphology. These findings suggest that it may be beneficial to examine the role of glabridin as a therapeutic agent in diabetes treatment in future research.

Stemness and Regenerative Potential of Corneal Stromal Stem Cells and Their Secretome After Long-Term Storage: Implications for Ocular Regeneration

Purpose

To assess the stemness and regenerative potential of cryopreserved corneal stromal stem cells (cryo-CSSCs) after long-term storage. We also used the secretome from these cells to observe the effect on wound-healing capacity of corneal fibroblasts and on the expression of fibrotic markers during wound healing.

Methods

CSSCs were obtained from three donors and stored in liquid nitrogen for approximately 10 years. Post thaw, cryo-CSSCs were characterized for stemness using phenotypic and genotypic markers along with colony-forming efficiency and three-dimensional spheroid formation. Multilineage differentiation was observed by differentiation into osteocytes, adipocytes, neural cells, and keratocytes. Secretome was harvested by culturing cryo-CSSCs in log phase. Wound-healing capacity was observed by live-cell time-lapse microscopy. Statistical analysis was done using 1-way ANOVA and Tukey posttest.

Results

CSSCs displayed good viability post thaw and showed >90% expression of stem cell markers CD90, CD73, CD105, STRO1, and CD166. cryo-CSSCs also expressed stem cell genes OCT4, KLF4, and ABCG2, and could also form colonies and three-dimensional spheroids. Multipotency assessment showed that all three cryo-CSSCs could differentiate into osteocytes, adipocytes, neural cells, as shown by β-III tubulin and neurofilament antibody staining and corneal keratocytes as observed by staining for Kera C, J19, and collagen V antibodies. The secretome derived from these three populations could promote the wound healing of corneal fibroblasts and reduce the expression of fibrotic markers SPARC and fibronectin.

Conclusions

CSSCs maintained their stemness and multipotency after long-term storage, and secretome derived from these cells can be of paramount importance for corneal regeneration and prevention of fibrosis.

A novel near-infrared fluorescent light-up probe for tumor imaging and drug-induced liver injury detection

A novel near-infrared fluorescent light-up probe with a tumor-homing pentapeptide, CREKA (Cys-Arg-Glu-Lys-Ala), specifically binds to fibrin-fibronectin complexes was rationally designed and developed for biomedical imaging. Its superior practical applications in tumor imaging and drug-induced liver injury detection are well demonstrated for the first time.

Decellularized liver bioscaffold: a histological and immunohistochemical comparison between normal, fibrotic and hepatocellular carcinoma

Aim of the study

Increasing demand for liver transplantation represents an important health burden. Decellularized liver bioscaffold can be a suitable alternative for whole organ transplantation. However, various pathologies can affect the structure of decellularized scaffolds.This work discusses differences between hepatic fibrosis (HF), hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and normal decellularized liver bioscaffolds.

Material and methods

Murine models of HF and HCC were created, livers from normal, HF and HCC were decellularized, and evaluation of decellularization was done using morphological, histological and DNA analysis examination. Also, immunohistochemical staining using collagen, laminin, fibronectin and alphafetoprotein was done. Deposition area and intensity of the used immunohistochemical staining in liver capsules and the staining deposition thickness in the blood vessels and hepatic capsule walls were measured for comparison between the three models.

Results

Normal, HF and HCC livers were decellularized efficiently as confirmed by histological and DNA estimation. HCC decellularized samples showed significantly higher collagen, fibronectin and laminin deposition in both capsule and blood vessels, followed by HF decellularized samples, which also showed the highest thickness of laminin deposition in both capsule and blood vessels, then the normal model, which recorded the lowest value. Alphafetoprotein positive cells were absent in normal and HF, with rare cells in HCC.

Conclusions

Even pathologic livers, HF and HCC, can be efficiently decellularized, showing normal morphology and architecture. However, HCC and HF showed significantly higher deposition of extracellular matrix proteins: collagen, fibronectin and laminin. The impact of these differences on physiological and immunological functions of the bioscaffold requires recellularization experiments.

Swertiamarin ameliorates carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic apoptosis via blocking the PI3K/Akt pathway in rats

Swertiamarin (STM) is an iridoid compound that is present in the Gentianaceae swertia genus. Here we investigated antiapoptotic effects of STM on carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver injury and its possible mechanisms. Adult male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into a control group, an STM 200 mg/kg group, a CCl₄ group, a CCl₄+STM 100 mg/kg group, and a CCl₄+STM 200 mg/kg group. Rats in experimental groups were subcutaneously injected with 40% CCl₄ twice weekly for 8 weeks. STM (100 and 200 mg/kg per day) was orally given to experimental rats by gavage for 8 consecutive weeks. Hepatocyte apoptosis was determined by TUNEL assay and the expression levels of Bcl-2, Bax, and cleaved caspase-3 proteins were evaluated by western blot analysis. The expression of TGF-β1, collagen I, collagen III, CTGF and fibronectin mRNA were estimated by qRT-PCR. The results showed that STM significantly reduced the number of TUNEL-positive cells compared with the CCl₄ group. The levels of Bax and cleaved caspase-3 proteins, and TGF-β1, collagen I, collagen III, CTGF, and fibronectin mRNA were significantly reduced by STM compared with the CCl₄ group. In addition, STM markedly abrogated the repression of Bcl-2 by CCl₄. STM also attenuated the activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway in the liver. These results suggested that STM ameliorated CCl₄-induced hepatocyte apoptosis in rats.

Sparstolonin B (SsnB) attenuates liver fibrosis via a parallel conjugate pathway involving P53-P21 axis, TGF-beta signaling and focal adhesion that is TLR4 dependent

SsnB previously showed a promising role to lessen liver inflammation observed in a mouse model of NAFLD. Since NAFLD can progress to fibrosis, studies were designed to unravel its role in attenuating NAFLD associated fibrosis. Using both in vivo and in vitro approaches, the study probed the possible mechanisms that underlined the role of SsnB in mitigating fibrosis. Mechanistically, SsnB, a TLR4 antagonist, decreased TLR4-PI3k akt signaling by upregulating PTEN protein expression. It also decreased MDM2 protein activation and increased p53 and p21 gene and protein expression. SsnB also downregulated pro-fibrogenic hedgehog signaling pathway, inhibited hepatic stellate cell proliferation and induced apoptosis in hepatic stellate cells, a mechanism that was LPS dependent. Further, SsnB decreased fibrosis by antagonizing TLR4 induced TGFβ signaling pathway. Alternatively, SsnB augmented BAMBI (a TGFβ pseudo-receptor) expression in mice liver by inhibiting TLR4 signaling pathway and thus reduced TGFβ signaling, resulting in decreased hepatic stellate cell activation and extracellular matrix deposition. In vitro experiments on human hepatic stellate cell line showed that SsnB increased gene and protein expression of BAMBI. It also decreased nuclear co-localization of phospho SMAD2/3 and SMAD4 protein and thus attenuated TGFβ signaling in vitro. We also observed a significant decrease in phosphorylation of SMAD2/3 protein, decreased STAT3 activation, alteration of focal adhesion protein and stress fiber disassembly upon SsnB administration in hepatic stellate cells which further confirmed the antagonistic effect of SsnB on TLR4-induced fibrogenesis.

Cytokines in adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells promote the healing of liver disease

Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs) are a treatment cell source for patients with chronic liver injury. ADSCs are characterized by being harvested from the patient's own subcutaneous adipose tissue, a high cell yield (i.e., reduced immune rejection response), accumulation at a disease nidus, suppression of excessive immune response, production of various growth factors and cytokines, angiogenic effects, anti-apoptotic effects, and control of immune cells via cell-cell interaction. We previously showed that conditioned medium of ADSCs promoted hepatocyte proliferation and improved the liver function in a mouse model of acute liver failure. Furthermore, as found by many other groups, the administration of ADSCs improved liver tissue fibrosis in a mouse model of liver cirrhosis. A comprehensive protein expression analysis by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry showed that the various cytokines and chemokines produced by ADSCs promote the healing of liver disease. In this review, we examine the ability of expressed protein components of ADSCs to promote healing in cell therapy for liver disease. Previous studies demonstrated that ADSCs are a treatment cell source for patients with chronic liver injury. This review describes the various cytokines and chemokines produced by ADSCs that promote the healing of liver disease.

Carvedilol Ameliorates Intrahepatic Angiogenesis, Sinusoidal Remodeling and Portal Pressure in Cirrhotic Rats

BACKGROUND Carvedilol is the first-line drug for the primary prophylaxis of variceal bleeding due to portal hypertension (PHT) in liver cirrhosis. This study aimed to investigate the effects of carvedilol on intrahepatic angiogenesis and sinusoidal remodeling in cirrhotic rats and explore the underlying mechanisms of carvedilol in PHT. MATERIAL AND METHODS For in vivo experiments, carbon tetrachloride was used to induce liver cirrhosis in rats, and carvedilol was simultaneously administered by gavage. The portal pressure was measured in rats, and liver tissues were examined by immunohistochemistry. Sinusoidal remodeling was observed by transmission electron microscopy. For in vitro experiments, the effects of carvedilol on fibronectin (FN) synthesis in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were explored by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis. RESULTS Portal vein pressure measurements showed that carvedilol reduced portal pressure in cirrhotic rats. Immunohistochemistry assays indicated that carvedilol ameliorated intrahepatic angiogenesis. Transmission electron microscopy examination demonstrated that carvedilol improved sinusoidal remodeling. In the in vitro experiments, carvedilol suppressed transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1)-induced FN synthesis in HUVECs by inhibition of the TGFβ1/Smads pathway. CONCLUSIONS Carvedilol ameliorated intrahepatic angiogenesis, sinusoidal remodeling and portal pressure in cirrhotic rats. Carvedilol improved sinusoidal remodeling by suppressing FN synthesis in endothelial cells. Carvedilol has potential utility for treating early-stage liver cirrhosis.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of berberine attenuate hepatic fibrosis induced by thioacetamide injection in rats

Berberine (BBR) is an isoquinoline alkaloid extracted from the roots, rhizomes and stems of coptis. Liver fibrosis is a worldwide health problem with no established therapy until now. The aim of our study is to investigate the efficacy of BBR on hepatic fibrosis induced in rats and to uncover other mechanisms. Rats were injected with thioacetamide (TAA) (200 mg/kg, i.p) twice per week for 6 weeks to induce fibrosis. Treated groups were gavaged with BBR (50 mg/kg/day, p.o) simultaneously with TAA injection. Hepatic antioxidant enzymes (catalase, SOD, GPx) were assessed in hepatic homogenate. Their activities were attenuated by TAA injection and elevated by BBR administration. Additionally, serum IL-6 and mRNA levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10 and IFN-γ were evaluated as inflammatory markers. Our results showed that BBR suppressed the inflammation induced by TAA injection. Tissue expression of α-SMA (marker of activated HSCs), TGF-β1 and fibronectin were measured by immunohistochemistry as well as mRNA expressions of TGF-β1 and fibronectin were quantified as fibrotic markers. The collagen deposition in hepatic tissues was assessed by Masson's trichome staining. BBR significantly alleviated TGF-β1 production, decreased collagen and fibronectin deposition and consequently attenuated hepatic fibrogenesis. Akt pathway controls cell survival, proliferation, migration and adhesion. The relative phosphorylation of Akt was determined in hepatic homogenates that was increased with TAA injection and decreased by BBR treatment. Inhibition of Akt pathway has been linked to the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis. Caspase-3, caspase-9, Bcl-2 and Bax were quantified as apoptotic markers using qPCR and also caspase-3 by immunohistochemistry. BBR-treated rats showed an increase in the expression of apoptotic markers. Moreover, BBR-treated rats showed restoration of normal liver lobular architecture as shown by H&E staining. In conclusion, BBR is a potential therapeutic candidate for liver fibrosis owing to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.