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Mondelli MU, Ottolini S, Oliviero B, Mantovani S, Cerino A, Mele D, Varchetta S. Hepatitis C Virus and the Host: A Mutual Endurance Leaving Indelible Scars in the Host's Immunity. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:268. [PMID: 38203436 PMCID: PMC10779088 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) has spread worldwide, and it is responsible for potentially severe chronic liver disease and primary liver cancer. Chronic infection remains for life if not spontaneously eliminated and viral persistence profoundly impairs the efficiency of the host's immunity. Attempts have been made to develop an effective vaccine, but efficacy trials have met with failure. The availability of highly efficacious direct-acting antivirals (DAA) has created hope for the progressive elimination of chronic HCV infections; however, this approach requires a monumental global effort. HCV elicits a prompt innate immune response in the host, characterized by a robust production of interferon-α (IFN-α), although interference in IFN-α signaling by HCV proteins may curb this effect. The late appearance of largely ineffective neutralizing antibodies and the progressive exhaustion of T cells, particularly CD8 T cells, result in the inability to eradicate the virus in most infected patients. Moreover, an HCV cure resulting from DAA treatment does not completely restore the normal immunologic homeostasis. Here, we discuss the main immunological features of immune responses to HCV and the epigenetic scars that chronic viral persistence leaves behind.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario U. Mondelli
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (B.O.); (S.M.); (A.C.); (D.M.); (S.V.)
- Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Sabrina Ottolini
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
| | - Barbara Oliviero
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (B.O.); (S.M.); (A.C.); (D.M.); (S.V.)
| | - Stefania Mantovani
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (B.O.); (S.M.); (A.C.); (D.M.); (S.V.)
| | - Antonella Cerino
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (B.O.); (S.M.); (A.C.); (D.M.); (S.V.)
| | - Dalila Mele
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (B.O.); (S.M.); (A.C.); (D.M.); (S.V.)
| | - Stefania Varchetta
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (B.O.); (S.M.); (A.C.); (D.M.); (S.V.)
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Osmani Z, Boonstra A. Recent Insights into the Role of B Cells in Chronic Hepatitis B and C Infections. Pathogens 2023; 12:815. [PMID: 37375505 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12060815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic viral hepatitis infections, caused by the hepatitis B or C virus, are a major global health problem causing an estimated one million deaths each year. Immunological studies have classically focused on T cells, while B cells have largely been neglected. Emerging evidence, however, highlights a role for B cells in the immunopathogenesis of chronic hepatitis B and C infections. B cell responses appear to be altered across different clinical phases of chronic HBV infection and across stages of disease in chronic HCV infection. These B cell responses show signs of a more activated state with a simultaneous enrichment of phenotypically exhausted atypical memory B cells. Despite the fact that studies show an activating B cell signature in chronic viral hepatitis infection, antibody responses to HBsAg remain impaired in chronic HBV infection, and glycoprotein E2-specific neutralizing antibody responses remain delayed in the acute phase of HCV infection. At the same time, studies have reported that a subset of HBV- and HCV-specific B cells exhibit an exhausted phenotype. This may, at least in part, explain why antibody responses in chronic HBV and HCV patients are suboptimal. Here, we summarize recent findings and discuss upcoming research questions while looking forward to how new single-cell technologies could provide novel insights into the role of B cells in chronic viral hepatitis infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zgjim Osmani
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Andre Boonstra
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Regulatory Role of B Cells and Its Subsets in Hepatitis E Virus Infection. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2022:7932150. [PMID: 36132083 PMCID: PMC9484887 DOI: 10.1155/2022/7932150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Antibodies as well as memory B cells are the potential correlates of a protective immune response against hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection. Literature on the role of B regulatory cells (Bregs) in acute viral infections is limited. We have evaluated the role of IL-10 expressing Bregs in HEV infection. A total of 108 acute hepatitis E patients, 55 hepatitis E recovered individuals and 128 HEV naïve healthy controls were enrolled. The percentages of peripheral CD19+, immature CD19+CD24hiCD38hi, mature CD19+CD24intCD38int and memory CD19+CD24hiCD38− B cells were analyzed by flowcytometry. Intracellular cytokine staining for IL-10 and TGF-β, HEV-rORF2p specific T cell response (IFN-γ expression) pre/post IL-10/IL-10R blocking and CD19+IL-10+ B cells-depletion based assays were carried out to assess the functionality of Bregs. The percentage of HEV-rORF2p specific immature B cell phenotype was significantly higher in acute hepatitis E patients compared to hepatitis E recovered individuals and controls. Significantly higher IL-10 expression on B and HEV-rORF2p stimulated immature B cells of acute hepatitis E patients compared to controls indicated that Bregs are functional and HEV-rORF2p specific. Enhanced IFN-γ expression on CD8+ T cells upon IL-10/IL-10R blocking and also post CD19+IL-10+ B cells depletion suggested that CD3+CD8+IFN-γ+ T cells corroborate the regulatory potential of Bregs via IL-10 dependent mechanism. We have identified HEV specific functional, immature CD19+CD24hiCD38hi B cells having IL-10 mediated regulatory activities and a potential to modulate IFN-γ mediated T cell response in Hepatitis E. The prognostic/pathogenic role of Bregs in recovery from severe hepatitis E needs evaluation.
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Salinas E, Boisvert M, Upadhyay AA, Bédard N, Nelson SA, Bruneau J, Derdeyn CA, Marcotrigiano J, Evans MJ, Bosinger SE, Shoukry NH, Grakoui A. Early T follicular helper cell activity accelerates hepatitis C virus-specific B cell expansion. J Clin Invest 2021; 131:140590. [PMID: 33463551 DOI: 10.1172/jci140590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Early appearance of neutralizing antibodies during acute hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is associated with spontaneous viral clearance. However, the longitudinal changes in antigen-specific memory B cell (MBCs) associated with divergent HCV infection outcomes remain undefined. We characterized longitudinal changes in E2 glycoprotein-specific MBCs from subjects who either spontaneously resolved acute HCV infection or progressed to chronic infection, using single-cell RNA-seq and functional assays. HCV-specific antibodies in plasma from chronically infected subjects recognized multiple E2 genotypes, while those from spontaneous resolvers exhibited variable cross-reactivity to heterotypic E2. E2-specific MBCs from spontaneous resolvers peaked early after infection (4-6 months), following expansion of activated circulating T follicular helper cells (cTfh) expressing interleukin 21. In contrast, E2-specific MBCs from chronically infected subjects, enriched in VH1-69, expanded during persistent infection (> 1 year), in the absence of significantly activated cTfh expansion. Early E2-specific MBCs from spontaneous resolvers produced monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with fewer somatic hypermutations and lower E2 binding but similar neutralization as mAbs from late E2-specific MBCs of chronically infected subjects. These findings indicate that early cTfh activity accelerates expansion of E2-specific MBCs during acute infection, which might contribute to spontaneous clearance of HCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Salinas
- Division of Infectious diseases, Emory Vaccine Center, Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory Vaccine Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Maude Boisvert
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Amit A Upadhyay
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory Vaccine Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Nathalie Bédard
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Sydney A Nelson
- Yerkes NHP Genomics Core Laboratory, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Julie Bruneau
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montréal, Québec, Canada.,Département de Médecine Familiale et de Médecine D'Urgence, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Cynthia A Derdeyn
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory Vaccine Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Joseph Marcotrigiano
- Structural Virology Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Matthew J Evans
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Steven E Bosinger
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory Vaccine Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Yerkes NHP Genomics Core Laboratory, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Naglaa H Shoukry
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montréal, Québec, Canada.,Département de Médecine, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Arash Grakoui
- Division of Infectious diseases, Emory Vaccine Center, Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory Vaccine Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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5
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Lutckii A, Strunz B, Zhirkov A, Filipovich O, Rukoiatkina E, Gusev D, Lobzin Y, Fischler B, Aleman S, Sällberg M, Björkström NK. Evidence for B cell maturation but not trained immunity in uninfected infants exposed to hepatitis C virus. Gut 2020; 69:2203-2213. [PMID: 32341018 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2019-320269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) is rare compared with other chronic viral infections, despite that newborns have an immature, and possibly more susceptible, immune system. It further remains unclear to what extent prenatal and perinatal exposure to HCV affects immune system development in neonates. DESIGN To address this, we studied B cells, innate immune cells and soluble factors in a cohort of 62 children that were either unexposed, exposed uninfected or infected with HCV. Forty of these infants were followed longitudinally from birth up until 18 months of age. RESULTS As expected, evidence for B cell maturation was observed with increased age in children, whereas few age-related changes were noticed among innate immune cells. HCV-infected children had a high frequency of HCV-specific IgG-secreting B cells. Such a response was also detected in some exposed but uninfected children but not in uninfected controls. Consistent with this, both HCV-exposed uninfected and HCV-infected infants had evidence of early B cell immune maturation with an increased proportion of IgA-positive plasma cells and upregulated CD40 expression. In contrast, actual HCV viraemia, but not mere exposure, led to alterations within myeloid immune cell populations, natural killer (NK) cells and a distinct soluble factor profile with increased levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. CONCLUSION Our data reveal that exposure to, and infection with, HCV causes disparate effects on adaptive B cells and innate immune cell such as myeloid cells and NK cells in infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Lutckii
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Pediatric Research and Clinical Center for Infectious Diseases, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
| | - Benedikt Strunz
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anton Zhirkov
- Pediatric Research and Clinical Center for Infectious Diseases, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
| | - Olga Filipovich
- North-Western State Medical University named after I.I.Mechnikov, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
| | - Elena Rukoiatkina
- Maternity Hospital No 16, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation.,Department of Pediatrics, Gynecology and Female Reproductology, Saint Petersburg State Pediatric Medical University, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
| | - Denis Gusev
- Center for Prevention and Control of AIDS and Infectious Diseases, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
| | - Yuriy Lobzin
- Pediatric Research and Clinical Center for Infectious Diseases, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
| | - Björn Fischler
- Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology (CLINTEC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Pediatrics, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Soo Aleman
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Matti Sällberg
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Niklas K Björkström
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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Abdelwahab FA, Hassanein KM, Hetta HF, Abdelmalek MO, Zahran AM, El-Badawy O. Impact of deranged B cell subsets distribution in the development of HCV-related cirrhosis and HCC in type two diabetes mellitus. Sci Rep 2020; 10:20383. [PMID: 33230233 PMCID: PMC7683559 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-77416-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Type II diabetes (T2D) may worsen the course of hepatitis C virus infection with a greater risk of liver cirrhosis (LC) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In chronic viral infections, the deranged B cell subset signifies uncontrolled disease. The study aimed to verify the relation between B cell subsets' distribution and liver disease progression in chronic hepatitis C (CHC) patients with T2D. A total of 67 CHC patients were divided into two groups; 33 non-diabetic and 34 with T2D. Each group was subdivided into CHC-without LC or HCC (N-CHC), CHC-with LC (CHC-LC), and CHC-with HCC (CHC-HCC). Twenty-seven healthy individuals also participated as controls. Flow cytometry was used to analyze CD19+ B cell subsets based on the expression of CD24 and CD38. CD19+CD24hiCD38hi Immature/transitional B cells elevated in diabetic than non-diabetic patients. In diabetic patients, while CD19+CD24+CD38- primarily memory B cells were higher in CHC-N and CHC-HCC groups than LC with a good predictive accuracy of LC, the opposite was observed for CD19+CD24-CD38- new memory B cells. Only in diabetic patients, the CD19+CD24intCD38int naïve mature B cells were high in CHC-HCC patients with good prognostic accuracy of HCC. Merely in diabetic patients, several correlations were observed between B cell subsets and liver function. Immature/transitional B cells increase remarkably in diabetic CHCpatients and might have a role in liver disease progression. Memory and Naïve B cells are good potential predictors of LC and HCCin diabetic CHCpatients, respectively. Further studies are needed to investigate the role of the CD19+CD24-CD38- new memory B cells in disease progression in CHC patients.
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MESH Headings
- ADP-ribosyl Cyclase 1/genetics
- ADP-ribosyl Cyclase 1/immunology
- Adult
- Aged
- Antigens, CD19/genetics
- Antigens, CD19/immunology
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/classification
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/pathology
- B-Lymphocyte Subsets/virology
- CD24 Antigen/genetics
- CD24 Antigen/immunology
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/etiology
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/immunology
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/pathology
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/virology
- Case-Control Studies
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2
- Female
- Gene Expression
- Hepacivirus/growth & development
- Hepacivirus/pathogenicity
- Hepatitis C, Chronic/complications
- Hepatitis C, Chronic/immunology
- Hepatitis C, Chronic/pathology
- Hepatitis C, Chronic/virology
- Humans
- Immunologic Memory
- Immunophenotyping
- Liver Cirrhosis/etiology
- Liver Cirrhosis/immunology
- Liver Cirrhosis/pathology
- Liver Cirrhosis/virology
- Liver Neoplasms/etiology
- Liver Neoplasms/immunology
- Liver Neoplasms/pathology
- Liver Neoplasms/virology
- Male
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Glycoproteins/immunology
- Middle Aged
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Khaled M Hassanein
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, 71515, Egypt
| | - Helal F Hetta
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, 71515, Egypt
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, 45267-0595, USA
| | - Mohamed O Abdelmalek
- Tropical Medicine and Gastroenterology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Asmaa M Zahran
- Department of Clinical Pathology, South Egypt Cancer Institute, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Omnia El-Badawy
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, 71515, Egypt.
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Moustafa H, Madkour M, Hamed F, Abouelnazar S, Abo Elwafa R, Moaaz M. Modulation of Memory B Cell Phenotypes and Toll-Like Receptor-7 in Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection During Direct-Acting Antiviral Interferon-Free Therapy: Correlation with Interleukin-7. Viral Immunol 2020; 34:227-240. [PMID: 33180667 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2020.0110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major worldwide problem with the highest incidence rates in Egypt. It affects B cells that serve as reservoirs for persistent HCV, resulting in phenotypic B cell alterations. Interleukin-7 (IL-7) is a cytokine with antiviral activity, important for B cell physiology. In addition, B cell-intrinsic toll-like receptor-7 (TLR7) signaling is required for optimal B cell responses during chronic viral infection, and the deficiency of TLR7 in B cells is sufficient to significantly impact antibody responses. Based on their known immunomodulatory effects, we hypothesized that direct-acting antiviral interferon-free therapy may affect TLR7 expression and the exhausted peripheral B cell compartment with the possibility of their restoration in patients who achieved a sustained virological response and their correlation to IL-7 level. This prospective study was accomplished on 80 Egyptian HCV patients and 75 controls. Frequencies of peripheral B cell subsets, TLR7 gene expression, TLR7 protein, and serum IL-7 levels were investigated by flow cytometry, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. B cell subpopulations were exhausted and partially restored among HCV patients after receiving treatment, but not recovered with regard to activated mature or resting memory B cells. Almost all responders to direct antiviral drugs showed upregulation of TLR7 gene expression and correlated with the frequency of memory B cell, but not with IL-7. Moreover, IL-7 was not significantly different between groups although correlated with immature transitional B cells. Results may indicate the interplay between TLR7 and B cells during remission or progression of HCV. Thus, TLR7 could be used as a promising biomarker for assessment of antiviral treatment efficacy among chronically infected HCV patients, and that targeting TLR7 may be used as a potential prophylactic and/or therapeutic agent during chronic HCV as well as immune-potentiation of memory B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanan Moustafa
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Marwa Madkour
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Fathi Hamed
- Faculty of Medical Technology-Mussrata, Mussrata, Libya
| | - Salma Abouelnazar
- Department of Immunology and Allergy, Medical Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Reham Abo Elwafa
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Mai Moaaz
- Department of Immunology and Allergy, Medical Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
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Davis JS, Ferreira D, Paige E, Gedye C, Boyle M. Infectious Complications of Biological and Small Molecule Targeted Immunomodulatory Therapies. Clin Microbiol Rev 2020; 33:e00035-19. [PMID: 32522746 PMCID: PMC7289788 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00035-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The past 2 decades have seen a revolution in our approach to therapeutic immunosuppression. We have moved from relying on broadly active traditional medications, such as prednisolone or methotrexate, toward more specific agents that often target a single receptor, cytokine, or cell type, using monoclonal antibodies, fusion proteins, or targeted small molecules. This change has transformed the treatment of many conditions, including rheumatoid arthritis, cancers, asthma, and inflammatory bowel disease, but along with the benefits have come risks. Contrary to the hope that these more specific agents would have minimal and predictable infectious sequelae, infectious complications have emerged as a major stumbling block for many of these agents. Furthermore, the growing number and complexity of available biologic agents makes it difficult for clinicians to maintain current knowledge, and most review articles focus on a particular target disease or class of agent. In this article, we review the current state of knowledge about infectious complications of biologic and small molecule immunomodulatory agents, aiming to create a single resource relevant to a broad range of clinicians and researchers. For each of 19 classes of agent, we discuss the mechanism of action, the risk and types of infectious complications, and recommendations for prevention of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua S Davis
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- Global and Tropical Health Division, Menzies School of Health Research and Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT, Australia
- School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - David Ferreira
- School of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Emma Paige
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Craig Gedye
- School of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Department of Oncology, Calvary Mater Hospital, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Michael Boyle
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
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9
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Giltiay NV, Giordano D, Clark EA. The Plasticity of Newly Formed B Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 203:3095-3104. [PMID: 31818922 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Newly formed B cells (NF-B cells) that emerge from the bone marrow to the periphery have often been referred to as immature or transitional B cells. However, NF-B cells have several striking characteristics, including a distinct BCR repertoire, high expression of AID, high sensitivity to PAMPs, and the ability to produce cytokines. A number of findings do not support their designation as immature because NF-B cells have the potential to become Ab-producing cells and to undergo class-switch recombination. In this review, we provide a fresh perspective on NF-B cell functions and describe some of the signals driving their activation. We summarize growing evidence supporting a role for NF-B cells in protection against infections and as a potential source of autoantibody-producing cells in autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia V Giltiay
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109; and
| | - Daniela Giordano
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - Edward A Clark
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109
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10
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Liu GY, Tang O, Brotman DJ, Miller ER, Moliterno AR, Juraschek SP. Gamma gap thresholds and HIV, hepatitis C, and monoclonal gammopathy. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0224977. [PMID: 31940353 PMCID: PMC6961927 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 10/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND An elevated gamma gap (>4 g/dL), the difference between serum total protein and albumin, can trigger testing for chronic infections or monoclonal gammopathy, despite a lack of evidence supporting this clinical threshold. METHODS Using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999-2014, gamma gap was derived in three subpopulations based on availability of testing for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV; N = 25,680), hepatitis C (HCV; N = 45,134), and monoclonal gammopathy of unknown significance (MGUS; N = 6,118). Disease status was confirmed by HIV antibody and Western blot, HCV RNA test, or electrophoresis with immunofixation. Sensitivity, specificity, and likelihood ratios were calculated for different gamma gap thresholds. Area under the curve (AUC) was used to assess performance and cubic splines were used to characterize the relationship between the gamma gap and each disease. RESULTS Mean gamma gaps of participants with HIV, HCV, or MGUS ranged from 3.4-3.8 g/dL. The AUC was 0.80 (95%CI: 0.75,0.85) for HIV, 0.74 (0.72,0.76) for HCV, and 0.64 (0.60,0.69) for MGUS. An elevated gamma gap of over 4 g/dL corresponded to sensitivities of 39.3%, 19.0%, and 15.4% and specificities of 98.4%, 97.8%, and 95.4% for HIV, HCV, and MGUS, respectively. A higher prevalence of all three diseases was observed at both low and high gamma gaps. DISCUSSION An elevated gamma gap of 4 g/dL is insensitive for HIV, HCV, or MGUS, but has a high specificity for HIV and HCV, suggesting that the absence of an elevated gamma gap does not rule out HIV, HCV, or MGUS. Conversely, an elevated gap may justify further testing for HIV and HCV, but does not justify electrophoresis in the absence of additional clinical information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gigi Y. Liu
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Olive Tang
- The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Department of Epidemiology, and The Welch Center for Prevention, Epidemiology and Clinical Research, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Daniel J. Brotman
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Edgar R. Miller
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Department of Epidemiology, and The Welch Center for Prevention, Epidemiology and Clinical Research, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Alison R. Moliterno
- Division of Hematology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Stephen P. Juraschek
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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11
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Cagnin M, Biasiolo A, Martini A, Ruvoletto M, Quarta S, Fasolato S, Angeli P, Fassina G, Pontisso P. Serum Squamous Cell Carcinoma Antigen-Immunoglobulin M complex levels predict survival in patients with cirrhosis. Sci Rep 2019; 9:20126. [PMID: 31882893 PMCID: PMC6934856 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-56633-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Complications of chronic liver diseases – particularly hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) – are a major cause of mortality worldwide. Several studies have shown that high or increasing levels of serum Squamous Cell Carcinoma Antigen-Immunoglobulin M complex (SCCA-IgM) are associated with development of HCC in patients with advanced liver disease and worse survival in patients with liver cancer. The aim of the present study was to assess, in patients with advanced liver disease, differences in long-term clinical outcomes in relation to baseline levels of serum SCCA-IgM. Ninety one consecutive outpatients with liver cirrhosis of different etiologies, without hepatocellular carcinoma at presentation, were enrolled from April 2007 to October 2012 in a prospective study. For a median time of 127 months, patients were bi-annually re-evaluated. SCCA-IgM complex levels were determined with a validated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The results provided evidence that serum SCCA-IgM is a predictor of overall survival. The best cut-off to discriminate both HCC-free and overall survival rates was 120 AU/mL. Patients with baseline values higher than this threshold showed a substantial increase in both HCC incidence rate and all-cause mortality rate. In conclusion, a single measurement of serum SCCA-IgM helps to identify those patients with liver cirrhosis with increased risks of HCC development and mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Cagnin
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Andrea Martini
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Santina Quarta
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Paolo Angeli
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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12
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Follicular helper T cell and memory B cell immunity in CHC patients. J Mol Med (Berl) 2019; 97:397-407. [PMID: 30666346 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-018-01735-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis C (CHC) is associated with biological activity of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and memory B cells (MBCs). However, the nature of Tfh cell subsets that are responsible for MBCs in CHC patients has not been evaluated. This study aimed to investigate Tfh and MBC immunity before and after direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy in patients with CHC. A total of 31 CHC patients and 15 healthy controls (HCs) were recruited. Individual patients were treated with sofosbuvir/ribavirin (SOF/RBV) or in combination with pegylated interferon alpha-2a (PEG-IFN-α-2a) for 12 weeks. Immunofluorescence revealed the frequency of ICOS+CD4+CXCR5+ active Tfh cells in liver tissue of CHC patients was higher than that of healthy control. Tfh and B cell co-culture experiments showed that Tfh2 cells from CHC patients have potential ability to induce B cell differentiation and IgG production. Flow cytometry showed that the frequencies of CD21-CD27+IgD- activated MBCs, ICOS+CD4+CXCR5+ activated Tfh cells, Tfh1 (IFN-γ+CD4+CXCR5+) cells, and Tfh2 (IL-4+CD4+CXCR5+) cells, but not of Tfh17 (IL-17+CD4+CXCR5+) cells, increased in CHC patients before and after DAA therapy. Collectively, ICOS+ Tfh, Tfh1, Tfh2 cells, and MBCs participated in the antiviral treatment process of SOF/RBV with or without PEG-IFN-α-2a in CHC patients, and their activity was further enhanced during the treatment. KEY MESSAGES: This study aimed to investigate Tfh cells and MBC immunity in CHC patients. CD21-CD27+IgD- activated MBCs increased in CHC patients before and after treatment. Tfh1 and Tfh2 cells increased in CHC patients before and after antiviral treatment. Intrahepatic activated Tfh cells increased in CHC patients before treatment. Tfh2 cells from CHC patients have a stronger ability to induce B cell differentiation.
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13
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Tout I, Gomes M, Ainouze M, Marotel M, Pecoul T, Durantel D, Vaccarella S, Dubois B, Loustaud-Ratti V, Walzer T, Alain S, Chemin I, Hasan U. Hepatitis B Virus Blocks the CRE/CREB Complex and Prevents TLR9 Transcription and Function in Human B Cells. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2018; 201:2331-2344. [PMID: 30185518 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Effective B cell responses such as cytokine secretion, proliferation, and Ab-specific responses are essential to clear hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. However, HBV alters numerous immune pathways to persist in the host. B cell activity depends on activation of the innate sensor TLR9 by viral or bacterial DNA motifs. How HBV can deregulate B cell functions remains unknown. In this study, we show that HBV can enter and decrease TLR9 expression in human primary B cells. Using PBMCs from human blood donors, we show that TLR9 expression was reduced in all peripheral B cells subsets exposed to HBV. B cell function mediated by TLR9, but not TLR7, such as proliferation and proinflammatory cytokines secretion, were abrogated in the presence of HBV; however, global Ig secretion was not downregulated. Mechanistically, we show, using human myeloma B cell line RPMI 8226, that the surface Ag hepatitis B surface Ag was responsible for TLR9 dysfunction. hepatitis B surface Ag suppressed the phosphorylation and thus the activation of the transcription factor CREB, preventing TLR9 promoter activity. Finally, we corroborated our in vitro findings in a cohort of chronic HBV carriers and found that TLR9 expression and function were significantly suppressed. The effect of HBV on TLR9 activity in B cells gives insights into oncoviral immune escape strategies, providing knowledge to develop novel immunotherapeutic approaches in chronic HBV-carrier patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Issam Tout
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, INSERM, U1111, 69007 Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69100 Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, 69100 Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69495 Lyon, France
| | - Melissa Gomes
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Dupuytren, 87042 Limoges, France
| | - Michelle Ainouze
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, INSERM, U1111, 69007 Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69100 Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, 69100 Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69495 Lyon, France
| | - Marie Marotel
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, INSERM, U1111, 69007 Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69100 Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, 69100 Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69495 Lyon, France
| | - Timothee Pecoul
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, INSERM, U1111, 69007 Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69100 Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, 69100 Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69495 Lyon, France
| | - David Durantel
- Cancer Research Center of Lyon, INSERM U1052-CNRS UMR5286, 69373 Lyon, France; and
| | | | - Bertrand Dubois
- Cancer Research Center of Lyon, INSERM U1052-CNRS UMR5286, 69373 Lyon, France; and
| | | | - Thierry Walzer
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, INSERM, U1111, 69007 Lyon, France
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69100 Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, 69100 Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69495 Lyon, France
| | - Sophie Alain
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Dupuytren, 87042 Limoges, France
| | - Isabelle Chemin
- Cancer Research Center of Lyon, INSERM U1052-CNRS UMR5286, 69373 Lyon, France; and
| | - Uzma Hasan
- Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, INSERM, U1111, 69007 Lyon, France;
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69100 Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5308, 69100 Lyon, France
- École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, 69495 Lyon, France
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14
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Patgaonkar M, Herbert F, Powale K, Gandhe P, Gogtay N, Thatte U, Pied S, Sharma S, Pathak S. Vivax infection alters peripheral B-cell profile and induces persistent serum IgM. Parasite Immunol 2018; 40:e12580. [PMID: 30102786 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
B cell-mediated humoral responses are essential for controlling malarial infection. Studies have addressed the effects of Plasmodium falciparum infection on peripheral B-cell subsets but not much is known for P. vivax infection. Furthermore, majority of the studies investigate changes during acute infection, but not after parasite clearance. In this prospective study, we analysed peripheral B-cell profiles and antibody responses during acute P. vivax infection and upon recovery (30 days post-treatment) in a low-transmission area in India. Dengue patients were included as febrile-condition controls. Both dengue and malaria patients showed a transient increase in atypical memory B cells during acute infection. However, transient B cell-activating factor (BAFF)-independent increase in the percentage of total and activated immature B cells was observed in malaria patients. Naïve B cells from malaria patients also showed increased TLR4 expression. Total IgM levels remained unchanged during acute infection but increased significantly at recovery. Serum antibody profiling showed a parasite-specific IgM response that persisted at recovery. A persistent IgM autoantibody response was also observed in malaria but not dengue patients. Our data suggest that in hypoendemic regions acute P. vivax infection skews peripheral B-cell subsets and results in a persistent parasite-specific and autoreactive IgM response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandar Patgaonkar
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India
| | - Fabien Herbert
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1019 - UMR 8204 - CIIL - Centre d'Infection et d'Immunité de Lille, Lille, France
| | - Krushali Powale
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India
| | - Prajakta Gandhe
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Parel, Mumbai, India
| | - Nithya Gogtay
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Parel, Mumbai, India
| | - Urmila Thatte
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Parel, Mumbai, India
| | - Sylviane Pied
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1019 - UMR 8204 - CIIL - Centre d'Infection et d'Immunité de Lille, Lille, France
| | - Shobhona Sharma
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India
| | - Sulabha Pathak
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India
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15
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Liechti T, Günthard HF, Trkola A. OMIP-047: High-Dimensional phenotypic characterization of B cells. Cytometry A 2018; 93:592-596. [PMID: 29782066 PMCID: PMC6704361 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.23488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Liechti
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Huldrych F Günthard
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Trkola
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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16
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Use of ELISpot assay to study HBs-specific B cell responses in vaccinated and HBV infected humans. Emerg Microbes Infect 2018; 7:16. [PMID: 29449582 PMCID: PMC5837134 DOI: 10.1038/s41426-018-0034-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Revised: 01/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis B surface antibody (HBsAb) plays a critical role in protecting against infection of hepatitis B virus (HBV) and were extensively studied in literature. At the same time, the status of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBs)-specific B cells in both vaccinated and HBV infected people received limited attention. In the current study, we adopted a highly specific B-cell Enzyme Linked ImmunoSpot (ELISpot) assay to analyze HBs-specific B cells in various clinical settings: healthy individuals with the history of HBV vaccination before and after receiving an extra HBV vaccine boost, people chronically infected with HBV (CHB) in various clinical stages, with or without a particular type anti-viral treatment, or whether receiving a dose of HBV vaccine. In all of these cases, B-cell ELISpot assay was used effectively in enumerating the frequency of HBs-specific B cells. While the focus of the current report was to establish the utility of this assay for HBV research, a number of interesting observations were made in this pilot study based on the profiles and dynamics of HBs-specific B cells in various conditions. Such information is useful to guide the future work in designing novel therapeutic strategies against CHB.
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17
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Biased IGH VDJ gene repertoire and clonal expansions in B cells of chronically hepatitis C virus–infected individuals. Blood 2018; 131:546-557. [DOI: 10.1182/blood-2017-09-805762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Key PointsChronic HCV infection leads to extensive BCR immunoglobulin gene repertoire alterations with pathological features even in absence of MC. Many large B-cell clones are consistently found, mainly among IgM+ memory B cells, showing a massive influence of HCV on this compartment.
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18
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Jamal R, Lapointe R, Cocolakis E, Thébault P, Kazemi S, Friedmann JE, Dionne J, Cailhier JF, Bélanger K, Ayoub JP, Le H, Lambert C, El-Hajjar J, van Kempen LC, Spatz A, Miller WH. Peripheral and local predictive immune signatures identified in a phase II trial of ipilimumab with carboplatin/paclitaxel in unresectable stage III or stage IV melanoma. J Immunother Cancer 2017; 5:83. [PMID: 29157311 PMCID: PMC5696743 DOI: 10.1186/s40425-017-0290-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Checkpoint blockade with ipilimumab provides long-term survival to a significant proportion of patients with metastatic melanoma. New approaches to increase survival and to predict which patients will benefit from treatment are needed. This phase II trial combined ipilimumab with carboplatin/paclitaxel (CP) to assess its safety, efficacy, and to search for peripheral and tumor-based predictive biomarkers. METHODS Thirty patients with untreated unresectable/metastatic melanoma were treated with ipilimumab and CP. Adverse events (AEs) were monitored and response to treatment was evaluated. Tumor tissue and peripheral blood were collected at specified time points to characterize tumor immune markers by immunohistochemistry and systemic immune activity by multiplex assays and flow cytometry. RESULTS Eighty three percent of patients received all 5 cycles of CP and 93% completed ipilimumab induction. Serious AEs occurred in 13% of patients, and no treatment-related deaths were observed. Best Overall Response Rate (BORR) and Disease Control Rate (DCR) were 27 and 57%, respectively. Median overall survival was 16.2 months. Response to treatment was positively correlated with a higher tumor CD3+ infiltrate (immune score) at baseline. NRAS and BRAF mutations were less frequent in patients who experienced clinical benefit. Assessment of peripheral blood revealed that non-responders had elevated baseline levels of CXCL8 and CCL4, and a higher proportion of circulating late differentiated B cells. Pre-existing high levels of chemokines (CCL3, CCL4 and CXCL8) and advanced B cell differentiation were strongly associated with worse patient overall survival. Elevated proportions of circulating CD8+/PD-1+ T cells during treatment were associated with worse survival. CONCLUSIONS The combination of ipilimumab and CP was well tolerated and revealed novel characteristics associated with patients likely to benefit from treatment. A pre-existing systemic inflammatory state characterized by elevation of selected chemokines and advanced B cell differentiation, was strongly associated with poor patient outcomes, revealing potential predictive circulating biomarkers. TRIAL REGISTRATION Clinicaltrials.gov , NCT01676649 , registered on August 29, 2012.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahima Jamal
- Hôpital Notre-Dame, Centre de recherche du CHUM, Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada
| | - Réjean Lapointe
- Centre de recherche du CHUM, Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada
| | - Eftihia Cocolakis
- Segal Cancer Center, Jewish General Hospital, Rossy Cancer Network, McGill University, 3755 Côte-St-Catherine, suite E670, Montreal, Québec Canada
| | - Paméla Thébault
- Centre de recherche du CHUM, Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada
| | - Shirin Kazemi
- Segal Cancer Center, Jewish General Hospital, Rossy Cancer Network, McGill University, 3755 Côte-St-Catherine, suite E670, Montreal, Québec Canada
| | - Jennifer E. Friedmann
- Segal Cancer Center, Jewish General Hospital, Rossy Cancer Network, McGill University, 3755 Côte-St-Catherine, suite E670, Montreal, Québec Canada
| | - Jeanne Dionne
- Hôpital Notre-Dame, Centre de recherche du CHUM, Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada
| | - Jean-François Cailhier
- Centre de recherche du CHUM, Institut du Cancer de Montréal, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada
| | - Karl Bélanger
- Hôpital Notre-Dame, Centre de recherche du CHUM, Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada
| | - Jean-Pierre Ayoub
- Hôpital Notre-Dame, Centre de recherche du CHUM, Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC Canada
| | - Huy Le
- Segal Cancer Center, Jewish General Hospital, Rossy Cancer Network, McGill University, 3755 Côte-St-Catherine, suite E670, Montreal, Québec Canada
| | - Caroline Lambert
- Segal Cancer Center, Jewish General Hospital, Rossy Cancer Network, McGill University, 3755 Côte-St-Catherine, suite E670, Montreal, Québec Canada
| | - Jida El-Hajjar
- Segal Cancer Center, Jewish General Hospital, Rossy Cancer Network, McGill University, 3755 Côte-St-Catherine, suite E670, Montreal, Québec Canada
| | - Léon C. van Kempen
- Department of Pathology, Molecular Pathology Center, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC Canada
| | - Alan Spatz
- Department of Pathology, Molecular Pathology Center, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC Canada
| | - Wilson H. Miller
- Segal Cancer Center, Jewish General Hospital, Rossy Cancer Network, McGill University, 3755 Côte-St-Catherine, suite E670, Montreal, Québec Canada
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19
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Kong F, Feng B, Zhang H, Rao H, Wang J, Cong X, Wei L. Abnormal phenotypic features of IgM+B cell subsets in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Exp Ther Med 2017; 14:1846-1852. [PMID: 28810658 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2017.4682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is associated with B cell abnormality; however the phenotypic profiles of immunoglobulin (Ig)M+B cell subsets in patients with HCV infection remain unclear. In the current study, the effect of HCV infection on IgM+B cell subsets was evaluated. The percentages, as well as the differentiation and activation features of peripheral IgM+B naive subsets [cluster of differentiation (CD)27-IgM+B cells] and IgM+B memory subsets (CD27+IgM+B cells) were assessed using flow cytometry in 27 patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC) and 20 healthy controls (HCs). The frequency of CD27+IgM+B memory subsets detected in patients with CHC was significantly higher than that in HCs (P<0.05). Although the frequency of CD27-IgM+B naive subsets was similar in both groups, there was a significantly higher proportion of CD5+B cells detected in the CD27-IgM+B subsets of patients with CHC compared with HCs (P<0.05). Among CD27-IgM+B subsets, abnormal differentiation was associated with HCV infection, with significantly increased percentages of IgD+B cells and CD38+B cells in patients with CHC compared with HCs (P<0.05). In CD27+IgM+B memory subsets, the abnormality of cell differentiation was associated with a significantly increased percentage of CD38+B cells in patients with CHC compared with HCs (P<0.05). In addition, the percentage of activated CD27+IgM+B subsets in patients with CHC were significantly higher than those observed in HCs (P<0.05). The number of CD27-IgD+IgM+B, CD27-CD38+IgM+B and CD27+CD38+IgM+B cells were negatively correlated with HCV RNA in patients with CHC. These results suggest that HCV infection contributes to abnormalities in the percentage, differentiation and activation of IgM+B cell subsets and may disrupt the immune response mediated by IgM+B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanyun Kong
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Hepatitis C and Immunotherapy for Liver Disease, Peking University People's Hospital, Peking University Hepatology Institute, Beijing 100044, P.R. China.,Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunity, Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221004, P.R. China
| | - Bo Feng
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Hepatitis C and Immunotherapy for Liver Disease, Peking University People's Hospital, Peking University Hepatology Institute, Beijing 100044, P.R. China
| | - Henghui Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Hepatitis C and Immunotherapy for Liver Disease, Peking University People's Hospital, Peking University Hepatology Institute, Beijing 100044, P.R. China
| | - Huiying Rao
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Hepatitis C and Immunotherapy for Liver Disease, Peking University People's Hospital, Peking University Hepatology Institute, Beijing 100044, P.R. China
| | - Jianghua Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Hepatitis C and Immunotherapy for Liver Disease, Peking University People's Hospital, Peking University Hepatology Institute, Beijing 100044, P.R. China
| | - Xu Cong
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Hepatitis C and Immunotherapy for Liver Disease, Peking University People's Hospital, Peking University Hepatology Institute, Beijing 100044, P.R. China
| | - Lai Wei
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Hepatitis C and Immunotherapy for Liver Disease, Peking University People's Hospital, Peking University Hepatology Institute, Beijing 100044, P.R. China
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20
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T-bet-expressing B cells during HIV and HCV infections. Cell Immunol 2017; 321:26-34. [PMID: 28739077 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2017.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
T-bet-expressing B cells, first identified as perpetuators of autoimmunity, were recently shown to be critical for murine antiviral responses. While their role in human viral infections remains unclear, B cells expressing T-bet or demonstrating a related phenotype have been described in individuals chronically infected with HIV or HCV, suggesting these cells represent a component of human antiviral responses. In this review, we discuss the induction of T-bet in B cells following both HIV and HCV infections, the factors driving T-bet+ B cell expansions, T-bet's relationship to atypical memory B cells, and the consequences of T-bet induction. We propose potential antiviral roles for T-bet+ B cells and discuss whether this population poses any utility to the HIV and HCV immune responses.
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21
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The dynamics of HCV-specific antibody responses in HIV/HCV patients on long-term antiretroviral therapy. Clin Immunol 2017; 179:54-63. [PMID: 28315414 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Antibody responses have not been fully characterised in chronically HIV/HCV patients receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART). Seventeen HIV/HCV patients receiving ART were followed for a median (range) interval of 597 (186-766) weeks. Prior to ART, HIV/HCV patients had lower levels of antibodies reactive with HCV core and JFH-1, and lower genotype cross-reactive neutralising antibodies (nAb) titres, than HCV patients. Levels of JFH-1 reactive antibody increased on ART, irrespective of CD4+ T-cell counts or changes in serum ALT levels. The appearance of nAb coincided with control of HCV viral replication in five HIV/HCV patients. In other patients, HCV viral loads remained elevated despite nAb responses. Sustained virological responses following HCV therapy were associated with reduced antibody responses to JFH-1 and core but elevated responses to non-structural proteins. We conclude that nAb responses alone may fail to clear HCV, but contribute to control of viral replication in some HIV/HCV patients responding to ART.
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22
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Chang LY, Li Y, Kaplan DE. Endotoxemia contributes to CD27+ memory B-cell apoptosis via enhanced sensitivity to Fas ligation in patients with Cirrhosis. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36862. [PMID: 27857173 PMCID: PMC5114671 DOI: 10.1038/srep36862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Peripheral CD27+ memory B-cells become quantitatively reduced and dysfunctional in patients with cirrhosis through poorly characterized mechanisms. We hypothesized that the disappearance of CD27+ memory B-cells results from enhanced sensitivity to apoptosis caused by exposure to gut microbial translocation products. Using isolated naïve and memory B-cells from patients with cirrhosis and age-matched controls, ex vivo and activation-induced sensitivity to Fas-mediated apoptosis was assessed under relevant experimental conditions. We observed differential expression of CD95(Fas) in CD27+ B-cells from cirrhotic patients that was inversely correlated with peripheral CD27+ B-cell frequency. While memory B-cells from cirrhotic patients were resistant to Fas-mediated apoptosis ex vivo, Toll-like receptor 4(TLR4)-ligation restored Fas-sensitivity. Sensitivity to Fas-mediated apoptosis could be transferred to healthy donor memory B-cells by co-culturing these cells with plasma from cirrhotic patients, a sensitivity partially mediated by Fas and TLR4 signaling, and partially rescued via B-cell receptor crosslinking. We conclude that peripheral CD27+ memory B-cells in cirrhosis exhibit increased sensitivity to Fas-induced apoptosis in an activation-dependent manner to which endotoxin contributes, associated with reduced frequency of circulating memory B-cells. Destruction of this critical cell subset may contribute to the cirrhotic immunodeficiency state and heightened risk of systemic infections in advanced liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Yuan Chang
- Medicine and Research Services, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz VA Medical Center, 3900 Woodland Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.,Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 9th floor BRB, 421 Curie Blvd, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Yonghai Li
- Medicine and Research Services, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz VA Medical Center, 3900 Woodland Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.,Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 9th floor BRB, 421 Curie Blvd, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - David E Kaplan
- Medicine and Research Services, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz VA Medical Center, 3900 Woodland Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.,Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 9th floor BRB, 421 Curie Blvd, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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23
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Boisvert M, Zhang W, Elrod EJ, Bernard NF, Villeneuve JP, Bruneau J, Marcotrigiano J, Shoukry NH, Grakoui A. Novel E2 Glycoprotein Tetramer Detects Hepatitis C Virus-Specific Memory B Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 197:4848-4858. [PMID: 27849172 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1600763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Acute hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection culminates in viral persistence in the majority of cases. Abs that recognize the envelope glycoproteins E1 and E2 are generated during the late stages of acute infection, yet their contribution to spontaneous viral clearance remains controversial. Investigation of the humoral responses during acute HCV infection have been limited by the inability to directly identify and characterize HCV-specific B cells. In this study we describe the development of a novel tetramer of the E2 glycoprotein ectodomain (J6, genotype 2a strain), which allowed us to visualize E2-specific B cells longitudinally in the peripheral blood of HCV-infected individuals. HCV-specific class-switched memory B cells were detected in 3 out of 7 participants during late acute infection, with a mean frequency of 0.63% for positive samples (range 0.16-0.67%) and in 7 out of 7 participants with chronic infection with a mean frequency of 0.47% (range 0.20-0.78%). In a cross-sectional study, E2 tetramer positive population was detected in 28 out of 31 chronically infected individuals. Deep sequencing of the BCR from E2-specific class-switched memory B cells sorted from two independent participants revealed a focused repertoire suggestive of clonal selection. Tetramer-specific B cells exhibited skewed CDR3 length distribution and increased mutation frequency compared with naive B cells. This BCR profile is indicative of clonal expansion and affinity maturation. E2 tetramer allows for specific and sensitive ex vivo characterization of rare HCV-specific B cells in infected individuals, and will enable researchers to gain a better understanding of humoral immunity in HCV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maude Boisvert
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2X 0A9, Canada
| | - Wanrui Zhang
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory Vaccine Center, Atlanta, GA 30329
| | - Elizabeth J Elrod
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory Vaccine Center, Atlanta, GA 30329
| | - Nicole F Bernard
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada.,Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1A3, Canada
| | - Jean-Pierre Villeneuve
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2X 0A9, Canada.,Département de Médecine, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Julie Bruneau
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2X 0A9, Canada.,Département de Médecine Familiale et de Médecine D'Urgence, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Joseph Marcotrigiano
- Center for Advanced Biotechnology and Medicine, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854; and
| | - Naglaa H Shoukry
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H2X 0A9, Canada; .,Département de Médecine, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Arash Grakoui
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory Vaccine Center, Atlanta, GA 30329; .,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30329
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24
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Roth A, Glaesener S, Schütz K, Meyer-Bahlburg A. Reduced Number of Transitional and Naive B Cells in Addition to Decreased BAFF Levels in Response to the T Cell Independent Immunogen Pneumovax®23. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0152215. [PMID: 27031098 PMCID: PMC4816312 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Protective immunity against T cell independent (TI) antigens such as Streptococcus pneumoniae is characterized by antibody production of B cells induced by the combined activation of T cell independent type 1 and type 2 antigens in the absence of direct T cell help. In mice, the main players in TI immune responses have been well defined as marginal zone (MZ) B cells and B-1 cells. However, the existence of human equivalents to these B cell subsets and the nature of the human B cell compartment involved in the immune reaction remain elusive. We therefore analyzed the effect of a TI antigen on the B cell compartment through immunization of healthy individuals with the pneumococcal polysaccharide (PnPS)-based vaccine Pneumovax®23, and subsequent characterization of B cell subpopulations. Our data demonstrates a transient decrease of transitional and naïve B cells, with a concomitant increase of IgA+ but not IgM+ or IgG+ memory B cells and a predominant generation of PnPS-specific IgA+ producing plasma cells. No alterations could be detected in T cells, or proposed human B-1 and MZ B cell equivalents. Consistent with the idea of a TI immune response, antigen-specific memory responses could not be observed. Finally, BAFF, which is supposed to drive class switching to IgA, was unexpectedly found to be decreased in serum in response to Pneumovax®23. Our results demonstrate that a characteristic TI response induced by Pneumovax®23 is associated with distinct phenotypical and functional changes within the B cell compartment. Those modulations occur in the absence of any modulations of T cells and without the development of a specific memory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alena Roth
- Pediatric Pneumology, Allergy and Neonatology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Stephanie Glaesener
- Pediatric Pneumology, Allergy and Neonatology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Katharina Schütz
- Pediatric Pneumology, Allergy and Neonatology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Almut Meyer-Bahlburg
- Pediatric Pneumology, Allergy and Neonatology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- * E-mail:
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25
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Shahaf G, Zisman-Rozen S, Benhamou D, Melamed D, Mehr R. B Cell Development in the Bone Marrow Is Regulated by Homeostatic Feedback Exerted by Mature B Cells. Front Immunol 2016; 7:77. [PMID: 27047488 PMCID: PMC4801882 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular homeostasis in the B cell compartment is strictly imposed to balance cell production and cell loss. However, it is not clear whether B cell development in the bone marrow is an autonomous process or subjected to regulation by the peripheral B cell compartment. To specifically address this question, we used mice transgenic for human CD20, where effective depletion of B lineage cells is obtained upon administration of mouse anti-human CD20 antibodies, in the absence of any effect on other cell lineages and/or tissues. We followed the kinetics of B cell return to equilibrium by BrdU labeling and flow cytometry and analyzed the resulting data by mathematical modeling. Labeling was much faster in depleted mice. Compared to control mice, B cell-depleted mice exhibited a higher proliferation rate in the pro-/pre-B compartment, and higher cell death and lower differentiation in the immature B cell compartment. We validated the first result by analysis of the expression of Ki67, the nuclear protein expressed in proliferating cells, and the second using Annexin V staining. Collectively, our results suggest that B lymphopoiesis is subjected to homeostatic feedback mechanisms imposed by mature B cells in the peripheral compartment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gitit Shahaf
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University , Ramat-Gan , Israel
| | - Simona Zisman-Rozen
- Department of Immunology, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology , Haifa , Israel
| | - David Benhamou
- Department of Immunology, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology , Haifa , Israel
| | - Doron Melamed
- Department of Immunology, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology , Haifa , Israel
| | - Ramit Mehr
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University , Ramat-Gan , Israel
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26
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Kong FY, Feng B, Zhang HH, Rao HY, Wang JH, Cong X, Wei L. CD4+CXCR5+ T cells activate CD27+IgG+ B cells via IL-21 in patients with hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int 2016; 15:55-64. [PMID: 26818544 DOI: 10.1016/s1499-3872(16)60054-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection causes the skewing and activation of B cell subsets, but the characteristics of IgG+ B cells in patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC) infection have not been thoroughly elucidated. CD4+CXCR5+ follicular helper T (Tfh) cells, via interleukin (IL)-21 secretion, activate B cells. However, the role of CD4+CXCR5+ T cells in the activation of IgG+ B cells in CHC patients is not clear. METHODS The frequency of IgG+ B cells, including CD27-IgG+ B and CD27+IgG+ B cells, the expression of the activation markers (CD86 and CD95) in IgG+ B cells, and the percentage of circulating CD4+CXCR5+ T cells were detected by flow cytometry in CHC patients (n=70) and healthy controls (n=25). The concentrations of serum IL-21 were analyzed using ELISA. The role of CD4+CXCR5+ T cells in the activation of IgG+ B cells was investigated using a co-culture system. RESULTS A significantly lower proportion of CD27+IgG+ B cells with increased expression of CD86 and CD95 was observed in CHC patients. The expression of CD95 was negatively correlated with the percentage of CD27+IgG+ B cells, and it contributed to CD27+IgG+ B cell apoptosis. Circulating CD4+CXCR5+ T cells and serum IL-21 were significantly increased in CHC patients. Moreover, circulating CD4+CXCR5+ T cells from CHC patients induced higher expressions of CD86 and CD95 in CD27+IgG+ B cells in a co-culture system; the blockade of the IL-21 decreased the expression levels of CD86 and CD95 in CD27+IgG+ B cells. CONCLUSIONS HCV infection increased the frequency of CD4+CXCR5+ T cells and decreased the frequency of CD27+IgG+ B cells. CD4+CXCR5+ T cells activated CD27+IgG+ B cells via the secretion of IL-21.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan-Yun Kong
- Peking University People's Hospital, Peking University Hepatology Institute, Beijing Key Laboratory of Hepatitis C and Immunotherapy for Liver Diseases, No. 11 Xizhimen South Street, Beijing 100044, China.
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27
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Dauby N, Sartori D, Kummert C, Lecomte S, Haelterman E, Delforge ML, Donner C, Mach M, Marchant A. Limited Effector Memory B-Cell Response to Envelope Glycoprotein B During Primary Human Cytomegalovirus Infection. J Infect Dis 2015; 213:1642-50. [PMID: 26715677 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiv769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Following primary human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection, the production of antibodies against envelope glycoprotein B (gB) is delayed, compared with production of antibodies against tegument proteins, and this likely reduces the control of HCMV dissemination. METHODS The frequency and the phenotype of gB-specific and tegument protein-specific B cells were studied in a cohort of pregnant women with primary HCMV infection. Healthy adults who had chronic HCMV infection or were recently immunized with tetanus toxoid (TT) were included as controls. RESULTS Primary HCMV infection was associated with high and similar frequencies of gB-specific and tegument protein-specific B cells following primary HCMV infection. During primary infection, tegument protein-specific B cells expressed an activated (CD21(low)) memory B-cell (MBC) phenotype. Activated MBCs were also induced by TT booster immunization, indicating that the expansion of this subset is part of the physiological B-cell response to protein antigens. In contrast, gB-specific B cells had a predominant classical (CD21(+)) MBC phenotype during both primary and chronic infections. CONCLUSIONS The delayed production of gB-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) during primary HCMV infection is associated with a limited induction of MBCs with effector potential. This novel mechanism by which HCMV may interfere with the production of neutralizing antibodies could represent a target for therapeutic immunization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Dauby
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB)
| | - Delphine Sartori
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB)
| | | | - Sandra Lecomte
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB)
| | | | | | - Catherine Donner
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Erasme Hospital, ULB, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Michael Mach
- Institut für Klinische und Molekulare Virologie, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Arnaud Marchant
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB) ImmuneHealth, Gosselies
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28
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Presence of Rheumatoid Factor during Chronic HCV Infection Is Associated with Expansion of Mature Activated Memory B-Cells that Are Hypo-Responsive to B-Cell Receptor Stimulation and Persist during the Early Stage of IFN Free Therapy. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0144629. [PMID: 26649443 PMCID: PMC4674123 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0144629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Approximately half of those with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection have circulating rheumatoid factor (RF), and a portion of these individuals develop cryoglobulinemic vasculitis. B cell phenotype/function in relation to RF in serum has been unclear. We examined B cell subset distribution, activation state (CD86), cell cycle state (Ki67), and ex-vivo response to BCR, TLR9 and TLR7/8 stimulation, in chronic HCV-infected donors with or without RF, and uninfected donors. Mature-activated B-cells of HCV-infected donors had lower CD86 expression compared to uninfected donors, and in the presence of RF they also showed reduced CD86 expression in response to BCR and TLR9 stimulation. Additionally, mature activated memory B cells of HCV RF+ donors less commonly expressed Ki67+ than HCV RF- donors, and did not proliferate as well in response to BCR stimulation. Proportions of mature-activated B cells were enhanced, while naïve B-cells were lower in the peripheral blood of HCV-RF+ compared to RF- and uninfected donors. None of these parameters normalize by week 8 of IFN free direct acting antiviral (DAA) therapy in HCV RF+ donors, while in RF- donors, mature activated B cell proportions did normalize. These data indicate that while chronic HCV infection alone results in a lower state of activation in mature activated memory B cells, the presence of RF in serum is associated with a more pronounced state of unresponsiveness and an overrepresentation of these B cells in the blood. This phenotype persists at least during the early time window after removal of HCV from the host.
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29
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Abstract
Despite advances in therapy, hepatitis C virus infection remains a major global health issue with 3 to 4 million incident cases and 170 million prevalent chronic infections. Complex, partially understood, host-virus interactions determine whether an acute infection with hepatitis C resolves, as occurs in approximately 30% of cases, or generates a persistent hepatic infection, as occurs in the remainder. Once chronic infection is established, the velocity of hepatocyte injury and resultant fibrosis is significantly modulated by immunologic as well as environmental factors. Immunomodulation has been the backbone of antiviral therapy despite poor understanding of its mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E. Kaplan
- Medicine and Research Services, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, Philadelphia PA,Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
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30
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Li XX, Chen JX, Wang LX, Sun J, Chen SH, Chen JH, Zhang XY, Zhou XN. Profiling B and T cell immune responses to co-infection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and hookworm in humans. Infect Dis Poverty 2015; 4:20. [PMID: 25954506 PMCID: PMC4423492 DOI: 10.1186/s40249-015-0046-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Humoral and cellular immune responses play protective roles against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infection. However, hookworm infection decreases the immune response to hookworm and bystander antigens. Currently, immune responses to co-infection of MTB and hookworm are still unknown, although co-infection has been one of the public health problems in co-endemic areas of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) and hookworm disease. Therefore, it is essential to evaluate B and T cell immune responses to the co-infection. Methods Seventeen PTB cases co-infected with hookworm, 26 PTB cases, 15 patients with hookworm infection, and 24 healthy controls without PTB or hookworm infection were enrolled in the study. Expressions of CD3, CD4, CD8, CD10, CD19, CD20, CD21, CD25, CD27, CD38, FoxP3, and PD-1 were assessed on B and T cell subsets using multicolor flow cytometry. Results For the B cell (CD19+) subsets, naïve B cells (CD10−CD27−CD21+CD20+), plasma cells (CD10−CD27+CD21−CD20−), and tissue-like memory B cells (CD10−CD27−CD21−CD20+) had higher proportions, whilst resting memory B cells (CD10−CD27+CD21+CD20+) had lower proportions in the group co-infected with MTB and hookworm as compared to other groups. Frequencies of activated memory B cells (CD10−CD27+CD21−CD20+) did not differ among the four groups. For the T cell (CD3+) subsets, frequencies of regulatory T cells (CD4+CD25+Foxp3+) and exhausted CD4+ and CD8+ T cells (CD4+PD-1+ and CD8+PD-1+) were higher, and frequencies of activated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells (CD4+CD38+ and CD8+CD38+) were lower in the co-infected group as compared to the other groups. Conclusion The change patterns of the cell profile of circulating lymphocytes were indentified in human co-infection of MTB and hookworm, which might indicate that the humoral and cellular immune responses are more suppressed. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40249-015-0046-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Xu Li
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Malaria, Schistosomiasis and Filariasis, 207 Rui Jin Er Road, Huangpu District, Shanghai, 200025 PR China (PRC) ; National Center for Tuberculosis Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206 PR China
| | - Jia-Xu Chen
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Malaria, Schistosomiasis and Filariasis, 207 Rui Jin Er Road, Huangpu District, Shanghai, 200025 PR China (PRC)
| | - Li-Xia Wang
- National Center for Tuberculosis Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206 PR China
| | - Jun Sun
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of Ministry of Education, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201508 PR China
| | - Shao-Hong Chen
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Malaria, Schistosomiasis and Filariasis, 207 Rui Jin Er Road, Huangpu District, Shanghai, 200025 PR China (PRC)
| | - Jun-Hu Chen
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Malaria, Schistosomiasis and Filariasis, 207 Rui Jin Er Road, Huangpu District, Shanghai, 200025 PR China (PRC)
| | - Xiao-Yan Zhang
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of Ministry of Education, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201508 PR China
| | - Xiao-Nong Zhou
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Malaria, Schistosomiasis and Filariasis, 207 Rui Jin Er Road, Huangpu District, Shanghai, 200025 PR China (PRC)
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Oliviero B, Mantovani S, Ludovisi S, Varchetta S, Mele D, Paolucci S, Baldanti F, Mondelli MU. Skewed B cells in chronic hepatitis C virus infection maintain their ability to respond to virus-induced activation. J Viral Hepat 2015; 22:391-8. [PMID: 25258145 DOI: 10.1111/jvh.12336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is characterized by persistent B-cell activation, with enhanced differentiation and reduced proliferative ability. To assess the possible role of HCV in altering B-cell subset distribution, we examined ex vivo frequencies and B-cell inhibitory receptor expression in 37 chronic HCV-infected patients and 25 healthy donors (HD). In addition, we determined whether short-term exposure to culture-derived HCV (HCVcc) resulted in B-cell subset skewing and/or activation. There was a statistically significant increase in the frequencies of immature transitional, activated memory and tissue-like memory (TLM) B cells in HCV-infected patients compared with HD. We also found that the frequency of memory B cells correlated with serum HCV RNA levels. The proportion of B cells expressing the marker of exhaustion Fc receptor-like 4 (FcRL4) was generally low even though significantly higher in the patients' memory B-cell compartment compared with HD, and a positive correlation was found between the frequencies of the patients' TLM FcRL4+ B cells and serum alanine aminotransferase and histological activity index at liver biopsy. Exposure to cell-free HCVcc in vitro did not result in B-cell skewing but induced significant activation of naïve, TLM and resting memory B cells in HCV-infected patients but not in HD, in whom cell-associated virus was an absolute requirement for activation of memory B cells. These findings provide corroborative evidence in favour of significant B-cell subset skewing in chronic HCV infection and in addition show that expression of exhaustion markers in selected B-cell subsets does not impair virus-induced B-cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Oliviero
- Research Laboratories, Department of Infectious Diseases, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, Pavia, Italy
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32
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Kohli A, Funk E, Burbelo P, Barrett L, Meissner EG, Santich B, Shaffer A, Johl J, Sidharthan S, Moir S, Kottilil S, Fauci AS. Persistently elevated abnormal B-cell subpopulations and anti-core antibodies in patients co-infected with HIV/HCV who relapse. J Med Virol 2015; 87:544-52. [PMID: 25611329 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.24089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis C (HCV) treatment for patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and HCV is associated with modest rates of sustained virologic response (SVR) and an increased rate of relapse when compared to HCV monoinfected patients. As patients who attain SVR and patients who relapse are clinically indistinguishable during treatment, where both groups have fully suppressed HCV viral load, it has not been possible to identify in advance those who will relapse. Biomarkers that may distinguish patients with differential treatment response may be clinically useful and provide insight into mechanisms of relapse. In this retrospective study, serum and PBMCs were obtained from 41 HIV/HCV co-infected patients and 17 healthy volunteers. Changes in antibody titers to various regions of the HCV proteome during treatment for HCV were determined using a novel luciferase immunoprecipitation assay. Changes in B-cell subtypes in patients with differential treatment response as well as healthy volunteers were compared. This study demonstrates that elevated anti-HCV core antibody titers persisted during HCV treatment in patients who relapsed when compared to those who attained SVR. Furthermore, characterization of B cells in patients who relapsed demonstrated an abnormal B-cell phenotype distribution characterized by elevated frequencies of exhausted B cells among relapsers at baseline, which persisted despite suppression of HCV viremia at 24 weeks, along with increased frequencies of plasmablasts. These data suggest that anti-HCV specific B cells may be responding to ongoing subclinical HCV replication in patients who will relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Kohli
- Critical Care Medicine Department, National Institutes of Health Clinical Center, Bethesda, Maryland; Clinical Research Directorate/Clinical Monitoring Research Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc. (formerly SAIC-Frederick, Inc.), Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland
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33
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Dauby N, Kummert C, Lecomte S, Liesnard C, Delforge ML, Donner C, Marchant A. Primary Human Cytomegalovirus Infection Induces the Expansion of Virus-Specific Activated and Atypical Memory B Cells. J Infect Dis 2014; 210:1275-85. [DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiu255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
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34
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Reiche S, Nestler C, Sieg M, Schulz K, Cordes C, Krznaric I, Jassoy C. Hepatitis C virus (HCV)-specific memory B-cell responses in transiently and chronically infected HIV positive individuals. J Clin Virol 2014; 59:218-22. [PMID: 24566009 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2014.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Revised: 12/03/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antibody responses to hepatitis C virus (HCV) occur delayed and overly decline after viral clearance indicating that the B-cell response to HCV is abnormal. Virus-specific memory B-cells have recently been found in infected individuals, but the viral exposure requirements for the generation of these cells is unknown. OBJECTIVES The primary goal of this study was to quantify and compare the HCV-specific memory B-cell response between chronic and resolved HCV-infected individuals. A secondary goal was to examine if HIV-specific memory B-cell responses are maintained during HCV co-infection. STUDY DESIGN HCV core protein- and HIV-specific memory B-cell responses were examined in HIV/HCV-infected individuals treated 4-30 weeks after HCV diagnosis. Memory B-cell frequencies were compared between chronically and transiently infected individuals. RESULTS Chronically infected individuals had vigorous HCV-specific memory B-cell responses and antibodies, whereas subjects with transient viremia showed low or undetectable virus-specific B-cell responses. In addition, chronically HIV/HCV-infected subjects had robust HIV-specific memory B-cell responses. CONCLUSIONS Whereas chronic HCV infection induces virus-specific antibodies and memory B-cells, transient infection in individuals with sustained viral response to therapy does not stimulate a durable HCV-specific B-cell response indicating that the formation of long-lived virus-specific B-cells is suppressed in the early phase of infection. This may contribute to the inability to spontaneously clear HCV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Reiche
- Institute of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04105 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Claudia Nestler
- Institute of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04105 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Michael Sieg
- Institute of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04105 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Katharina Schulz
- Institute of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04105 Leipzig, Germany
| | | | | | - Christian Jassoy
- Institute of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04105 Leipzig, Germany.
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Doi H, Tanoue S, Kaplan DE. Peripheral CD27-CD21- B-cells represent an exhausted lymphocyte population in hepatitis C cirrhosis. Clin Immunol 2014; 150:184-91. [PMID: 24434272 PMCID: PMC4580910 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2013.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2013] [Revised: 11/27/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Hepatitis C cirrhosis is associated with a profound disappearance of memory B-cells. We sought to determine if this loss is associated with the expansion of the CD27(-)CD21(-) tissue-like memory B-cells with features of B-cell exhaustion. To this end, we quantified the frequency of CD27(-)CD21(-) B-cells in healthy, non-cirrhotic HCV-infected, and cirrhotic patients. We examined the expression of putative inhibitory receptors, the proliferative and immunoglobulin-secreting capacity of CD27/CD21-defined B-cell subsets upon B-cell receptor and/or CD40 stimulation. We found that CD27(-)CD21(-) B-cells are significantly increased in frequency relative to healthy donors in HCV-infected patients. CD27(-)CD21(-) B-cells were hypoproliferative relative to naïve and resting memory B-cells upon agonistic stimulation, but retained similar capacity for antibody secretion. CONCLUSION CD27(-)CD21(-) tissue-like memory B-cells with exhausted proliferation circulate at increased frequency in cirrhotic and non-cirrhotic HCV-infected patients. This B-cell subset does not appear anergic, exhibiting immunoglobulin-secreting capacity on CD40 agonism indistinguishable from other CD27/CD21-defined B-cell subsets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyoshi Doi
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Shiroh Tanoue
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, USA
| | - David E Kaplan
- Medicine and Research Services, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, USA.
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Palma P, Rinaldi S, Cotugno N, Santilli V, Pahwa S, Rossi P, Cagigi A. Premature B-cell senescence as a consequence of chronic immune activation. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2014; 10:2083-8. [PMID: 25424820 PMCID: PMC4186020 DOI: 10.4161/hv.28698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2014] [Revised: 03/16/2014] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Similar features between the immune system of healthy elderly people and of younger individuals subjected to conditions of chronic immune activation are progressively being observed. This is raising the hypothesis that chronic immune activation may cause the premature aging of the immune system. Here we dissect this theory by comparing changes occurring to B-cells during healthy aging to the ones occurring during chronic immune activation in younger individuals. Moreover, we discuss how these changes may affect or predict response to vaccination in immune compromised individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Palma
- University Department of Pediatrics; DPUO; Unit of Immune and Infectious Diseases; Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital; Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Rinaldi
- Chair of Pediatrics; Department of Public Health; University of Rome
| | - Nicola Cotugno
- University Department of Pediatrics; DPUO; Unit of Immune and Infectious Diseases; Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital; Rome, Italy
| | - Veronica Santilli
- University Department of Pediatrics; DPUO; Unit of Immune and Infectious Diseases; Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital; Rome, Italy
| | - Savita Pahwa
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; University of Miami; Miller School of Medicine; Miami, FL USA
| | - Paolo Rossi
- University Department of Pediatrics; DPUO; Unit of Immune and Infectious Diseases; Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital; Rome, Italy
| | - Alberto Cagigi
- University Department of Pediatrics; DPUO; Unit of Immune and Infectious Diseases; Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital; Rome, Italy
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Duggleby RC, Madrigal JA. Methods of detection of immune reconstitution and T regulatory cells by flow cytometry. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1109:159-86. [PMID: 24473784 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-9437-9_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell therapy (HSCT) remains one of the few curative treatments for high-risk hematological malignancies (high-risk leukemia, myelodysplastic syndromes, advanced myeloproliferative disorders, high-risk lymphomas, and multiple myeloma) and is currently applied in more than 15,000 patients per year in Europe. Following HSCT, patients experience a period of reconstitution of the immune system, which seems to be highly dependent on conditioning, immunosuppression regimes, and the level of adverse events the patients experience. During this reconstitution period, the patient is immune compromised and susceptible to opportunistic infections and disease relapse. Consequently, a large number of clinical studies have been devoted to monitoring the recovery of the immune system following HSCT in the hopes of determining which cellular subsets are indicative of a favorable outcome. In this chapter we review the methods that have been employed to monitor the immune reconstitution and what clinical observations have been made. Of particular interest is the regulatory T cell (Treg) subset, which has been associated with tolerance and has been the subject of recent clinical trials as a possible cellular therapy for rejection reactions. Finally we will detail a proposed methodology for the flow cytometric assessment of cellular reconstitution post-HSCT.
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Sun H, Lv J, Tu Z, Hu X, Yan H, Pan Y, Xu D, Lian Z, Chi X, Niu J. Antiviral treatment improves disrupted peripheral B lymphocyte homeostasis in chronic hepatitis B virus-infected patients. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2013; 238:1275-83. [PMID: 24085784 DOI: 10.1177/1535370213502626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Disruption of peripheral blood B-cell homeostasis and variation of surface receptors occur with certain infections and autoimmune diseases. However, the impact of antiviral therapy on B-cell alteration during chronic hepatitis B (CHB) infection remains unclear. Our study aims to document the effects of B-cell alteration in CHB patients treated with tenofovir or adefovir. A total of 21 CHB patients and 10 healthy donors were recruited into the study. We identified B-cell subsets by flow cytometry and observed changes in the B-cell repertoire of CHB patients upon tenofovir or adefovir antiviral treatment. The total and percent of B cells and CD5 + B-cell subsets were significantly increased in CHB patients compared to healthy donors. Total and percent of CD5 + B cells gradually decreased following the diminution of the HBV DNA load after tenofovir and adefovir treatment. Upon tenofovir treatment, the percent of memory CD27 + B cells was increased but the absolute number declined, whereas naïve CD27- B cells declined in both percent and absolute number. In the adefovir treatment group, neither naïve nor memory B cells were altered by the treatment. Furthermore, CHB patients displayed higher levels of activation markers (CD69 and CD24) and trended towards restored B-cell homeostasis after antiviral treatment. In conclusion, disrupted B-cell homeostasis is an important feature of CHB patients and is partially restored after control of viral replication by antiviral treatment. B-cell antiviral immunity is improved by restoring B-cell homeostasis and activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haibo Sun
- Department of Hepatology, the First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
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Raglow Z, Thoma-Perry C, Gilroy R, Wan YJY. IL28B genotype and the expression of ISGs in normal liver. Liver Int 2013; 33:991-8. [PMID: 23522062 PMCID: PMC7231429 DOI: 10.1111/liv.12148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2012] [Accepted: 02/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Both polymorphisms in the IL28B gene locus and ISG expression levels are associated with the outcome of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. The two are also interrelated, although the mechanism is unknown. Favourable CC genotype at rs12979860 expresses lower baseline ISG levels and responds better to treatment than unfavourable CT and TT genotypes. Little is known about this relationship in normal, uninfected liver. This study sought to explore this relationship. METHODS Normal human liver specimens (64) and HCV positive human liver specimens (95) were genotyped for IL28B rs12979860 C > T. mRNA levels of ISGs and other relevant genes were studied by qPCR. RESULTS Most studied ISGs had significantly different expression by IL28B genotype in normal liver. CC genotype expressed the highest levels, CT intermediate and TT the lowest. This is opposite to the pattern seen in HCV patients. Principal component analysis of IL28B genotype and ISG expression further revealed a distinct set of genes correlated with the C allele (ISG15, HTATIP2, LGALS3BP, IRF2 and BCL2) and T allele (IFNα, β, γ, λ3 and CD80). CONCLUSION A subset of ISGs was found to be differentially expressed in normal liver by IL28B genotype. This suggests a relationship between IL28B genotype and gene expression before HCV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe Raglow
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology & Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Carly Thoma-Perry
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology & Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Richard Gilroy
- Department of Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Yu-Jui Y. Wan
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology & Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
- Department of Medical Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA, USA
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES During HIV-1 infection, the development, phenotype, and functionality of B cells are impaired. Transitional B cells and aberrant B-cell populations arise in blood, whereas a declined percentage of resting memory B cells is detected. Our study aimed at pinpointing the demographic, immunological, and viral factors driving these pathological findings, and the role of antiretroviral therapy in reverting these alterations. DESIGN B-cell phenotype and correlating factors were evaluated. METHODS Variations in B-cell subsets were evaluated by flow cytometry in HIV-1-infected individuals naive to therapy, elite controllers, and patients treated with antiretroviral drugs (virological control or failure). Multivariable analysis was performed to identify variables independently associated with the B-cell alterations. RESULTS Significant differences were observed among patients' groups in relation to all B-cell subsets. Resting memory B cells were preserved in patients naive to therapy and elite controllers, but reduced in treated patients. Individuals naive to therapy and experiencing multidrug failure, as well as elite controllers, had significantly higher levels of activated memory B cells compared to healthy controls. In the multivariate analysis, plasma viral load and nadir CD4 T cells independently correlated with major B-cell alterations. Coinfection with hepatitis C but not hepatitis B virus also showed an impact on specific B-cell subsets. Successful protracted antiretroviral treatment led to normalization of all B-cell subsets with exception of resting memory B cells. CONCLUSION Our results indicate that viremia and nadir CD4 T cells are important prognostic markers of B-cell perturbations and provide evidence that resting memory B-cell depletion during chronic infection is not reverted upon successful antiretroviral therapy.
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Labuda LA, Ateba-Ngoa U, Feugap EN, Heeringa JJ, van der Vlugt LEPM, Pires RBA, Mewono L, Kremsner PG, van Zelm MC, Adegnika AA, Yazdanbakhsh M, Smits HH. Alterations in peripheral blood B cell subsets and dynamics of B cell responses during human schistosomiasis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2094. [PMID: 23505586 PMCID: PMC3591311 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibody responses are thought to play an important role in control of Schistosoma infections, yet little is known about the phenotype and function of B cells in human schistosomiasis. We set out to characterize B cell subsets and B cell responses to B cell receptor and Toll-like receptor 9 stimulation in Gabonese schoolchildren with Schistosoma haematobium infection. Frequencies of memory B cell (MBC) subsets were increased, whereas naive B cell frequencies were reduced in the schistosome-infected group. At the functional level, isolated B cells from schistosome-infected children showed higher expression of the activation marker CD23 upon stimulation, but lower proliferation and TNF-α production. Importantly, 6-months after 3 rounds of praziquantel treatment, frequencies of naive B cells were increased, MBC frequencies were decreased and with the exception of TNF-α production, B cell responsiveness was restored to what was seen in uninfected children. These data show that S. haematobium infection leads to significant changes in the B cell compartment, both at the phenotypic and functional level. Schistosomiasis affects over 200 million people and especially children in developing countries. It causes general hyporesponsiveness of the immune system, which until now has predominantly been described for various T cell subsets as well as dendritic cells. B cells in this context have not yet been investigated. To address this question, we phenotyped B cell subsets present in peripheral blood from S. haematobium infected and uninfected schoolchildren living in an endemic area in Lambaréné, Gabon. Children with schistosomiasis had an increased frequency of various memory B cell subsets, including subsets associated with B cell exhaustion, and a concomitant decrease in naive B cells. To study the effect of Schistosoma infection on B cells in more detail we isolated peripheral blood B cells and found that B cells from infected children had a reduced capacity to proliferate and produce TNF-α in response to both B cell receptor and Toll-like receptor stimulation. These results provide new insights into the role of B cells in the host immune response to schistosomiasis and may provide a novel target for therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucja A. Labuda
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ulysse Ateba-Ngoa
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Eliane Ngoune Feugap
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jorn J. Heeringa
- Department of Immunology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Regina B. A. Pires
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ludovic Mewono
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné, Gabon
| | - Peter G. Kremsner
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Ayola A. Adegnika
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Maria Yazdanbakhsh
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Hermelijn H. Smits
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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Holz LE, Yoon JC, Raghuraman S, Moir S, Sneller MC, Rehermann B. B cell homeostasis in chronic hepatitis C virus-related mixed cryoglobulinemia is maintained through naïve B cell apoptosis. Hepatology 2012; 56:1602-10. [PMID: 22556016 PMCID: PMC3421034 DOI: 10.1002/hep.25821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2011] [Accepted: 04/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Mixed cryoglobulinemia (MC) is the most common extrahepatic manifestation of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Although the formation of inflammation-triggering immune complexes is driven by clonal expansions of autoreactive B cells, we found total B cell numbers paradoxically reduced in HCV-infected patients with MC. HCV patients with MC (n = 17) also displayed a reduced number and a reduced frequency of naïve B cells compared with HCV-infected patients without MC (n = 19), hepatitis B virus-infected patients (n = 10), and uninfected controls (n = 50). This was due to an increased sensitivity of naïve B cells to apoptosis resulting in a reduction in the size of the naïve B cell subset. In addition, 4-fold expansion and skewing (lower T1/T2-ratio) of the immature B cell subset was noted in MC patients, suggesting that apoptosis of naïve B cells triggered the release of B cell precursors from bone marrow in an attempt to maintain normal B cell numbers. Following treatment of MC with the B cell-depleting antibody rituximab, the size of all B cell subsets, the T1/T2-ratio, and the cyroglobulin levels all normalized. Cryoglobulin levels correlated with in vivo proliferation of T2 B cells, suggesting a link between the skewing of the T1/T2 ratio and the formation of immune complexes. CONCLUSION This study provides insight into the mechanisms maintaining B cell homeostasis in HCV-induced MC and the ability of rituximab therapy to restore normal B cell compartments. (HEPATOLOGY 2012;56:1602-1610).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren E. Holz
- Immunology Section, Liver Diseases Branch, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Joo Chun Yoon
- Immunology Section, Liver Diseases Branch, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Sukanya Raghuraman
- Immunology Section, Liver Diseases Branch, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Susan Moir
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Michael C. Sneller
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Barbara Rehermann
- Immunology Section, Liver Diseases Branch, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
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Das A, Ellis G, Pallant C, Lopes AR, Khanna P, Peppa D, Chen A, Blair P, Dusheiko G, Gill U, Kennedy PT, Brunetto M, Lampertico P, Mauri C, Maini MK. IL-10-producing regulatory B cells in the pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2012; 189:3925-35. [PMID: 22972930 PMCID: PMC3480715 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1103139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 262] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A regulatory subset of B cells has been found to modulate immune responses in autoimmunity, infection, and cancer, but it has not been investigated in the setting of human persistent viral infection. IL-10 is elevated in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection (CHB), but its cellular sources and impact on antiviral T cells have not been addressed. We investigated the role of IL-10 and regulatory B cells in the pathogenesis of CHB. Serum IL-10 levels were studied longitudinally in patients with CHB undergoing spontaneous disease flares. There was a close temporal correlation between IL-10 levels and fluctuations in viral load or liver inflammation. Blockade of IL-10 in vitro rescued polyfunctional virus-specific CD8 T cell responses. To investigate the potential contribution of regulatory B cells, their frequency was measured directly ex vivo and after exposure to stimuli relevant to hepatitis B virus (HBV) (CpG or HBV Ags). IL-10-producing B cells were enriched in patients, and their frequency correlated temporally with hepatic flares, both after stimulation and directly ex vivo. Phenotypically, these cells were predominantly immature (CD19(+)CD24(hi)CD38(hi)) ex vivo; sorted CD19(+)CD24(hi)CD38(hi) cells suppressed HBV-specific CD8 T cell responses in an IL-10-dependent manner. In summary, these data reveal a novel IL-10-producing subset of B cells able to regulate T cell immunity in CHB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Das
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London WC1E 6JF, United Kingdom
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Molecular signature in HCV-positive lymphomas. Clin Dev Immunol 2012; 2012:623465. [PMID: 22952554 PMCID: PMC3431075 DOI: 10.1155/2012/623465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2012] [Revised: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a positive, single-stranded RNA virus, which has been associated to different subtypes of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL). Cumulative evidence suggests an HCV-related antigen driven process in the B-NHL development. The underlying molecular signature associated to HCV-related B-NHL has to date remained obscure. In this review, we discuss the recent developments in this field with a special mention to different sets of genes whose expression is associated with BCR coupled to Blys signaling which in turn was found to be linked to B-cell maturation stages and NF-κb transcription factor. Even if recent progress on HCV-B-NHL signature has been made, the precise relationship between HCV and lymphoma development and phenotype signature remain to be clarified.
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45
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Doi H, Iyer TK, Carpenter E, Li H, Chang KM, Vonderheide RH, Kaplan DE. Dysfunctional B-cell activation in cirrhosis resulting from hepatitis C infection associated with disappearance of CD27-positive B-cell population. Hepatology 2012; 55:709-19. [PMID: 21932384 PMCID: PMC3245804 DOI: 10.1002/hep.24689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2011] [Accepted: 09/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a leading cause of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Both advanced solid tumors and HCV have previously been associated with memory B-cell dysfunction. In this study, we sought to dissect the effect of viral infection, cirrhosis, and liver cancer on memory B-cell frequency and function in the spectrum of HCV disease. Peripheral blood from healthy donors, HCV-infected patients with F1-F2 liver fibrosis, HCV-infected patients with cirrhosis, patients with HCV-related HCC, and non-HCV-infected cirrhotics were assessed for B-cell phenotype by flow cytometry. Isolated B cells were stimulated with anti-cluster of differentiation (CD)40 antibodies and Toll-like receptor (TLR)9 agonist for assessment of costimulation marker expression, cytokine production, immunoglobulin (Ig) production, and CD4(+) T-cell allostimulatory capacity. CD27(+) memory B cells and, more specifically, CD27(+) IgM(+) B cells were markedly less frequent in cirrhotic patients independent of HCV infection. Circulating B cells in cirrhotics were hyporesponsive to CD40/TLR9 activation, as characterized by CD70 up-regulation, tumor necrosis factor beta secretion, IgG production, and T-cell allostimulation. Last, blockade of TLR4 and TLR9 signaling abrogated the activation of healthy donor B cells by cirrhotic plasma, suggesting a role for bacterial translocation in driving B-cell changes in cirrhosis. CONCLUSION Profound abnormalities in B-cell phenotype and function occur in cirrhosis independent of HCV infection. These B-cell defects may explain, in part, the vaccine hyporesponsiveness and susceptibility to bacterial infection in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyoshi Doi
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
| | - Tara K. Iyer
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
| | | | - Hong Li
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
| | - Kyong-Mi Chang
- Medicine and Research Services, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, Philadelphia PA,Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
| | | | - David E. Kaplan
- Medicine and Research Services, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, Philadelphia PA,Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
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46
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van den Bosch C. A Role for RNA Viruses in the Pathogenesis of Burkitt's Lymphoma: The Need for Reappraisal. Adv Hematol 2011; 2012:494758. [PMID: 22550493 PMCID: PMC3328886 DOI: 10.1155/2012/494758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2011] [Accepted: 11/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Certain infectious agents are associated with lymphomas, but the strength of the association varies geographically, suggesting that local environmental factors make important contributions to lymphomagenesis. Endemic Burkitt's Lymphoma has well-defined environmental requirements making it particularly suitable for research into local environmental factors. The Epstein-Barr virus and holoendemic Malaria are recognized as important cofactors in endemic Burkitt's Lymphoma and their contributions are discussed. Additionally, infection with Chikungunya Fever, a potentially oncogenic arbovirus, was associated with the onset of endemic Burkitt's Lymphoma in one study and also with space-time case clusters of the lymphoma. Chikungunya Virus has several characteristics typical of oncogenic viruses. The Flavivirus, Hepatitis C, a Class 1 Human Carcinogen, closely related to the arboviruses, Yellow Fever, and Dengue, is also more distantly related to Chikungunya Virus. The mechanisms of oncogenesis believed to operate in Hepatitis C lymphomagenesis are discussed, as is their potential applicability to Chikungunya Virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corry van den Bosch
- Research Facilitation Forum, Pilgrims Hospices, Canterbury, Kent CT2 8JA, UK
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47
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Chen Z, Zhu Y, Ren Y, Tong Y, Hua X, Zhu F, Huang L, Liu Y, Luo Y, Lu W, Zhao P, Qi Z. Hepatitis C virus protects human B lymphocytes from Fas-mediated apoptosis via E2-CD81 engagement. PLoS One 2011; 6:e18933. [PMID: 21526201 PMCID: PMC3079738 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2010] [Accepted: 03/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
HCV infection is often associated with B-cell regulatory control disturbance and delayed appearance of neutralizing antibodies. CD81 is a cellular receptor for HCV and can bind to HCV envelope protein 2 (E2). CD81 also participates to form a B cell costimulatory complex. To investigate whether HCV influences B cell activation and immune function through E2 -CD81 engagement, here, human Burkitt's lymphoma cell line Raji cells and primary human B lymphocytes (PHB) were treated with HCV E2 protein and cell culture produced HCV particles (HCVcc), and then the related cell phenotypes were assayed. The results showed that both E2 and HCVcc triggered phosphorylation of IκBα, enhanced the expression of anti-apoptosis Bcl-2 family proteins, and protected Raji cells and PHB cells from Fas-mediated death. In addition, both E2 protein and HCVcc increased the expression of costimulatory molecules CD80, CD86 and CD81 itself, and decreased the expression of complement receptor CD21. The effects were dependent on E2-CD81 interaction on the cell surface, since CD81-silenced Raji cells did not respond to both treatments; and an E2 mutant that lose the CD81 binding activity, could not trigger the responses of both Raji cells and PHB cells. The effects were not associated with HCV replication in cells, for HCV pseudoparticle (HCVpp) and HCVcc failed to infect Raji cells. Hence, E2-CD81 engagement may contribute to HCV-associated B cell lymphoproliferative disorders and insufficient neutralizing antibody production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihui Chen
- Department of Microbiology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Affiliated Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yongzhe Zhu
- Department of Microbiology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanli Ren
- Department of Microbiology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yimin Tong
- Department of Microbiology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xian Hua
- Department of Microbiology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fenghui Zhu
- Department of Microbiology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Libin Huang
- Department of Microbiology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuan Liu
- Department of Microbiology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuan Luo
- Department of Microbiology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Lu
- Department of Epidemiology, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping Zhao
- Department of Microbiology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
- * E-mail: (ZQ); (PZ)
| | - Zhongtian Qi
- Department of Microbiology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Biodefense, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
- * E-mail: (ZQ); (PZ)
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